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Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: an exploration of several American cities’ policies to facilitate electric vehicle purchase and usage

Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: an exploration of several American cities’ policies to... INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021, VOL. 13, NO. 2, 148–158 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2020.1843467 ARTICLE Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: an exploration of several American cities’ policies to facilitate electric vehicle purchase and usage a b James Wood and Ankur Jain a b Center for Transportation Equity, Decisions, and Dollars, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 24 March 2020 Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) form a critical part of the infrastructure needed for Accepted 25 October 2020 sustainable transportation. Local governments are expected to play a key role in ensuring widespread adoption of PEVs by their residents. This study specifically KEYWORDS investigates how large American cities have used the policy process to prepare for Plug-in electric vehicles broader PEV usage. Based on a questionnaire sent to policy leaders in major American (PEVs); transportation policy; cities, this study investigates issues of building codes, city-utility relations, tax incen- electrification; infrastructure; tives for PEV users, and social equity. The study identifies and analyzes common and city planning influential policies perceived as being most effective at advancing PEV adoption. Findings suggest that cities are either not preparing for PEVs at all, or are preparing in a very substantive and tech-savvy manner. Policymakers also highlight key areas of needed focus, and lay out ways in which regulators and electricity providers can aid in PEV adoption. Introduction 2017). When connected to a source of electricity dur- ing the charging process, the cells in a Li-ion battery Vehicular technologies in the United States are in the are able to convert and store electrical energy in the midst of a torrent of new ideas and new systems, form of chemical energy through a reversible electro- particularly in the realm of alternative fuels and elec- chemical reaction (Beard 2019). Subsequently, the trification. Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs), which are reverse reaction occurs when the vehicle moves, so generally powered by ethanol, hydrogen, or com- the stored chemical energy is converted into electrical pressed natural gas, as well as Plug-in Electric Vehicles energy and used to run the electric motor, which (PEVs) that must be plugged in to the electrical grid in propels the vehicle forward. The Li-ion battery pack order to recharge, have boomed in popularity among of a PEV typically comprises thousands of cells, each American consumers over the past two decades. This capable of storing a small amount of energy. growth in demand has been fuelled by a host of perso- While the departure from reliance on gasoline as nal and practical factors, ranging from a personal desire a fuel represents a fascinating shift in energy con- to reduce emissions, to federal and state tax incentives sumption and vehicular pollution, PEVs do offer new for purchasing such vehicles. Figure 1 shows the dra- technological and societal challenges. For example, matic increase in PEV sales in the US since 2011 (Edison the manufacturing of Li-ion batteries is an intensive Electric Institute, 2019). This rapid growth in PEVs on process and has required manufacturers to develop American roads is expected to continue in the future brand new infrastructure, such as the Tesla (Electric Vehicle Outlook, 2019). Gigafactory. Similar infrastructure related to charging The technology behind PEVs is based on energy of PEVs on the road – akin to gas stations – is also conversion and storage in Li-ion batteries (Shah et al. CONTACT Ankur Jain jaina@uta.edu Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article. © 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 149 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Figure 1. Cumulative PEV sales in the United States (in thousands of units sold). under development. From a consumer’s perspective, critical role that local governments will play in ensur- PEVs present challenges related to the need for retro- ing successful adoption of PEVs, with all its associated fitting of homes and/or offices for charging infrastruc- environmental and sustainability benefits, must be ture. The ability to rapidly charge a PEV – within a time investigated. that is competitive to the few minutes it takes to fill up The growth of PEVs as a segment of the American vehicle market has already compelled urban planners a traditional vehicle at a gas station – is also an important consumer-related concern. and policymakers to reconsider the existing ecosys- The physical infrastructure that accommodates the tem of fuelling stations, parking lots, and municipal personal automobile in American cities has arguably electrical infrastructure. For example, a gasoline- not kept pace with the growing demand for these