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Reinterpreting the public strategy used for regulating conservation areas in Taipei

Reinterpreting the public strategy used for regulating conservation areas in Taipei International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 2015 Vol. 7, No. 2, 166–182, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2015.1023804 a b Yi-Yen Wu * and Ching-I Wu a b Department of Ecotourism, Tungnan University, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Landscape, National Chin- Yi University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan (Received 18 September 2014; accepted 16 February 2015) Delimiting conservation areas has been a vital policy influencing the security of the land. Regarding the construction undertaken in Taiwanese national land planning, most conservation areas are located in nonurban areas. However, numerous conservation areas exist in urban areas, particularly in Taipei, the capital of Taiwan. Because of the national parks in the city, abundant natural resources exist in Taipei. However, land is limited, and the level of stress on the environment is increasing in the city. Moreover, conservation policies are influenced by multiple stakeholders with distinct historical backgrounds. Conflicts have occurred during land development processes because of the related contradictory laws and policies and the unclear definition of urban conservation areas (UCAs). Thus, in this study, we traced the etymology of UCAs to establish an accurate definition, and by reviewing related news events and examples of ecological cities, we analysed the varying attitudes among stakeholders. Observing the land use and Taipei City public policy regarding UCAs enables connecting practical operations to relative definitions. Finally, we suggest that implementing a grading system for UCAs is necessary to avoid controversy and increase the practicality of public policy. Keywords: urban conservation areas (UCAs); national land planning; urban planning; Taipei; public policy 1. Introduction creating an ideal city. Responding to the appeals of the public, urban authorities in Taiwan have From dispersed to nucleated settlements, the evo- authorised the construction of additional parks lution of civilisation has progressed. People typi- and open spaces under the Urban Planning Act. cally seek a more developed city. However, The traditional theory of urban planning according to a review of urban theories from the regards urban conservation areas (UCAs) as a nineteenth century, the concept of a garden city, type of land use on which the population stress which represents a type of utopia, prevailed during is low. According to the Urban Planning Act of a key period of urban history, especially in the Taiwan, UCAs are needed to protect Taiwan’s initial period of the twentieth century. In reality, environment and maintain natural resources and examples of garden cities are few. In constructing ecological functions. Going by this definition, of a garden city, green belts and agricultural areas any development can potentially affect these are arranged around the city to prevent urban goals by disturbing the environment, particularly sprawl. However, the stress of population increase large-scale developments established to promote hinders the realisation of this idea. Nonetheless, the economy. green land and urban conservation are central to *Corresponding author. Email: yiyenwu@gmail.com © 2015 Taylor & Francis International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 167 Restrictions on the private owners of lands agricultural zone. In addition, it is specified that coming under UCAs are unfair because the devel- the scale of the city must be restricted to ensure opment right for privately owned land should not that residents can conveniently access rural areas be taken away (Dowie 2009). Therefore, several (Ahrentzen 2008;Yu 2010; Benton-Short & Short provisos have been implemented to limit these 2012). restrictions. The Enforcement Rules of Land Use Green town plans in the United Kingdom and in Taipei City provide numerous approaches, North America were inspired by the concept of a including additional conditions to allow 17 types garden city, in which a green belt was defined as of land use in UCAs, such as the high-pressure the junction linking the city and country. Howard storage of hazardous products and materials. In (1902) conceived a novel city pattern that divided addition, land-use restrictions on military or reli- living and industrial areas but combined living and gious property are less stringent. Because the land business areas to overcome environmental damage prices in Taipei continue to increase, construction and urban sprawl (Ahrentzen 2008). Richert and companies have considered modifying conservation Lapping (1998) indicated that Howard’s key ideol- areas to increase the economic value of the land. ogy was to develop a type of town plan that is To prevent this trend, the local government of markedly flexible and compliant with the demands Taipei adjusted policies to convert the role of of residents. The purpose of a garden city is to UCAs from passive land to active land, meaning become an organic community. that certain areas were defined as leisure areas. The idea of the garden city was extended to the According to the Taipei Green Guide Plan, concept of a utopian city, which is a type of city UCAs are connected to the public transportation merged with nature. The notion of bioregion areas system and equipped with hiking facilities and is emphasised by the city planner, and it is trails. Thus, the public can actively use these regarded as the first step in planning a city by areas, which are a valuable resource for environ- investigating the surrounding natural resources. mental education. However, the government has All of these references indicate the value of inte- conceded ground in several key cases involving grating cities with nature and eliminating urban modifying numerous UCAs, a fact that has caused sprawl. A city must be improved to enable resi- concern regarding the applicability of the policy. dents to live in the ambience and landscape of the Thus, the question of how to accurately interpret countryside (Kendle & Forbes 1997; Benton-Short the term ‘UCA’ arises. This article expounds on & Short 2012). These considerations have influ- related policies, detailing in-depth interviews and enced the urban planning in Taiwan and the a case study. arrangement of protected areas within the city, which are called ‘second nature’, a space for tran- sition between the city and the surrounding natural environment (Yang 2001). The concept of second 2. Literature review nature leads to the beginning of an ecological city 2.1. The ideological trend of garden cities and may provide the platform for achieving urban In the book entitled Garden Cities of Tomorrow sustainability (Keivani 2010). (Howard 1902), three approaches solving the pro- Most urban planning in Taiwan was originally blem of urban sprawl are offered: (1) disperse the initiated by the Japanese, who introduced the con- urban population; (2) establish a new town that cept of the garden city to Taipei and the surround- integrates the specialties of city and country; and ing cities. Zhonghe and Yungho, satellite cities of (3) change the system of land use. After this book Taipei, were both designed as garden cities; how- was published, a garden city was defined as a city ever, the actual land use there differs greatly from designed for promoting health, life and industry, the initial plan in terms of population stress. and one that is surrounded by a perpetual Moreover, Taipei City, located in the Taipei 168 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu Land Percentage (Bryant 2006). Furthermore, a study conducted in 2% Seattle revealed that UCAs can restrain urban sprawl (Robinson et al. 2005). The Netherlands promotes Green Heart as the principle of urban construction. The concept of Green Heart opposes Agriculrural area the idea that the urban centre is the core of the city, Conservational area 42% while conversely suggesting designation of farms Scenic area as the core of the metropolis, maintaining an open 55% Others space in the city and constructing an effective public transportation system and diverse space system (Bryant 2006). Urban planning theory, pio- neered in the United Kingdom, presents a clear 1% framework. Harrison and Davies (2002) reported Figure 1. Percentages of different zonings in Taipei. on the urban conservation policy of London estab- lished by the London Ecology Unit. Urban con- servation was not only designed to protect wildlife habitats from development, but also to provide an Basin, is surrounded by hills, which may not be accessible natural environment (Momm-Schult suitable for dense development. Thus, the et al. 2013). Japanese designated the hills as UCAs, agricul- In addition to natural resources, the focus of tural areas and scenic areas. Consequently, the UCAs has been extended to cultural heritage, parti- percentages of UCAs, agricultural areas and scenic cularly in Asia (Xi & Dong 2010). Xi’an, a city in areas together account for almost half of the total inner China, exemplifies this phenomenon. Xi’an is land area in Taipei (Figure 1). located at the edge of a desert where desertification is a severe problem. Although the conservation policy of the city emphasises ecological aspects, 2.2. The shape of protected urban areas the abundant cultural heritage of the city compels Policies for developing protected areas have been the urban conservation policy-makers to consider adopted worldwide. The reasons for designating both cultural and ecological aspects. Policies con- protected areas might include protecting historical cerning UCAs are often linked to the tourism indus- landmarks, maintaining an ecological environment try. Lijiang, an old town in China, promotes its and preserving particular species. The key intel- heritage as a tourist attraction and, thus, income lectual development leading to establishing pro- derived from tourism provides the foundation for tected areas is the recognition that ecological conservation (Su 2010). Singapore is an example of dynamics cannot be separated from human a garden city featuring an exemplary system in both dynamics (Liu et al. 2007; Folke et al. 2011; natural and cultural dimensions (Brand 2013). The Kareiva & Marvier 2012). Through implementa- Singapore National Park Management Unit is tion of such policies within cities, the concept of responsible for the natural dimension and estab- urban conservation has emerged. Depending on lishes regulations for developing the green land the characteristics of different cities, the focus of system. By respecting the original terrain and vege- UCAs may differ. For example, constructing tation, the unit has maintained the diversity of greenway networks in the United States has been species and landscape in Singapore (Weng & Gao widely accepted as a system for establishing 2007). The benefits of preserving cultural heritage UCAs. Greenways emphasise the value of land- have been valued since the 1980s, and therefore, scapes, public transportation, pedestrian systems, additional financial support for maintaining these public spaces and the conservation of species areas has been provided (Yeon 2006). International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 169 According to a review of policies concerning (2012)defined qualitative methods as the mode several UCAs, certain development policies in of observation that includes experiments, survey Taiwan are similar to those in Singapore, particu- research, field research, unobtrusive research and larly in Taipei City. The development stress evaluation research. This study involved a litera- involves multiple areas, which include developing ture review (Table 1), a case study and in-depth national parks, tunnels, religious areas, leisure interviews. areas, historical streets and military land. The relevant literature reviewed primarily Conservation areas in the city involve the dilemma comprised news events and public policies, and of development or conservation (Kareiva et al. the interviewees belonged to one of four groups: 2008; Kareiva 2012), implying that effective mea- government authorities (code starting with G), sures and clearer orientation are necessary. UCAs environmental groups (code starting with E), in several cities worldwide incorporate concepts community citizens (code starting with C), and that transform resources maintained in the conser- construction companies (code starting with D) vation areas into the energy for economic growth. (Figure 2 and Table 2). The selection process Owing to the policies implemented to conserve for the interviewees comprised three steps. First, such areas, the liveability in these cities has been relevant news was collected to determine the enhanced. Consequently, the orientation of UCAs organisations involved in UCA-related events. in Taipei is vague and the modification of UCAs All environmental groups mentioned in the should be reassessed. news that protested against governmental policies on developing UCAs were identified, as were the government authorities listed as the main policy- 3. Research method maker and executor. In addition, community citi- zens involved in the UCA protection and two This study was conducted to understand the his- construction companies that launched projects in torical background of UCAs in Taipei according the UCAs were included. Second, we ascertained to a literature review. By conducting interviews whether the organisation was willing to be inter- with the stakeholders, we can clarify the actual viewed, and finally, we assessed whether the controversy and conflict. In addition, a review of interviewees could describe the position of the public policies implemented throughout history organisation. After these three steps were com- can facilitate interpreting the conflict and deter- pleted, related questionnaires were posted to the mining a possible compromise. Therefore, a qua- participants. litative method was adopted in this study. Babbie Table 1. Definition of the problem and sources. Definition of the problem Source The meaning of conservation areas and Ahrentzen (2008), Yu(2010), Benton-Short & Short (2012), Howard urban conservation areas (UCAs) (1902), Kendle & Forbes (1997), Benton-Short and Short (2012), Yang (2001), Keivani (2010), Liu et al. (2007), Folke et al. (2011), Kareiva & Marvier (2012), Kareiva et al. (2008), Kareiva (2012) Case study related to UCAs Yang (2001), Bryant(2004), Bryant (2006), Harrison and Davies (2002), Momm-Schult et al. (2013), Xi and Dong (2010), Su(2010), Brand (2013), Weng & Gao (2007), Yeon(2006) Taipei public policy related to UCAs Chang (2007), Zhou (1999), Lin & Qiu(2006) News and events related to UCAs Dong (2004), Liu (2006), Gian (2008) 170 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu Figure 2. Research structure. Table 2. Interview targets. Number of Type of organisation respondents Code Organisation Position Environmental group 4 E1 Environmental Trust Director E2 Citizen of the Earth Chairman E3 Green Party Chairman E4 Homemakers United Foundation Chief Secretary Government authority 3 G1 Department of Urban Development, Taipei City Deputy Chief G2 Geotechnical Engineering Office, Public Works Section Chief Department G3 Geotechnical Engineering Office, Public Works Section Chief Department Community citizen 2 C1 XiShan Community Borough Chief C2 Jiantan Community Borough Chief Construction company 2 D1 Highwealth Construction Section Manager D2 Cathay Real Estate Section Manager 4. History of conservation policies in Taipei 4.1. Abandoned lands City A conservation area in Taiwan is defined as a zone The history of Taiwan conservation policy was allocated for conserving land, soil and water; identified according to three periods: the period maintaining natural resources; and protecting eco- in which UCAs were considered useless land, the logical functions. This definition, as specified by period in which the value of developing UCAs law, describes the active goals of a conservation was recognised and emphasised, and the period area. However, according to a review of zoning in which UCA development was actively advo- history, conservation areas are defined as aban- cated (Figure 3). doned areas that have high development costs. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 171 Figure 3. Historical evolution of UCA policy in Taipei. According to the opinion of one interviewee who In 1945, following the relocation of the had worked in urban planning area for several Republic of China government to Taiwan, the years, rapidly increasing number of political immigrants resulted in uncertainty regarding the urban plan- The purpose of delimiting conservation areas is to ning in Taipei. The public facilities constructed protect the environment, a goal that can currently during the Japanese colonisation period were be accomplished using satellite maps and geolo- unable to support the swollen population. Thus, gical surveying. However, this was difficult in the methods for helping immigrants to settle in past without the availability of advanced technol- became the principal topic in urban planning in ogy and also because of limited staff available for urban planning. How did [conservation areas] the 1950s after the amendment of the urban plan. become localised? Considering that urban devel- The new version of the urban planning regulation opment is an irreversible process, unused lands master plan, conforming to the European urban could be designated as temporary conservation planning concept and adopted in 1964, is areas. These areas may be changed in the future described as follows. if development is necessary. (G1) On 1 July, 1967, Taipei was designated as a direct-control municipality; its boundaries were The history of urban planning in Taipei can be and it contained a extended from 67 to 272 km dated to 1889, the Japanese colonisation period. population of more than 1.5 million people. The Office of the Governor-General of Taiwan Because six new towns were included in established a committee to survey and draft plans Taipei, the master plan was revised, and new that were announced in 1905. However, because zoning policies were fully implemented in of the rapid population increase caused by the 1968. Subsequently, six new districts established relocation of Japanese to the island, the plan was their own land control rules (Chang 2007). The revised in 1932. The scale of Taipei was expanded Enforcement Rules of Urban Planning Law for to four times the original scale, and the Urban Taipei City were announced in 1976, and a land- Planning Act was subsequently enforced. 172 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu use zoning rule was declared in 1983; thus, in which the stress of urban development became Taipei was the firstcityinTaiwantoimplement a problem in Taipei. After this period, because of zoning in urban planning policy and the first to the increase in the number of industries between adopt carrying capacity control. The rules were 1960 and 1980, urbanisation resulted in adverse first adopted in the subareas of Taipei and sub- effect on environments in larger conurbations. sequently extended to the city centre. The hills Consequently, a policy for a new town was estab- in Muzha, a district in the suburbs of Taipei, lished in Linkou, a district in the suburbs of Taipei were the firsttargetfor whichthe conceptof County (Zhou 1999). In 1990, the new town and carrying capacity was introduced in the asso- public housing caused a fraction of the population ciated plan. to relocate from the inner city, which relieved the Taipei was more advanced than any other city population stress temporarily. in Taiwan. However, conservation areas had not All of the aforementioned policies were been included in the rules or related laws estab- related to the population and infrastructure stress lished by the Japanese. The Japanese government of urban development. However, Taipei remained used scenic, aesthetic and fire prevention areas to the centre of consumption, culture and employ- present the concept of conservation areas. In ment. In addition to the need for residential areas, 1939, only cultural areas were included in the vital economic activities required additional land laws implemented by the ROC government. within the city. Therefore, all of the unused land This raises the question as to why both authori- was surveyed, including the UCAs. Chang (2007) ties disregarded the importance of conservation mentioned that the period after 2005 was the areas. Perhaps the need for development was not ‘deregulation’ step during which the control of pressing and, thus, restricting land use was not urban plans was reduced. The policy of deregula- emphasised. By the end of the 1950s, the increase tion was adopted and implemented thoroughly, in population compelled the government to revise from the central government to local govern- the Urban Planning Act and related regulations ments. The central government revised the law and develop standards. Chang (2007)regarded to designate industrial areas as business areas, the period between the beginning of Japanese which rendered the management of industrial colonisation and 1976 as the initial stage of areas in Taiwan uncontrollable. The Taipei City urban planning in Taipei. During this period, the Government also amended the ‘zoning ordi- amount of land was sufficient for developers to nance’ to adopt a negative list for managing the ignore the increasing value of the Muzha hills. industrial and business areas. In other words, These lands were regarded as abandoned, and because the level of stress had continued to designating them as conservation areas was con- increase, the government compromised by relax- sidered unnecessary. Between 1976 and 1983, ing its restrictions. Compared with other types of increasing restrictions were applied and certain land, UCAs were still subject to strict standards, lands were gradually designated as conservation and several appeals to change the use of UCAs areas. emerged. The rules and laws related to UCAs were instituted in 1973 and 1976, respectively. After 4.2. Increasing stress of urban sprawl 1993, revision of the Details of Urban Planning The rapid development of Taipei City occurred Law for Taipei City caused more organisations to after World War II. The arrival of a large number apply for permission to change the manner in of political immigrants and the establishment of which UCAs could be used. According to labour-intensive industries between 1960 and Table 3, 2002 was evidently a key period because 1970 attracted a large number of people to the of the introduction of the White Book on urban Taipei metropolis. This was also the first period sustainable development and the standard for the International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 173 Table 3. History of the modification of conservation areas from 1995. Year Event 1996 ● Tzu Chi Foundation purchased a UCA in Neihu District. 1997 Tzu Chi Foundation attempted to apply for a change of land use, but was rejected. 1998 The community voted against the Chi Foundation’s construction project. 2001 After a disaster, a committee for reconstruction was built and additional ecological concepts were adopted. 2002 The White Book for urban sustainable development was established. The standard for conditional use of the zoning was established Three universities changed UCAs to land for educational use. 2004 The Tzu Chi Foundation in Neihu District attempted to change one UCA into a social welfare area. Certain areas in Yangmungshan National Park were excavated on a large scale. 2005 A community in the UCA in Neihu District was established. The Executive Yuan announced the rules for managing nature reserves. The government agreed to the development project in the UCA owned by Tzu Chi Foundation in Neihu District. The UCA near Zhuang Jing tunnel was devastated. Leisure Agricultural in the conservation areas of Maokong was legalised. 2006 A public toilet was constructed within the UCA in Beitou District. 2008 ● The hotels hosting spring accommodation in the UCA in Yangmungshan National Park were legalised. 2010 ● A private elementary school, Wego, extended its campus to the UCA ● The use of the UCA near the Jiantan Taipei Rapid Transit stop was changed to build a residential mansion. ● Numerous construction projects were undertaken around the UCA in Neihu District. ● Temple land in Sungshan District was changed from the UCA to an area for regional use. 2014.04 ● Tzu Chi Foundation attempted for the ninth time to change the UCA in Neihu District to a social welfare area. Source: Data collated from Dong (2004), Liu (2006, 2007) and Gian (2008). conditional use of zoning. From 1997 to 2002, investigate and stabilise the steep slope, generally restrictions on UCAs in Taipei were rigidly defined as land with a slope angle of 20% or enforced. However, because of the deregulation greater for a minimum of 30 feet horizontally. policy, in 2004, UCAs belonging to a religious According to this delegate, group were used for social welfare, and several universities were using UCAs for educational pur- We may consider the UCA soil and water con- servation plan and environmental impact analysis, poses. In 2010, an officer at a national park was which would increase the development cost. accused of exploiting the land illegally. A con- Therefore, UCAs are not excellent choices. In struction company used a UCA to build luxury brief, we prefer to consider lands located by river- homes, and even building (previously illegal) sides or parks if we want to construct buildings with beautiful vistas. The forest in conservation hotels and restaurants in UCAs became legal. All areas may be a choice for our buildings, but of these events indicated that the public authorities building in the forest is not necessary. The gov- were compromising in the face of development ernment may agree that the forest should be stress. However, construction companies were transformed into a type of residential zone, but reluctant to build on these highly controversial the transformation must involve low-density areas, according to a delegate from a construction development. Such a situation would increase the cost substantially. (D1) company. Time and money was required to 174 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu However, successful situations in which UCAs However, because of the stress of urban were developed and preserved do exist, as sprawl, both the government and conservation reported by the same delegate: advocates who insisted on environmentally justifi- able policies were involved in the allocation pro- cess. Both sides presented distinct arguments, and Take an example located in historical areas. We own land that does not belong to a heritage area, tension occurred between them. One environmen- and therefore, we can cooperate with the nearby tal writer urged for development in an urban wet- land owners to build dwellings according to the land to be stopped, which prompted the media and related building laws. However, a building on the the public to discuss the topic. In addition, the Tzu land was designated as a historical attraction later. Chi Foundation attempted to transform one of This decision was made to preserve local com- mon memory by maintaining the building. We their conservation areas into a social welfare ran this event negotiating with the community area, which is for the establishment of the installa- for more than 8 years. As you know, that