powered vehicle is fuelled at a separate location vehicles, particularly PEVs. The in-situ electrical equip- from where it is usually parked, whereas an PEV can ment required to recharge PEVs has yet to be installed be refueled/recharged while parked. Two core needs in many American parking lots, leaving PEV owners to of the vehicle (fuel and a place to park when not in charge their vehicles at home – provided they reside use) are thus combined for PEVs. However, knowledge in a structure with the necessary electrical infrastruc- gaps remain among both practitioners and scholars. ture installed. These critical issues have a significant Studies have explored PEV adoption factors among and direct impact on the adoption and usage of PEVs American consumers (Soltani-Sobh et al. 2017; Kim by consumers on American roadways, and it remains et al, 2014) and the optimal models for constructing unclear the degree to which local governments can PEV charging infrastructure (Dong et al. 2014; Davidov (and do) address these issues through the regulatory and Pantos 2017). However, little attention has been process. As the authors will assert here, local govern- paid in the literature to the specific actions local gov- ments have the explicit power to set and monitor ernments can take to promote PEV adoption and land-use regulations, vehicle parking lot standards, charging within their boundaries (ZEV Task Force and the rules governing the placement of critical 2018). In addition, studies that examine the govern- infrastructure including electrical systems. Thus, the ment-EV relationship through a regulatory or policy case can be made that a local government can influ - lens are also lacking in the literature of both transpor- ence, through action or inaction, the wider adoption tation planning and public policy. An exploration of and usage of PEVs by its residents and taxpayers. The this relationship – how it functions, how the parties 150 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN inform one another, and its various outcomes for the platforms (Budhia et al. 2011; Zheng et al. 2014). The broader public – is thus badly needed for this growing focus of much of this research has been in improving the performance of charging technology, ostensibly body of literature. This study undertakes such an for the benefit of manufacturers and the convenience exploration, using a chiefly qualitative approach to of consumers (who might then become more likely to understand not merely what American cities are purchase an EV). This stream of literature, while at doing to prepare their physical infrastructure for PEV times dense with patents and equations, is essential usage, but also what factors are driving their decision for our shared understanding of what PEV charging to build (or not build) such infrastructure. systems require and what the manufacturers are cap- This study explores and compares the various able of implementing as the machinery continues to methods by which several large American cities have mature. sought to prepare their communities and physical The second relevant stream of literature focuses on infrastructure to service a growing number of PEVs. the planning and siting of PEV charging stations. Previous studies, such as the one completed by While this subset of studies moves somewhat away Gomez San Roman et al. (2011), have attempted to from technical analyses and more into questions of illustrate the complex network of regulators, consu- land use and community access, it lacks the policy mers, and physical infrastructure involved in city- focus necessary to truly understand all dimensions of dwellers using PEVs, but most are technical in tone this issue. Studies in this area have thus far focused on and centred on innovations to make PEVs easier to the optimal placement of PEV charging stations based charge and cheaper to own. The policy perspectives, on electrical grid capacity (Liu et al. 2012; Zheng et al. and the regulatory frameworks necessary to influence 2013) or “environmental and economic sensitivity„ long-range building code changes that might more (Guo and Zhao 2015). However, investigations into easily accommodate PEV charging systems, remain the government’s role in planning for PEV charging missing. The literature also has little information on stations remain scarce. The authors feel it is vital for the public sector’s internal attitudes towards PEV the growth of the PEV literature to better link these adoption, and the degree to which planners’ views efficiency-focused studies to a better understanding on the environment and technology might influence of the decision-making processes in Western infra- their job performance as regulators of both transpor- structure planning, to better encapsulate how factors tation and infrastructure assets in the community. This such as energy efficiency and carrying capacity mesh study sheds light on all of these aforementioned gaps with issues of local politics and long-range regional by exploring attitudes as well as regulatory frame- planning. works related to PEVs. The findings are expected to The third stream of PEV literature, which helps to be useful to planners, energy