process tion taking care of the child, disabled people, promoting the case is really a kind of invisible women and the elderly in 2004, and that decision pressure. We and the government both agreed to maintain the heritage area and we own the author- caused several environmental groups to protest ity to shift the carrying capacity. (D2) because the area was located in a potential dip slope, a topographic (geomorphic) surface that slopes in the same direction, and development could have destroyed the ecology and safety of 4.3. Restriction of development in UCAs the area. Following these events, arguments To solve the problem of the increasing develop- ensued between both sides. ment for which the land use in conservation areas As a result, the changes and legislation pre- had been changed, the government adopted posi- venting development in UCAs were unsuccessful tive lists for regulating land use. Furthermore, in for two primary reasons. First, the legislation pro- 2001, the Taipei City Government invited experts vided flexible content allowing conditional use to investigate the reason underlying mudslides and providing developers with loopholes. caused by a typhoon. The experts concluded that Second, the interest groups and the stress of the overexploitation of conservation areas and hill- urban sprawl compelled the government to com- sides was the primary cause of the landslides and promise. The government had to assume more floods that occurred. In addition, they suggested responsibility and clarify the position of different that development in these areas be postponed. The UCAs by using more appropriate assessment following year, the White Book on urban devel- methods. Paavola (2004) analysed the EU’s opment revealed that the effect on and destruction Habitats Directive and experiences and concluded of natural ecologically sensitive areas were key that decision-makers should pay more attention to ecological concerns. In addition, these sensitive justice and governance, whereas Fairbrass and areas, including conservation, scenic and flood Jordan (2001) asserted that supranational EU areas that occupied more than half of the territory actors were the major reason for indecision over of Taipei, should be sustained constructively. which level of governance has the most decisive However, the government also implemented a influence on the integration process to protect standard for the conditional use of zoning, which biodiversity. This reveals that a clear responsible allowed conservation areas to be used for public authority guarding the land justly is crucial for benefit but not for commercial use. Allocating managing UCAs. conservation areas for appropriate public use may According to a comprehensive survey of the be beneficial, but the definition of public benefitis history of conservation areas in Taipei, the restric- too vague to delineate areas that may be tions on development clearly tend to be more rigid developed. and the related regulation control changed from International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 175 negative to positive. Moreover, additional condi- ‘I completely agree that people should become immersed in nature, meaning they should use the tional uses, such as public facilities, residential hill walkway instead of the artificial park’. (E1) districts and cultural districts, have been accepted One governmental delegate said, by the public. However, one contradictory finding from the statistics indicated that the government One of the directors who oversees the walkway converted more UCAs into developing use than reported that some walkways introduced into the any other developer when additional ecological conservation areas will guide people to use the resources effectively. One hill was used illegally, concepts were adopted in 2001 and the White but the situation has been resolved by construct- Book for urban sustainable development was ing the walkway. (G1) announced (Figure 4). To respond to the expectations of environmen- All of the interviewees reported that walk- tal groups, the sustainable development report for ways or natural parks may be a suitable use for Taipei included ecological and sustainable manage- UCAs. Natural walkways are established accord- ment based on seven perspectives, including the ing to the natural paths and in consideration of appropriate use for UCAs. Plans for four suburban natural corridors and landscapes. Natural walk- areas in the hills were included to integrate all ways may provide several functions, including conservation areas by using a natural walkway sys- relief from physical and mental stress, local tem. All of the plans were attempts to provide areas industry promotion, information for scholarly for leisure use in low-development sections of the research, leisure activities and ecotourism, and city without conforming to the aims of conservation environmental education (Lin & Qiu 2006). areas. Thus, conservation areas can be supervised However, these potential functions depend on by the public by guiding more people into UCAs. whether UCAs can satisfy both leisure and edu- According to one delegate from an environ- cational purposes. mental group, Public facilities Government district Residential district Cultural district Special district 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2000 2001–2010 Year Figure 4. Number of UCAs in Taipei changed for various uses. Source: Department of Urban Development, Taipei City Government (2014). Cases 176 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu 5. Results zones are not subdivided. Certain interviewees reported that the simple conservation zoning con- The conservation areas of Taipei City depend on ducted in the past was understandable because role transition in the development process. In this few environmental databases existed. However, study, we explored and reviewed relevant litera- current improved environmental databases can ture and studies. Critical events involving the con- be used to review gentle slope or even flatland servation areas in Taipei during the developmental conservation zones. For conservation zones, var- process were listed based on an annual statement ious development norms based on distinct geolo- derived from related news (Table 3). Furthermore, gical and ecological environments must be various opinions of stakeholders were collected in adhered to. According to one interviewee, this study to understand and determine the expec- tations for UCAs in Taipei. The following results Several environmental groups have proposed a were derived from the interviews and the literature thorough examination of conservation areas. review. However, conservation areas are among the mini- mally used urban lands. In many conservation areas, even a low level of development is not 5.1. UCAs can be successfully transformed into permitted. What could be inspected when we visit a conservation area? If development is not recreational areas under urban development allowed, what is the meaning of inspection? A pressure thorough examination was conducted in Taipei The interviewees included environmental group and revealed that the conservation areas are flat lands with slope gradients of less than 30%, for representatives, competent authorities in the public which 200 development applications had been sector and representatives from a community submitted. Should all these applications be development organisation. The majority of the approved? In my opinion, conservation areas interviewees agreed with transforming conserva- should be divided into several types: natural ter- tion areas into recreational areas. However, they rain, hills, and those that were used before the statute. Simply put, conservation areas cannot be indicated that the degree of transformation should treated merely according to their definition, be constrained to prevent interpretations based on which causes the usage pattern of conservation public interest. According to one interviewee, areas to be simplified. (G1) People define development differently. The The proposal to transform a conservation area degree of development is also debated. When into a recreational area was accepted by both development is allowed by law, some people may take advantage of it. This is what environ- environmental group representatives, who had mental groups worry about the most. Legislation been opposed to numerous development plans for land development will be misused if no over- over the years, and public sector representatives, all values or limitations are established, even who assisted in the legalisation of previously ille- though the intent itself is good. Therefore, we gal construction in conservation areas. The accep- should conduct zoning planning instead of ran- dom planning. (E1) tance by both parties was because they considered recreation as a process of environmental education The zoning concept suggested by environ- that requires a low level of development, reducing mental groups is an additional challenge in the the conflict between humans and their environ- current zoning of conservation areas. For exam- ment. The problem is that different stakeholders ple, according to present urban planning, a resi- have different understandings of development. dential area is divided into various levels with Most of the interviewees supported investigating distinct plot ratios. The coverage ratio is corre- conservation areas and properly introducing spondingly used to control the development recreational activities into a conservation area strength of the area. However, conservation without affecting conservation zoning. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 177 5.2. Possible tension between urban developers conservation areas, which primarily consist of nat- and conservationists can be eased by suitable ural resources. According to one officer, negotiation We have two conservation areas in Taipei, Considering the aforementioned viewpoints of namely Maokong and Xingyi Road. Maokong is various stakeholders, the conflict between urban where the development permission system was development and ecological conservation can be first adapted. How can I make it legal if I know resolved. Buffering factors for easing the tension that certain people are misusing a conservation between them should be increased, particularly for area? This must be prevented. Nevertheless, we should admit that problems do exist, and we have stakeholders who lived in conservation areas prior to find solutions. Environmental groups hope that to zoning. These buffering factors are constrained I can do 100% of the job, which is idealistic. I by regulations governing conservation areas, and can do only 30% of the job, and the people in the people’s quality of life is directly affected in charge can continue. We will complete 80% of UCAs. Thus, the regulations for conservation the job eventually. I established a new set of game rules. Every owner should follow the rules areas should accommodate both urban develop- once they are set. The rules say you have to ment and ecological conservation. According to demolish your house if you are located in envir- two interviewees, onmentally sensitive areas because we must maintain the safety of the residents. Moreover, many problems should be eliminated, including The conservation area in Xishan is mainly problems concerning drinking water, sewage restricted by the National Park Act and Hilly treatment, garbage disposal, geologic structures, Land Protection Act. For example, many resi- and water and soil conservation. The same sys- dents have lived in this area for generations. tem is used for Xingyi Road. We implemented a They used to live in small houses, but the number system and a pattern, but environmental groups of family members increased, causing housing stand in our way. They will just impede the problems. (C1) problem-solving process. They are not really sol- ving the problems. (G1) Thus, compromises should be achieved to resolve problems such as indigenous autonomy. Many In practical terms, specific methods should be indigenous people live in conservation areas and may need to hunt, but territorial planning, gov- applied because conservation areas exhibit dis- ernment decisions, ignore their traditional culture tinct features and are zoned at different times. by forbidding their hunting activities. The situa- Moreover, the tension between urban develop- tion is the same as the question, ‘Should a con- ment and ecological protection should be elimi- servation area be developed or not?’ In my nated. The contradiction between urban opinion, time is needed for communication and planning before any development or ecological development and ecological protection has cre- conservation can occur. Without full coordination ated conflicts between the public sector and and mutual respect, no good solution can be environmental groups. The public sector seeks determined. (C2) to implement related legalisation, whereas envir- onmental groups question the local city govern- Numerous residents have realised the value of ment. To resolve the contradiction and conflict, conservation areas, and their primary concern is guaranteeing the rights and interests of existing guaranteeing their rights and interests established landowners is necessary. before zoning. The most critical problem in con- We observed from the interviewees that both servation area development is protecting the rights parties are attempting to resolve the problem and of landowners while not affecting the zoning plan. improve the quality of urban environments; the Historical sites or buildings can be relocated to problem lies in their differing perspectives. In reduce the pressure of public policy enforcement. this study, the pragmatism of the public sector However, this solution is ineffective in representatives, who relentlessly attempted to 178 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu achieve gradual improvement, and the earnestness purpose of protecting conservation areas is to pro- of environmental groups, which endeavoured to tect people. In their opinion, without a complete protect conservation areas, were demonstrated. environmental resource survey database, such as Therefore, public policies for conservation areas an overall environmental review, no scientific eva- must be applied in a more dynamic fashion luation of conservation areas can be conducted. because spaces in a city change over time. However, the cost of developing a complete data- base is high: the public sector most likely will not agree to create a complete database. Several envir- 5.3. UCAs protect the environment and connect onmental group representatives adhered to the people and nature legal definition of a conservation area, but they Before public policies are established, the com- also agreed that a new definition is necessary. mon viewpoint of multiple stakeholders should According to one such representative, be determined and the definition of conservation areas should be revised. We interviewed environ- When we talk about conservation areas in Taipei City, we are referring to things like territory mental groups, public sector representatives, com- security, water conservation, soil conservation, munity citizens and developers. All interviewees and natural resource maintenance. Is transform- agreed that the function of conservation areas is ing the role of a conservation area possible? I not only to protect the land and environment, but think the answer is yes. For example, you will also to benefit society and enhance the relationship find that you can actually classify the agricul- tural land in a certain village of a certain county between people and nature. Based on the opinions if you know the planning and mechanism of and expectations of the environmental group agricultural land resources, such as priority agri- representatives regarding conservation areas, cultural land. We have to establish a clear defi- understanding the main reason for their conflict nition. (E2) with the public sector is crucial. According to one interviewee, Construction companies are aware that conser- vation areas have development restrictions and Considering the current problems in Taiwan, we value, but they assert that the land surrounding must protect the environment if we have to make conservation areas is their primary target, because a choice to address development stress. securing land in Taipei is increasingly difficult. Protecting conservation areas also means protect- When the land surrounding a conservation area is ing the people. There is a relationship between a host and a guest. The hosts are the environment, used for development, landowners in conservation whereas the guests are the people. We protect the areas protest. The originally planned conservation environment because we want to protect our- areas are also modified gradually. Regarding the selves. We want water and fresh air. As long as definition of a conservation area, construction we protect conservation areas, they will benefitus company representatives reported that conserva- one day. This is actually very utilitarian. Although we have to choose conservation over tion areas should be defined in a manner that development according to the current rigid sys- benefits the public. According to one construction tem in Taiwan, I think that equilibrium could company representative, actually be reached between development and conservation, based on a good resource investiga- I think the point is that minimal operation should tion, if the amount of development does not affect be guaranteed, the operation of the entire eco- the sustainable development of a conservation system should be maintained, and human devel- area. (E3) opment activities should be restricted. Conservation areas are created according to eco- A conservation area, according to environmen- logical viewpoint. The cultural point of view tal group representatives, is to be defined from an involves historical value and considers the pub- lic. If the public thinks a place should be anthropocentric viewpoint, meaning that the International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 179 conserved, the executive system is obliged to performance assessment of these conservation propose a corresponding plan. The meaning of areas, they determined that hardware facilities conservation areas is based on public interest. were frequently emphasised and that labour man- As a constructor, I know that conservation areas agement was disregarded. In listing the critical cannot be developed directly because they are events in the development of conservation areas unsuitable for development. However, we care- fully assess whether the land surrounding them in Taipei, we focused on investigating and clarify- has development potential. Both cultural and ing various aspects of urban nature conservation. natural impacts on the environment will be con- The following conclusions were drawn from the sidered. (D1) results of this study. We can deduce from the aforementioned inter- view responses that attention cannot be paid to the 6.1. The purpose of conservation should be to value of a conservation area. Instead, additional protect the people aspects should be considered, such as the harmony Currently, urban land is mainly divided into resi- of conservation areas with their surroundings, the dential, business, industrial, agricultural, recrea- conservation of biodiversity in such areas, urban tional and protection zones. Most of these zones development, and the advantages and disadvan- were created because of human activity and are tages that might be created during the role transi- named after human behaviour patterns. Only pro- tion of a conservation area. tection zones and conservation areas are not reflec- Several basic tasks should also be considered tive of notable human activity. According to when revising conservation zoning, including relevant laws and regulations, conservation areas the construction of an environmental resource are zones with the functions of territory security; database, the practice and planning of an overall water and soil conservation; natural resource review, the provision of information transpar- maintenance; and ecological protection. The ency, and public participation. Generally, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act indicates that interviewees agreed that conservation areas conservation areas were defined to protect histor- could operate more flexibly and that balance ical sites and preserve environmental landscapes. can be achieved between ecology and urban Thus, conservation areas do not correspond to development or recreation. However, they also human activities alone; conservation is adopted indicated that an environmental assessment and to protect natural resources and landscapes as review should be conducted first, and the rule of well as historical sites. However, laws and regula- protecting the environment should be strictly tions are established according to the concept of followed. anthropocentrism. The purpose of natural resource conservation is to achieve the continual political stability of the country. Although maintaining bio- 6. Conclusion diversity is mentioned repeatedly in the literature, Since conservation areas were first established in the human right to subsistence remains the pri- Taiwan in the 1970s, many proposals for assessing mary reason for establishing conservation areas. and developing the conservation area assessment Natural conservation areas are not zoned to benefit methods have been presented. However, few over- other species or ecological resources but to protect all assessments have focused on operation man- human safety. This is the reason that several of the agement. Nevertheless, numerous relevant studies interviewees mentioned ‘public interest’. The pur- have been conducted in recent years. For example, pose of zoning conservation areas is preserving Lu et al. (2011) conducted a case analysis of five areas where people reside – not only are historical conservation areas in Taiwan. By observing the buildings in these areas protected, but specific adjustment of the operation management cultural patterns are also preserved. Therefore, 180 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu we define the purpose of UCAs as protecting the 6.3. Protection mechanisms should be included existence of human life in a city. in the practice of public policies for conservation areas Our in-depth interviews revealed that no marked contradiction occurred between the understanding 6.2. A grading system for conservation areas and expectations of conservation areas among the should be implemented representatives from various units, including The contradiction between the interests of the environmental protection groups, public sector majority and minority has become a common pro- representatives and community citizens. All inter- blem in conservation areas. If specific regulations viewees expected UCAs to serve as a barrier or based on the features of conservation areas can be shield during urban development and maximise established, this contradiction could be reduced public benefit. However, in reality, we discovered dramatically. According to the Taipei Land that the environmental protection groups, public Zoning Ordinance, nine types of residential sector representatives and even construction com- zones, four types of business zones and two panies often ignore or blame each other for pro- types of industrial zones are currently used. The blems related to conversation areas. For example, various plot ratios and coverage ratios of these the process of legalising hot spring areas in zones are provided in the regulations. However, a Taiwan has created considerable controversy. single plot ratio and coverage ratio were desig- However, the public sector representatives wish nated for other zones, such as administrative dis- to solve rather than postpone problems. During tricts, institute and college districts, warehouse the regulation of political economics, integrating districts and scenic districts. Three types and five opinions and balancing the authority of all parties types of construction standards were established is critical. However, when no event threatens the for agricultural and conservation zones, respec- immediate safety of the people, the public sector tively. Regarding water and preservation zones, has no intention of strictly implementing current the Water Resource Act and the Cultural legal regulations. The controversy regarding the Heritage Preservation Act, respectively, were base of Ciji Enclosed Lake in Taipei City is an implemented. The five construction standards for appropriate example. The original base is no conservation areas were defined according to the longer a conservation area, but the public sector type of land use permitted under certain condi- cannot prevent developers from using it as a social tions. For example, community safety facilities, welfare facility because human safety is not threa- public facilities and public affairs agencies have tened. However, the legalisation of the Maokong the highest coverage ratio, whereas agriculture and Leisure Agricultural Park and the Beitou Hot agricultural buildings have the lowest coverage Springs Hotel indicates the value of local culture. ratio. The highest coverage ratio is applied after Environmental protection groups seek to imple- the original buildings have been newly and legally ment regulations rigidly, whereas the public sector constructed, extended, reconstructed or repaired. pursues the possibility of improving the environ- Although the Taipei Land Zoning Ordinance is ment in a more flexible way. Methods for reducing the most complete law for land-use zoning in the gap between the expectations of these two Taiwan, no standard grading system based on nat- groups in environmental controversies should be ural features, such as UCA topography and geol- investigated in future studies. ogy, is used. The conditional use of UCAs without Although the evidence from the policy sector a complete supervisory system may negatively supports the contentions made by various stake- affect the protective function of the original con- holders, a more complete theory should be sub- servation zoning. jected to considerably more empirical testing. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 181 Reformation of urban planning and legislation Chang GW. 2007. The enforcement and change of zon- ing institution in the perspective of property rights related to UCAs is ineffective when the property [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. National of the land cannot be understood. In this situation, Chengchi University. Chinese. if the authority cannot manage with disputes, then Department of Urban Development, Taipei City the importance of renovation and justice may Government. 2014. The query system of urban become redundant. Furthermore, the policies plan in Taipei [Internet]. [cited 2014 Nov 20]. Available from: http://163.29.37.171/planMap/city used to shape a city should include valuing UCAs. plan_main.aspx Dong ZS. 2004 July 9. The first type residential district is attempted to be changed into the conservational area in Yangmingshan. United Daily News, B01. Chinese. Disclosure statement Dowie M. 2009. Conservation refugees: the hundred- No potential conflict of interest was reported by the year conflict between global conservation and native authors. peoples. London (UK): MIT Press. Fairbrass J, Jordan A. 2001. Protecting biodiversity in the European Union: national barriers and European Funding opportunities? J Eur Public Policy. 8:499–518. This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Folke C, Jansson Å, Rockström J, Olsson P, Carpenter Technology, Taiwan [grant number 100-2410-H-236- SR, Chapin FS, Crépin A-S, Daily G, Danell K, 004]. Ebbesson J, et al. 2011. Reconnecting to the bio- sphere. Ambio. 40:719–738. Gian ZY. 2008 April 16. 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Reinterpreting the public strategy used for regulating conservation areas in Taipei