providers, developers, close the loop with the other two, centres on examin- and PEV manufacturers, all of whom may seek to ing and evaluating the various government incentives better understand and formalise the local govern- and regulations offered by the public sector to boost ment’s role in ensuring our cities are prepared for PEV usage by consumers. Of the three streams, this the full extent of PEV adoption predicted to occur in one is the least technical and the most socially- the coming decades. focused, dominated by questions of economics, envir- onmental justice, and public policy. It is also the stream with the least amount of published academic Literature review study behind it. The critical role of public policy on The literature surrounding PEV charging technology PEV adoption has been recognised in the context of and adoption by consumers can readily be divided US (Greene et al. 2014) and Europe (Tseng et al. 2012). into a few distinct streams, three of which are relevant Narassimhan and Johnson (2018) found a strong rela- for the present work. The first stream is the robust and tionship between tax incentives, suitable charging technically centred literature on the technology of infrastructure, and PEV adoption. Most literature in PEV charging. Studies on the subject have evolved this direction, however, focuses on the role of the from general overviews a decade ago (Morrow et al. federal government in facilitating PEV adoption 2008; Botsford and Szczepanek 2009) to detailed eva- through tax rebates and other federal interventions. luations of specific technologies and delivery A summary of several studies in this direction has INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 151 been presented (Zhou et al. 2016). Specifically, federal population (according to 2017 Census Bureau data). tax credits have been shown to play a key role in The questionnaire was aimed specifically at city plan- encouraging PEV adoption, alongside High ners, transportation officials, sustainability officers, Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lane access in many places municipal utility directors, and anyone at the local (Clinton 2014; Jin et al. 2014). The role of other, non- level with firsthand knowledge of their city’s experi- federal financial incentives such as longer loan terms ences, needs, and capabilities with regard to electric and securitisation has been discussed (Dougherty and vehicle adoption, charging, and usage. Contact infor- Nigro 2014). A study of California’s state-level PEV mation for city leaders was obtained from city web- purchasing incentives, combined with the state’s sites. In some cases, when direct contact information robust public PEV charging infrastructure (Greene was not available, the departments of et al. 2020), placed a dollar value on PEV drivers’ will- Communications or Public Information or equivalent ingness to pay for vehicle charging access in that were contacted, which, in some cases were able to state. Still, deeper study of local policies is needed. route our request to the appropriate city leaders. The authors contend that there is indeed a vital role Multiple reminders were sent out in order to boost for local governments in encouraging (or at least allow- the response rate. Topics covered in the questionnaire ing for) the charging infrastructure necessary in urban included the specifics of a city’s policies regarding areas to facilitate PEV adoption by residents and public PEVs, local efforts to build and manage charging infra- agencies. Urban planners and regulators are in a unique structure, financial incentives offered to PEV consu- position to address the physical and regulatory barriers mers, and the political lessons learned by each city’s that make it difficult in many places to charge an EV, and experiences in the realm of adapting policies to better they are also arguably in a position to set and enact serve the needs of PEVs and their drivers. policies that advance goals of environmental sustainabil- Responses to the questionnaire were analysed ity, cleaner air, and broader consumer choice. By explor- using a form of axial coding, with particular attention ing the policies and practices of PEV readiness set forth paid to text indicating long-term reforms to infrastruc- by many of America’s largest cities, this work aims to ture, policy, or the management of transportation contribute to a beachhead of scholarly knowledge services. The study’s research questions focused on regarding how local governments are preparing cities policy changes over time, so the authors focused on and the built environment for a growing number of PEVs those responses that described either a long-range adopted by consumers and businesses. policy action being established in the present or a present-day outcome of a years-active policy regard- ing PEVs and their supporting infrastructure. The unit Methodology of analysis is thus the policies themselves and their This project addressed a sequence of three research outcomes (where documented by respondents). The questions: First, how have large American cities coding process generated numerous findings of note, encouraged the adoption of PEVs through regulatory and they are explored in the following section. These or economic means? Second, how have those efforts findings showcase several recurring trends in the been enacted and received over time? And third, what landscape of PEV adoption and infrastructure adapta- best practices and broader policy lessons can be tion in American cities, and each provides a clear drawn from these cities’ experiences in regulating indication of where major U.S. cities are in terms of and promoting the usage of PEVs? infrastructure preparedness and the political/regula- The authors sought to investigate policies and tory appetite for deeper adaptation. their impacts in the nation’s largest cities by popula- tion based on their assertion that larger cities would Results be reasonably more likely to have both the political incentive and financial means to promote PEV usage Of the 125 questionnaires sent to major American through formal policy. In order to capture a nationally cities, a total of 31 were returned, indicating relevant sampling of PEV policies and regulations, the a response rate of roughly 25%, which the authors authors developed a questionnaire on PEV issues and found acceptable for the purposes of this study. sent it to the 125 largest American cities by Responses were submitted from cities across the 152 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN mainland United States, with no specific pattern of contrast, cities such as St. Louis, Missouri and geographic, political, or size clustering. The authors Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania have no master plan for also found wide variety in response length and detail PEV adoption, but the city governments do pur- among the 31 participants. Some responding officials chase PEVs and AFVs as a matter of internal policy. went into generous detail about the numerous pro- At the far end of the regulatory spectrum are cities grammes and policies their communities are offering with no policies related to PEVs or AFVs at all, such in the realm of PEV adoption and adaptation, while as Arlington, Texas and Mesa, Arizona. While the others were vague or downright flip in their answers authors expected to find a broad range of city to the questionnaire. Still, several solid recurring policies regarding PEV adoption and infrastructure – themes emerged from the dataset, and the lessons indeed, the purpose of a national-scale question- derived from those themes inform the bulk of this naire was precisely to capture this diversity of poli- section. The themes are ordered in rough correspon- cies – it remains notable for its potential to inform dence to their position on the questionnaire, begin- the broader discussion over the relationship ning with internal attitudes towards PEV policies and between municipal PEV policies and those vehicles’ expanding outward into broader lessons for a national usage in American cities. audience. City efforts rely heavily on internal fleet policies rather than construction regulations Cities’ PEV policies vary widely, ranging from dense regulations to no regulation at all Our city has an alternative fuel vehicle acquisition policy in place, which replaces city vehicles with alternative-fuel Portland has adopted an Electric Vehicle Strategy with 49 vehicles wherever possible. This includes CNG, propane, specific action areas, a Green Building Policy to promote EV and electric vehicles. In 2019, the city purchased nine infrastructure in new construction, and a list of priority areas PEV’s for its fleet. for PEV charging within city limits. We are actively working with community partners to encourage the installation of — A city staffer in Santa Ana, California publicly accessible EV charging stations on private property at strategic locations in the metro area. Related to the first finding, the authors found the PEV policies in the responding cities to be notably — An official in Portland, Oregon centred around internal policies for city vehicle pur- The questionnaire’s first question, and arguably the chases rather than broader or more intensive regu- most foundational component, centred on what lations regarding construction or municipal kind of policies related to PEV adoption and usage infrastructure. Fifteen of the 31 respondents indi- are present in respondents’ local government. cated their cities had policies in place to prioritise Roughly a quarter of respondents indicated their the purchase of PEVs and AFVs for city fleets. By city had no written policies regarding PEVs, and contrast, only eight respondents (most of whom are had no plans to draft them in the near future. also in the prior group of PEV purchasers) stated Among respondents whose cities did have active that their communities have enacted any building PEV policies on the books, the specifics varied con- codes or construction regulations to require PEV siderably from place to place. Many city govern- charging infrastructure in parking areas. Salt Lake ments have internal policies to prioritise the City, for example, requires all new construction to purchase of PEVs and hybrids for city vehicle fleets, incorporate EV-ready electrical infrastructure so that while other cities