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Taylor & Francis
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© 2015 Taylor & Francis
ISSN
1946-3146
eISSN
1946-3138
DOI
10.1080/19463138.2015.1023804
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Abstract

International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 2015 Vol. 7, No. 2, 166–182, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2015.1023804 a b Yi-Yen Wu * and Ching-I Wu a b Department of Ecotourism, Tungnan University, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Landscape, National Chin- Yi University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan (Received 18 September 2014; accepted 16 February 2015) Delimiting conservation areas has been a vital policy influencing the security of the land. Regarding the construction undertaken in Taiwanese national land planning, most conservation areas are located in nonurban areas. However, numerous conservation areas exist in urban areas, particularly in Taipei, the capital of Taiwan. Because of the national parks in the city, abundant natural resources exist in Taipei. However, land is limited, and the level of stress on the environment is increasing in the city. Moreover, conservation policies are influenced by multiple stakeholders with distinct historical backgrounds. Conflicts have occurred during land development processes because of the related contradictory laws and policies and the unclear definition of urban conservation areas (UCAs). Thus, in this study, we traced the etymology of UCAs to establish an accurate definition, and by reviewing related news events and examples of ecological cities, we analysed the varying attitudes among stakeholders. Observing the land use and Taipei City public policy regarding UCAs enables connecting practical operations to relative definitions. Finally, we suggest that implementing a grading system for UCAs is necessary to avoid controversy and increase the practicality of public policy. Keywords: urban conservation areas (UCAs); national land planning; urban planning; Taipei; public policy 1. Introduction creating an ideal city. Responding to the appeals of the public, urban authorities in Taiwan have From dispersed to nucleated settlements, the evo- authorised the construction of additional parks lution of civilisation has progressed. People typi- and open spaces under the Urban Planning Act. cally seek a more developed city. However, The traditional theory of urban planning according to a review of urban theories from the regards urban conservation areas (UCAs) as a nineteenth century, the concept of a garden city, type of land use on which the population stress which represents a type of utopia, prevailed during is low. According to the Urban Planning Act of a key period of urban history, especially in the Taiwan, UCAs are needed to protect Taiwan’s initial period of the twentieth century. In reality, environment and maintain natural resources and examples of garden cities are few. In constructing ecological functions. Going by this definition, of a garden city, green belts and agricultural areas any development can potentially affect these are arranged around the city to prevent urban goals by disturbing the environment, particularly sprawl. However, the stress of population increase large-scale developments established to promote hinders the realisation of this idea. Nonetheless, the economy. green land and urban conservation are central to *Corresponding author. Email: yiyenwu@gmail.com © 2015 Taylor & Francis International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 167 Restrictions on the private owners of lands agricultural zone. In addition, it is specified that coming under UCAs are unfair because the devel- the scale of the city must be restricted to ensure opment right for privately owned land should not that residents can conveniently access rural areas be taken away (Dowie 2009). Therefore, several (Ahrentzen 2008;Yu 2010; Benton-Short & Short provisos have been implemented to limit these 2012). restrictions. The Enforcement Rules of Land Use Green town plans in the United Kingdom and in Taipei City provide numerous approaches, North America were inspired by the concept of a including additional conditions to allow 17 types garden city, in which a green belt was defined as of land use in UCAs, such as the high-pressure the junction linking the city and country. Howard storage of hazardous products and materials. In (1902) conceived a novel city pattern that divided addition, land-use restrictions on military or reli- living and industrial areas but combined living and gious property are less stringent. Because the land business areas to overcome environmental damage prices in Taipei continue to increase, construction and urban sprawl (Ahrentzen 2008). Richert and companies have considered modifying conservation Lapping (1998) indicated that Howard’s key ideol- areas to increase the economic value of the land. ogy was to develop a type of town plan that is To prevent this trend, the local government of markedly flexible and compliant with the demands Taipei adjusted policies to convert the role of of residents. The purpose of a garden city is to UCAs from passive land to active land, meaning become an organic community. that certain areas were defined as leisure areas. The idea of the garden city was extended to the According to the Taipei Green Guide Plan, concept of a utopian city, which is a type of city UCAs are connected to the public transportation merged with nature. The notion of bioregion areas system and equipped with hiking facilities and is emphasised by the city planner, and it is trails. Thus, the public can actively use these regarded as the first step in planning a city by areas, which are a valuable resource for environ- investigating the surrounding natural resources. mental education. However, the government has All of these references indicate the value of inte- conceded ground in several key cases involving grating cities with nature and eliminating urban modifying numerous UCAs, a fact that has caused sprawl. A city must be improved to enable resi- concern regarding the applicability of the policy. dents to live in the ambience and landscape of the Thus, the question of how to accurately interpret countryside (Kendle & Forbes 1997; Benton-Short the term ‘UCA’ arises. This article expounds on & Short 2012). These considerations have influ- related policies, detailing in-depth interviews and enced the urban planning in Taiwan and the a case study. arrangement of protected areas within the city, which are called ‘second nature’, a space for tran- sition between the city and the surrounding natural environment (Yang 2001). The concept of second 2. Literature review nature leads to the beginning of an ecological city 2.1. The ideological trend of garden cities and may provide the platform for achieving urban In the book entitled Garden Cities of Tomorrow sustainability (Keivani 2010). (Howard 1902), three approaches solving the pro- Most urban planning in Taiwan was originally blem of urban sprawl are offered: (1) disperse the initiated by the Japanese, who introduced the con- urban population; (2) establish a new town that cept of the garden city to Taipei and the surround- integrates the specialties of city and country; and ing cities. Zhonghe and Yungho, satellite cities of (3) change the system of land use. After this book Taipei, were both designed as garden cities; how- was published, a garden city was defined as a city ever, the actual land use there differs greatly from designed for promoting health, life and industry, the initial plan in terms of population stress. and one that is surrounded by a perpetual Moreover, Taipei City, located in the Taipei 168 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu Land Percentage (Bryant 2006). Furthermore, a study conducted in 2% Seattle revealed that UCAs can restrain urban sprawl (Robinson et al. 2005). The Netherlands promotes Green Heart as the principle of urban construction. The concept of Green Heart opposes Agriculrural area the idea that the urban centre is the core of the city, Conservational area 42% while conversely suggesting designation of farms Scenic area as the core of the metropolis, maintaining an open 55% Others space in the city and constructing an effective public transportation system and diverse space system (Bryant 2006). Urban planning theory, pio- neered in the United Kingdom, presents a clear 1% framework. Harrison and Davies (2002) reported Figure 1. Percentages of different zonings in Taipei. on the urban conservation policy of London estab- lished by the London Ecology Unit. Urban con- servation was not only designed to protect wildlife habitats from development, but also to provide an Basin, is surrounded by hills, which may not be accessible natural environment (Momm-Schult suitable for dense development. Thus, the et al. 2013). Japanese designated the hills as UCAs, agricul- In addition to natural resources, the focus of tural areas and scenic areas. Consequently, the UCAs has been extended to cultural heritage, parti- percentages of UCAs, agricultural areas and scenic cularly in Asia (Xi & Dong 2010). Xi’an, a city in areas together account for almost half of the total inner China, exemplifies this phenomenon. Xi’an is land area in Taipei (Figure 1). located at the edge of a desert where desertification is a severe problem. Although the conservation policy of the city emphasises ecological aspects, 2.2. The shape of protected urban areas the abundant cultural heritage of the city compels Policies for developing protected areas have been the urban conservation policy-makers to consider adopted worldwide. The reasons for designating both cultural and ecological aspects. Policies con- protected areas might include protecting historical cerning UCAs are often linked to the tourism indus- landmarks, maintaining an ecological environment try. Lijiang, an old town in China, promotes its and preserving particular species. The key intel- heritage as a tourist attraction and, thus, income lectual development leading to establishing pro- derived from tourism provides the foundation for tected areas is the recognition that ecological conservation (Su 2010). Singapore is an example of dynamics cannot be separated from human a garden city featuring an exemplary system in both dynamics (Liu et al. 2007; Folke et al. 2011; natural and cultural dimensions (Brand 2013). The Kareiva & Marvier 2012). Through implementa- Singapore National Park Management Unit is tion of such policies within cities, the concept of responsible for the natural dimension and estab- urban conservation has emerged. Depending on lishes regulations for developing the green land the characteristics of different cities, the focus of system. By respecting the original terrain and vege- UCAs may differ. For example, constructing tation, the unit has maintained the diversity of greenway networks in the United States has been species and landscape in Singapore (Weng & Gao widely accepted as a system for establishing 2007). The benefits of preserving cultural heritage UCAs. Greenways emphasise the value of land- have been valued since the 1980s, and therefore, scapes, public transportation, pedestrian systems, additional financial support for maintaining these public spaces and the conservation of species areas has been provided (Yeon 2006). International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 169 According to a review of policies concerning (2012)defined qualitative methods as the mode several UCAs, certain development policies in of observation that includes experiments, survey Taiwan are similar to those in Singapore, particu- research, field research, unobtrusive research and larly in Taipei City. The development stress evaluation research. This study involved a litera- involves multiple areas, which include developing ture review (Table 1), a case study and in-depth national parks, tunnels, religious areas, leisure interviews. areas, historical streets and military land. The relevant literature reviewed primarily Conservation areas in the city involve the dilemma comprised news events and public policies, and of development or conservation (Kareiva et al. the interviewees belonged to one of four groups: 2008; Kareiva 2012), implying that effective mea- government authorities (code starting with G), sures and clearer orientation are necessary. UCAs environmental groups (code starting with E), in several cities worldwide incorporate concepts community citizens (code starting with C), and that transform resources maintained in the conser- construction companies (code starting with D) vation areas into the energy for economic growth. (Figure 2 and Table 2). The selection process Owing to the policies implemented to conserve for the interviewees comprised three steps. First, such areas, the liveability in these cities has been relevant news was collected to determine the enhanced. Consequently, the orientation of UCAs organisations involved in UCA-related events. in Taipei is vague and the modification of UCAs All environmental groups mentioned in the should be reassessed. news that protested against governmental policies on developing UCAs were identified, as were the government authorities listed as the main policy- 3. Research method maker and executor. In addition, community citi- zens involved in the UCA protection and two This study was conducted to understand the his- construction companies that launched projects in torical background of UCAs in Taipei according the UCAs were included. Second, we ascertained to a literature review. By conducting interviews whether the organisation was willing to be inter- with the stakeholders, we can clarify the actual viewed, and finally, we assessed whether the controversy and conflict. In addition, a review of interviewees could describe the position of the public policies implemented throughout history organisation. After these three steps were com- can facilitate interpreting the conflict and deter- pleted, related questionnaires were posted to the mining a possible compromise. Therefore, a qua- participants. litative method was adopted in this study. Babbie Table 1. Definition of the problem and sources. Definition of the problem Source The meaning of conservation areas and Ahrentzen (2008), Yu(2010), Benton-Short & Short (2012), Howard urban conservation areas (UCAs) (1902), Kendle & Forbes (1997), Benton-Short and Short (2012), Yang (2001), Keivani (2010), Liu et al. (2007), Folke et al. (2011), Kareiva & Marvier (2012), Kareiva et al. (2008), Kareiva (2012) Case study related to UCAs Yang (2001), Bryant(2004), Bryant (2006), Harrison and Davies (2002), Momm-Schult et al. (2013), Xi and Dong (2010), Su(2010), Brand (2013), Weng & Gao (2007), Yeon(2006) Taipei public policy related to UCAs Chang (2007), Zhou (1999), Lin & Qiu(2006) News and events related to UCAs Dong (2004), Liu (2006), Gian (2008) 170 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu Figure 2. Research structure. Table 2. Interview targets. Number of Type of organisation respondents Code Organisation Position Environmental group 4 E1 Environmental Trust Director E2 Citizen of the Earth Chairman E3 Green Party Chairman E4 Homemakers United Foundation Chief Secretary Government authority 3 G1 Department of Urban Development, Taipei City Deputy Chief G2 Geotechnical Engineering Office, Public Works Section Chief Department G3 Geotechnical Engineering Office, Public Works Section Chief Department Community citizen 2 C1 XiShan Community Borough Chief C2 Jiantan Community Borough Chief Construction company 2 D1 Highwealth Construction Section Manager D2 Cathay Real Estate Section Manager 4. History of conservation policies in Taipei 4.1. Abandoned lands City A conservation area in Taiwan is defined as a zone The history of Taiwan conservation policy was allocated for conserving land, soil and water; identified according to three periods: the period maintaining natural resources; and protecting eco- in which UCAs were considered useless land, the logical functions. This definition, as specified by period in which the value of developing UCAs law, describes the active goals of a conservation was recognised and emphasised, and the period area. However, according to a review of zoning in which UCA development was actively advo- history, conservation areas are defined as aban- cated (Figure 3). doned areas that have high development costs. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 171 Figure 3. Historical evolution of UCA policy in Taipei. According to the opinion of one interviewee who In 1945, following the relocation of the had worked in urban planning area for several Republic of China government to Taiwan, the years, rapidly increasing number of political immigrants resulted in uncertainty regarding the urban plan- The purpose of delimiting conservation areas is to ning in Taipei. The public facilities constructed protect the environment, a goal that can currently during the Japanese colonisation period were be accomplished using satellite maps and geolo- unable to support the swollen population. Thus, gical surveying. However, this was difficult in the methods for helping immigrants to settle in past without the availability of advanced technol- became the principal topic in urban planning in ogy and also because of limited staff available for urban planning. How did [conservation areas] the 1950s after the amendment of the urban plan. become localised? Considering that urban devel- The new version of the urban planning regulation opment is an irreversible process, unused lands master plan, conforming to the European urban could be designated as temporary conservation planning concept and adopted in 1964, is areas. These areas may be changed in the future described as follows. if development is necessary. (G1) On 1 July, 1967, Taipei was designated as a direct-control municipality; its boundaries were The history of urban planning in Taipei can be and it contained a extended from 67 to 272 km dated to 1889, the Japanese colonisation period. population of more than 1.5 million people. The Office of the Governor-General of Taiwan Because six new towns were included in established a committee to survey and draft plans Taipei, the master plan was revised, and new that were announced in 1905. However, because zoning policies were fully implemented in of the rapid population increase caused by the 1968. Subsequently, six new districts established relocation of Japanese to the island, the plan was their own land control rules (Chang 2007). The revised in 1932. The scale of Taipei was expanded Enforcement Rules of Urban Planning Law for to four times the original scale, and the Urban Taipei City were announced in 1976, and a land- Planning Act was subsequently enforced. 172 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu use zoning rule was declared in 1983; thus, in which the stress of urban development became Taipei was the firstcityinTaiwantoimplement a problem in Taipei. After this period, because of zoning in urban planning policy and the first to the increase in the number of industries between adopt carrying capacity control. The rules were 1960 and 1980, urbanisation resulted in adverse first adopted in the subareas of Taipei and sub- effect on environments in larger conurbations. sequently extended to the city centre. The hills Consequently, a policy for a new town was estab- in Muzha, a district in the suburbs of Taipei, lished in Linkou, a district in the suburbs of Taipei were the firsttargetfor whichthe conceptof County (Zhou 1999). In 1990, the new town and carrying capacity was introduced in the asso- public housing caused a fraction of the population ciated plan. to relocate from the inner city, which relieved the Taipei was more advanced than any other city population stress temporarily. in Taiwan. However, conservation areas had not All of the aforementioned policies were been included in the rules or related laws estab- related to the population and infrastructure stress lished by the Japanese. The Japanese government of urban development. However, Taipei remained used scenic, aesthetic and fire prevention areas to the centre of consumption, culture and employ- present the concept of conservation areas. In ment. In addition to the need for residential areas, 1939, only cultural areas were included in the vital economic activities required additional land laws implemented by the ROC government. within the city. Therefore, all of the unused land This raises the question as to why both authori- was surveyed, including the UCAs. Chang (2007) ties disregarded the importance of conservation mentioned that the period after 2005 was the areas. Perhaps the need for development was not ‘deregulation’ step during which the control of pressing and, thus, restricting land use was not urban plans was reduced. The policy of deregula- emphasised. By the end of the 1950s, the increase tion was adopted and implemented thoroughly, in population compelled the government to revise from the central government to local govern- the Urban Planning Act and related regulations ments. The central government revised the law and develop standards. Chang (2007)regarded to designate industrial areas as business areas, the period between the beginning of Japanese which rendered the management of industrial colonisation and 1976 as the initial stage of areas in Taiwan uncontrollable. The Taipei City urban planning in Taipei. During this period, the Government also amended the ‘zoning ordi- amount of land was sufficient for developers to nance’ to adopt a negative list for managing the ignore the increasing value of the Muzha hills. industrial and business areas. In other words, These lands were regarded as abandoned, and because the level of stress had continued to designating them as conservation areas was con- increase, the government compromised by relax- sidered unnecessary. Between 1976 and 1983, ing its restrictions. Compared with other types of increasing restrictions were applied and certain land, UCAs were still subject to strict standards, lands were gradually designated as conservation and several appeals to change the use of UCAs areas. emerged. The rules and laws related to UCAs were instituted in 1973 and 1976, respectively. After 4.2. Increasing stress of urban sprawl 1993, revision of the Details of Urban Planning The rapid development of Taipei City occurred Law for Taipei City caused more organisations to after World War II. The arrival of a large number apply for permission to change the manner in of political immigrants and the establishment of which UCAs could be used. According to labour-intensive industries between 1960 and Table 3, 2002 was evidently a key period because 1970 attracted a large number of people to the of the introduction of the White Book on urban Taipei metropolis. This was also the first period sustainable development and the standard for the International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 173 Table 3. History of the modification of conservation areas from 1995. Year Event 1996 ● Tzu Chi Foundation purchased a UCA in Neihu District. 1997 Tzu Chi Foundation attempted to apply for a change of land use, but was rejected. 1998 The community voted against the Chi Foundation’s construction project. 2001 After a disaster, a committee for reconstruction was built and additional ecological concepts were adopted. 2002 The White Book for urban sustainable development was established. The standard for conditional use of the zoning was established Three universities changed UCAs to land for educational use. 2004 The Tzu Chi Foundation in Neihu District attempted to change one UCA into a social welfare area. Certain areas in Yangmungshan National Park were excavated on a large scale. 2005 A community in the UCA in Neihu District was established. The Executive Yuan announced the rules for managing nature reserves. The government agreed to the development project in the UCA owned by Tzu Chi Foundation in Neihu District. The UCA near Zhuang Jing tunnel was devastated. Leisure Agricultural in the conservation areas of Maokong was legalised. 2006 A public toilet was constructed within the UCA in Beitou District. 2008 ● The hotels hosting spring accommodation in the UCA in Yangmungshan National Park were legalised. 2010 ● A private elementary school, Wego, extended its campus to the UCA ● The use of the UCA near the Jiantan Taipei Rapid Transit stop was changed to build a residential mansion. ● Numerous construction projects were undertaken around the UCA in Neihu District. ● Temple land in Sungshan District was changed from the UCA to an area for regional use. 2014.04 ● Tzu Chi Foundation attempted for the ninth time to change the UCA in Neihu District to a social welfare area. Source: Data collated from Dong (2004), Liu (2006, 2007) and Gian (2008). conditional use of zoning. From 1997 to 2002, investigate and stabilise the steep slope, generally restrictions on UCAs in Taipei were rigidly defined as land with a slope angle of 20% or enforced. However, because of the deregulation greater for a minimum of 30 feet horizontally. policy, in 2004, UCAs belonging to a religious According to this delegate, group were used for social welfare, and several universities were using UCAs for educational pur- We may consider the UCA soil and water con- servation plan and environmental impact analysis, poses. In 2010, an officer at a national park was which would increase the development cost. accused of exploiting the land illegally. A con- Therefore, UCAs are not excellent choices. In struction company used a UCA to build luxury brief, we prefer to consider lands located by river- homes, and even building (previously illegal) sides or parks if we want to construct buildings with beautiful vistas. The forest in conservation hotels and restaurants in UCAs became legal. All areas may be a choice for our buildings, but of these events indicated that the public authorities building in the forest is not necessary. The gov- were compromising in the face of development ernment may agree that the forest should be stress. However, construction companies were transformed into a type of residential zone, but reluctant to build on these highly controversial the transformation must involve low-density areas, according to a delegate from a construction development. Such a situation would increase the cost substantially. (D1) company. Time and money was required to 174 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu However, successful situations in which UCAs However, because of the stress of urban were developed and preserved do exist, as sprawl, both the government and conservation reported by the same delegate: advocates who insisted on environmentally justifi- able policies were involved in the allocation pro- cess. Both sides presented distinct arguments, and Take an example located in historical areas. We own land that does not belong to a heritage area, tension occurred between them. One environmen- and therefore, we can cooperate with the nearby tal writer urged for development in an urban wet- land owners to build dwellings according to the land to be stopped, which prompted the media and related building laws. However, a building on the the public to discuss the topic. In addition, the Tzu land was designated as a historical attraction later. Chi Foundation attempted to transform one of This decision was made to preserve local com- mon memory by maintaining the building. We their conservation areas into a social welfare ran this event negotiating with the community area, which is for the establishment of the installa- for more than 8 years. As you know, that process tion taking care of the child, disabled people, promoting the case is really a kind of invisible women and the elderly in 2004, and that decision pressure. We and the government both agreed to maintain the heritage area and we own the author- caused several environmental groups to protest ity to shift the carrying capacity. (D2) because the area was located in a potential dip slope, a topographic (geomorphic) surface that slopes in the same direction, and development could have destroyed the ecology and safety of 4.3. Restriction of development in UCAs the area. Following these events, arguments To solve the problem of the increasing develop- ensued between both sides. ment for which the land use in conservation areas As a result, the changes and legislation pre- had been changed, the government adopted posi- venting development in UCAs were unsuccessful tive lists for regulating land use. Furthermore, in for two primary reasons. First, the legislation pro- 2001, the Taipei City Government invited experts vided flexible content allowing conditional use to investigate the reason underlying mudslides and providing developers with loopholes. caused by a typhoon. The experts concluded that Second, the interest groups and the stress of the overexploitation of conservation areas and hill- urban sprawl compelled the government to com- sides was the primary cause of the landslides and promise. The government had to assume more floods that occurred. In addition, they suggested responsibility and clarify the position of different that development in these areas be postponed. The UCAs by using more appropriate assessment following year, the White Book on urban devel- methods. Paavola (2004) analysed the EU’s opment revealed that the effect on and destruction Habitats Directive and experiences and concluded of natural ecologically sensitive areas were key that decision-makers should pay more attention to ecological concerns. In addition, these sensitive justice and governance, whereas Fairbrass and areas, including conservation, scenic and flood Jordan (2001) asserted that supranational EU areas that occupied more than half of the territory actors were the major reason for indecision over of Taipei, should be sustained constructively. which level of governance has the most decisive However, the government also implemented a influence on the integration process to protect standard for the conditional use of zoning, which biodiversity. This reveals that a clear responsible allowed conservation areas to be used for public authority guarding the land justly is crucial for benefit but not for commercial use. Allocating managing UCAs. conservation areas for appropriate public use may According to a comprehensive survey of the be beneficial, but the definition of public benefitis history of conservation areas in Taipei, the restric- too vague to delineate areas that may be tions on development clearly tend to be more rigid developed. and the related regulation control changed from International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 175 negative to positive. Moreover, additional condi- ‘I completely agree that people should become immersed in nature, meaning they should use the tional uses, such as public facilities, residential hill walkway instead of the artificial park’. (E1) districts and cultural districts, have been accepted One governmental delegate said, by the public. However, one contradictory finding from the statistics indicated that the government One of the directors who oversees the walkway converted more UCAs into developing use than reported that some walkways introduced into the any other developer when additional ecological conservation areas will guide people to use the resources effectively. One hill was used illegally, concepts were adopted in 2001 and the White but the situation has been resolved by construct- Book for urban sustainable development was ing the walkway. (G1) announced (Figure 4). To respond to the expectations of environmen- All of the interviewees reported that walk- tal groups, the sustainable development report for ways or natural parks may be a suitable use for Taipei included ecological and sustainable manage- UCAs. Natural walkways are established accord- ment based on seven perspectives, including the ing to the natural paths and in consideration of appropriate use for UCAs. Plans for four suburban natural corridors and landscapes. Natural walk- areas in the hills were included to integrate all ways may provide several functions, including conservation areas by using a natural walkway sys- relief from physical and mental stress, local tem. All of the plans were attempts to provide areas industry promotion, information for scholarly for leisure use in low-development sections of the research, leisure activities and ecotourism, and city without conforming to the aims of conservation environmental education (Lin & Qiu 2006). areas. Thus, conservation areas can be supervised However, these potential functions depend on by the public by guiding more people into UCAs. whether UCAs can satisfy both leisure and edu- According to one delegate from an environ- cational purposes. mental group, Public facilities Government district Residential district Cultural district Special district 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2000 2001–2010 Year Figure 4. Number of UCAs in Taipei changed for various uses. Source: Department of Urban Development, Taipei City Government (2014). Cases 176 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu 5. Results zones are not subdivided. Certain interviewees reported that the simple conservation zoning con- The conservation areas of Taipei City depend on ducted in the past was understandable because role transition in the development process. In this few environmental databases existed. However, study, we explored and reviewed relevant litera- current improved environmental databases can ture and studies. Critical events involving the con- be used to review gentle slope or even flatland servation areas in Taipei during the developmental conservation zones. For conservation zones, var- process were listed based on an annual statement ious development norms based on distinct geolo- derived from related news (Table 3). Furthermore, gical and ecological environments must be various opinions of stakeholders were collected in adhered to. According to one interviewee, this study to understand and determine the expec- tations for UCAs in Taipei. The following results Several environmental groups have proposed a were derived from the interviews and the literature thorough examination of conservation areas. review. However, conservation areas are among the mini- mally used urban lands. In many conservation areas, even a low level of development is not 5.1. UCAs can be successfully transformed into permitted. What could be inspected when we visit a conservation area? If development is not recreational areas under urban development allowed, what is the meaning of inspection? A pressure thorough examination was conducted in Taipei The interviewees included environmental group and revealed that the conservation areas are flat lands with slope gradients of less than 30%, for representatives, competent authorities in the public which 200 development applications had been sector and representatives from a community submitted. Should all these applications be development organisation. The majority of the approved? In my opinion, conservation areas interviewees agreed with transforming conserva- should be divided into several types: natural ter- tion areas into recreational areas. However, they rain, hills, and those that were used before the statute. Simply put, conservation areas cannot be indicated that the degree of transformation should treated merely according to their definition, be constrained to prevent interpretations based on which causes the usage pattern of conservation public interest. According to one interviewee, areas to be simplified. (G1) People define development differently. The The proposal to transform a conservation area degree of development is also debated. When into a recreational area was accepted by both development is allowed by law, some people may take advantage of it. This is what environ- environmental group representatives, who had mental groups worry about the most. Legislation been opposed to numerous development plans for land development will be misused if no over- over the years, and public sector representatives, all values or limitations are established, even who assisted in the legalisation of previously ille- though the intent itself is good. Therefore, we gal construction in conservation areas. The accep- should conduct zoning planning instead of ran- dom planning. (E1) tance by both parties was because they considered recreation as a process of environmental education The zoning concept suggested by environ- that requires a low level of development, reducing mental groups is an additional challenge in the the conflict between humans and their environ- current zoning of conservation areas. For exam- ment. The problem is that different stakeholders ple, according to present urban planning, a resi- have different understandings of development. dential area is divided into various levels with Most of the interviewees supported investigating distinct plot ratios. The coverage ratio is corre- conservation areas and properly introducing spondingly used to control the development recreational activities into a conservation area strength of the area. However, conservation without affecting conservation zoning. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 177 5.2. Possible tension between urban developers conservation areas, which primarily consist of nat- and conservationists can be eased by suitable ural resources. According to one officer, negotiation We have two conservation areas in Taipei, Considering the aforementioned viewpoints of namely Maokong and Xingyi Road. Maokong is various stakeholders, the conflict between urban where the development permission system was development and ecological conservation can be first adapted. How can I make it legal if I know resolved. Buffering factors for easing the tension that certain people are misusing a conservation between them should be increased, particularly for area? This must be prevented. Nevertheless, we should admit that problems do exist, and we have stakeholders who lived in conservation areas prior to find solutions. Environmental groups hope that to zoning. These buffering factors are constrained I can do 100% of the job, which is idealistic. I by regulations governing conservation areas, and can do only 30% of the job, and the people in the people’s quality of life is directly affected in charge can continue. We will complete 80% of UCAs. Thus, the regulations for conservation the job eventually. I established a new set of game rules. Every owner should follow the rules areas should accommodate both urban develop- once they are set. The rules say you have to ment and ecological conservation. According to demolish your house if you are located in envir- two interviewees, onmentally sensitive areas because we must maintain the safety of the residents. Moreover, many problems should be eliminated, including The conservation area in Xishan is mainly problems concerning drinking water, sewage restricted by the National Park Act and Hilly treatment, garbage disposal, geologic structures, Land Protection Act. For example, many resi- and water and soil conservation. The same sys- dents have lived in this area for generations. tem is used for Xingyi Road. We implemented a They used to live in small houses, but the number system and a pattern, but environmental groups of family members increased, causing housing stand in our way. They will just impede the problems. (C1) problem-solving process. They are not really sol- ving the problems. (G1) Thus, compromises should be achieved to resolve problems such as indigenous autonomy. Many In practical terms, specific methods should be indigenous people live in conservation areas and may need to hunt, but territorial planning, gov- applied because conservation areas exhibit dis- ernment decisions, ignore their traditional culture tinct features and are zoned at different times. by forbidding their hunting activities. The situa- Moreover, the tension between urban develop- tion is the same as the question, ‘Should a con- ment and ecological protection should be elimi- servation area be developed or not?’ In my nated. The contradiction between urban opinion, time is needed for communication and planning before any development or ecological development and ecological protection has cre- conservation can occur. Without full coordination ated conflicts between the public sector and and mutual respect, no good solution can be environmental groups. The public sector seeks determined. (C2) to implement related legalisation, whereas envir- onmental groups question the local city govern- Numerous residents have realised the value of ment. To resolve the contradiction and conflict, conservation areas, and their primary concern is guaranteeing the rights and interests of existing guaranteeing their rights and interests established landowners is necessary. before zoning. The most critical problem in con- We observed from the interviewees that both servation area development is protecting the rights parties are attempting to resolve the problem and of landowners while not affecting the zoning plan. improve the quality of urban environments; the Historical sites or buildings can be relocated to problem lies in their differing perspectives. In reduce the pressure of public policy enforcement. this study, the pragmatism of the public sector However, this solution is ineffective in representatives, who relentlessly attempted to 178 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu achieve gradual improvement, and the earnestness purpose of protecting conservation areas is to pro- of environmental groups, which endeavoured to tect people. In their opinion, without a complete protect conservation areas, were demonstrated. environmental resource survey database, such as Therefore, public policies for conservation areas an overall environmental review, no scientific eva- must be applied in a more dynamic fashion luation of conservation areas can be conducted. because spaces in a city change over time. However, the cost of developing a complete data- base is high: the public sector most likely will not agree to create a complete database. Several envir- 5.3. UCAs protect the environment and connect onmental group representatives adhered to the people and nature legal definition of a conservation area, but they Before public policies are established, the com- also agreed that a new definition is necessary. mon viewpoint of multiple stakeholders should According to one such representative, be determined and the definition of conservation areas should be revised. We interviewed environ- When we talk about conservation areas in Taipei City, we are referring to things like territory mental groups, public sector representatives, com- security, water conservation, soil conservation, munity citizens and developers. All interviewees and natural resource maintenance. Is transform- agreed that the function of conservation areas is ing the role of a conservation area possible? I not only to protect the land and environment, but think the answer is yes. For example, you will also to benefit society and enhance the relationship find that you can actually classify the agricul- tural land in a certain village of a certain county between people and nature. Based on the opinions if you know the planning and mechanism of and expectations of the environmental group agricultural land resources, such as priority agri- representatives regarding conservation areas, cultural land. We have to establish a clear defi- understanding the main reason for their conflict nition. (E2) with the public sector is crucial. According to one interviewee, Construction companies are aware that conser- vation areas have development restrictions and Considering the current problems in Taiwan, we value, but they assert that the land surrounding must protect the environment if we have to make conservation areas is their primary target, because a choice to address development stress. securing land in Taipei is increasingly difficult. Protecting conservation areas also means protect- When the land surrounding a conservation area is ing the people. There is a relationship between a host and a guest. The hosts are the environment, used for development, landowners in conservation whereas the guests are the people. We protect the areas protest. The originally planned conservation environment because we want to protect our- areas are also modified gradually. Regarding the selves. We want water and fresh air. As long as definition of a conservation area, construction we protect conservation areas, they will benefitus company representatives reported that conserva- one day. This is actually very utilitarian. Although we have to choose conservation over tion areas should be defined in a manner that development according to the current rigid sys- benefits the public. According to one construction tem in Taiwan, I think that equilibrium could company representative, actually be reached between development and conservation, based on a good resource investiga- I think the point is that minimal operation should tion, if the amount of development does not affect be guaranteed, the operation of the entire eco- the sustainable development of a conservation system should be maintained, and human devel- area. (E3) opment activities should be restricted. Conservation areas are created according to eco- A conservation area, according to environmen- logical viewpoint. The cultural point of view tal group representatives, is to be defined from an involves historical value and considers the pub- lic. If the public thinks a place should be anthropocentric viewpoint, meaning that the International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 179 conserved, the executive system is obliged to performance assessment of these conservation propose a corresponding plan. The meaning of areas, they determined that hardware facilities conservation areas is based on public interest. were frequently emphasised and that labour man- As a constructor, I know that conservation areas agement was disregarded. In listing the critical cannot be developed directly because they are events in the development of conservation areas unsuitable for development. However, we care- fully assess whether the land surrounding them in Taipei, we focused on investigating and clarify- has development potential. Both cultural and ing various aspects of urban nature conservation. natural impacts on the environment will be con- The following conclusions were drawn from the sidered. (D1) results of this study. We can deduce from the aforementioned inter- view responses that attention cannot be paid to the 6.1. The purpose of conservation should be to value of a conservation area. Instead, additional protect the people aspects should be considered, such as the harmony Currently, urban land is mainly divided into resi- of conservation areas with their surroundings, the dential, business, industrial, agricultural, recrea- conservation of biodiversity in such areas, urban tional and protection zones. Most of these zones development, and the advantages and disadvan- were created because of human activity and are tages that might be created during the role transi- named after human behaviour patterns. Only pro- tion of a conservation area. tection zones and conservation areas are not reflec- Several basic tasks should also be considered tive of notable human activity. According to when revising conservation zoning, including relevant laws and regulations, conservation areas the construction of an environmental resource are zones with the functions of territory security; database, the practice and planning of an overall water and soil conservation; natural resource review, the provision of information transpar- maintenance; and ecological protection. The ency, and public participation. Generally, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act indicates that interviewees agreed that conservation areas conservation areas were defined to protect histor- could operate more flexibly and that balance ical sites and preserve environmental landscapes. can be achieved between ecology and urban Thus, conservation areas do not correspond to development or recreation. However, they also human activities alone; conservation is adopted indicated that an environmental assessment and to protect natural resources and landscapes as review should be conducted first, and the rule of well as historical sites. However, laws and regula- protecting the environment should be strictly tions are established according to the concept of followed. anthropocentrism. The purpose of natural resource conservation is to achieve the continual political stability of the country. Although maintaining bio- 6. Conclusion diversity is mentioned repeatedly in the literature, Since conservation areas were first established in the human right to subsistence remains the pri- Taiwan in the 1970s, many proposals for assessing mary reason for establishing conservation areas. and developing the conservation area assessment Natural conservation areas are not zoned to benefit methods have been presented. However, few over- other species or ecological resources but to protect all assessments have focused on operation man- human safety. This is the reason that several of the agement. Nevertheless, numerous relevant studies interviewees mentioned ‘public interest’. The pur- have been conducted in recent years. For example, pose of zoning conservation areas is preserving Lu et al. (2011) conducted a case analysis of five areas where people reside – not only are historical conservation areas in Taiwan. By observing the buildings in these areas protected, but specific adjustment of the operation management cultural patterns are also preserved. Therefore, 180 Y.-Y. Wu and C.-I. Wu we define the purpose of UCAs as protecting the 6.3. Protection mechanisms should be included existence of human life in a city. in the practice of public policies for conservation areas Our in-depth interviews revealed that no marked contradiction occurred between the understanding 6.2. A grading system for conservation areas and expectations of conservation areas among the should be implemented representatives from various units, including The contradiction between the interests of the environmental protection groups, public sector majority and minority has become a common pro- representatives and community citizens. All inter- blem in conservation areas. If specific regulations viewees expected UCAs to serve as a barrier or based on the features of conservation areas can be shield during urban development and maximise established, this contradiction could be reduced public benefit. However, in reality, we discovered dramatically. According to the Taipei Land that the environmental protection groups, public Zoning Ordinance, nine types of residential sector representatives and even construction com- zones, four types of business zones and two panies often ignore or blame each other for pro- types of industrial zones are currently used. The blems related to conversation areas. For example, various plot ratios and coverage ratios of these the process of legalising hot spring areas in zones are provided in the regulations. However, a Taiwan has created considerable controversy. single plot ratio and coverage ratio were desig- However, the public sector representatives wish nated for other zones, such as administrative dis- to solve rather than postpone problems. During tricts, institute and college districts, warehouse the regulation of political economics, integrating districts and scenic districts. Three types and five opinions and balancing the authority of all parties types of construction standards were established is critical. However, when no event threatens the for agricultural and conservation zones, respec- immediate safety of the people, the public sector tively. Regarding water and preservation zones, has no intention of strictly implementing current the Water Resource Act and the Cultural legal regulations. The controversy regarding the Heritage Preservation Act, respectively, were base of Ciji Enclosed Lake in Taipei City is an implemented. The five construction standards for appropriate example. The original base is no conservation areas were defined according to the longer a conservation area, but the public sector type of land use permitted under certain condi- cannot prevent developers from using it as a social tions. For example, community safety facilities, welfare facility because human safety is not threa- public facilities and public affairs agencies have tened. However, the legalisation of the Maokong the highest coverage ratio, whereas agriculture and Leisure Agricultural Park and the Beitou Hot agricultural buildings have the lowest coverage Springs Hotel indicates the value of local culture. ratio. The highest coverage ratio is applied after Environmental protection groups seek to imple- the original buildings have been newly and legally ment regulations rigidly, whereas the public sector constructed, extended, reconstructed or repaired. pursues the possibility of improving the environ- Although the Taipei Land Zoning Ordinance is ment in a more flexible way. Methods for reducing the most complete law for land-use zoning in the gap between the expectations of these two Taiwan, no standard grading system based on nat- groups in environmental controversies should be ural features, such as UCA topography and geol- investigated in future studies. ogy, is used. The conditional use of UCAs without Although the evidence from the policy sector a complete supervisory system may negatively supports the contentions made by various stake- affect the protective function of the original con- holders, a more complete theory should be sub- servation zoning. jected to considerably more empirical testing. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 181 Reformation of urban planning and legislation Chang GW. 2007. The enforcement and change of zon- ing institution in the perspective of property rights related to UCAs is ineffective when the property [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. National of the land cannot be understood. In this situation, Chengchi University. Chinese. if the authority cannot manage with disputes, then Department of Urban Development, Taipei City the importance of renovation and justice may Government. 2014. The query system of urban become redundant. Furthermore, the policies plan in Taipei [Internet]. 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Journal

International Journal of Urban Sustainable DevelopmentTaylor & Francis

Published: Jul 3, 2015

Keywords: urban conservation areas (UCAs); national land planning; urban planning; Taipei; public policy

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