address the issue of PEV charging charging stations can quickly be added at a later infrastructure by mandating and/or subsidising the date. Denver has a similar building code in force, installation of charging infrastructure in public with a particular emphasis on multifamily residential places and residential developments. For example, construction being ready for PEV charging stations the City of Seattle has an expansive plan for PEV in the future. This apparent focus on internal poli- adoption and infrastructure, with over 300 charging cies, which are arguably easier to set and manage stations throughout the region and detailed require- than long-range construction codes and regulations, ments for all new parking stalls and residential dri- was noted by the authors and will be explored in veways to be built to ‘EV-ready’ specifications. By greater depth later in this paper. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 153 Cities view PEV infrastructure as the purview of City officials are aware of the costs of PEV utility companies, but remain supportive infrastructure, have ideas for innovations Utilities in America are facing declining load demand due Our main barrier to sustainable transportation is funding. to the successful energy conservation measures of the Cities are expanding their transportation options – past three decades. PEV’s offer a great opportunity for streetcars, light rail, bike-ped, and so forth – but the revenue for utility companies, provided the charging is funding isn’t keeping up. We have to do more with done off-peak and positioned smartly on the grid. a shrinking share of the budget. Studies have shown our city’s electric utility grid can — An official in Tempe, Arizona handle a high number of PEV’s without significant grid investments. Related to the previous point, respondents in several — A senior planning official in Seattle, Washington cases noted the costs of PEV infrastructure and defended their cities’ inaction on PEV issues in economic terms – The questionnaire did not ask specifically about cities’ for example, by claiming bike-ped infrastructure was relations with their electric utility providers, but both cheaper and better utilised by the public than a number of responses described those relations in any PEV infrastructure would be. The questionnaire detail. In many cases, respondents discussed PEV char- also gave respondents the opportunity to recommend ging infrastructure as being provided (built, operated, areas of future innovation and research focus at the and in many cases funded) directly by private-sector intersection of PEV technology, infrastructure, and public utility companies operating in the region. Because policy. Respondents provided an extensive list of ideas, electricity in many of these cities is purchased from ranging from questions about fast-charging batteries for private companies, city officials contend that the gov- PEVs to the exploration of socioeconomic factors such as ernment’s role in matching PEV users with suitable shared-use PEV networks and next-generation mechan- electrical infrastructure is limited. Electricity to charge ical training for blue-collar workers. Several respondents PEVs is sold at market rates (or occasionally at a city- also urged the authors to conduct deeper policy- negotiated discount) directly to the owners of those oriented research into lowering the costs of installing vehicles. In Kansas City, Missouri, the city has no set of and operating PEV infrastructure, while at the same time policies governing PEV adoption or charging, but offi - showcasing financial incentives for potential buyers. cials have worked with the local utility provider A curious but recurring stream of thought emerged on (Kansas City Power & Light) to eventually instal 1,000 this issue among respondents, namely that the environ- PEV charging stations throughout the city. Attitudes mental case for PEV adoption has already been made for towards utility providers as leaders of installing PEV consumers and elected officials, but the consumer-scale infrastructure are generally optimistic and supportive micro-economics of PEVs have not been readily studied in this set of responses. In cities such as Raleigh, North or publicised to that same audience. Carolina, and Phoenix, Arizona, city officials are work- ing with utilities to help manage the demand for PEV charging on the electrical grid, encouraging consu- Respondents view state/federal tax incentives as mers to charge vehicles during off-peak hours. An essential to broader PEV adoption official with the City of Santa Clarita, California pointed out that PEV owners seeking to recharge Beyond the existing federal purchase incentives, we their vehicle batteries may ultimately find themselves should offer support to offset the costs of installing charging stations in homes and multi-family complexes. at the economic mercy of private utility companies We could also offer guidance, information, and tax incen- that may or may not switch to a dynamic-pricing tives for businesses converting their fleets to electric, and model as demand for EV-scale electricity rises in show developers how to safely and cheaply build ‘EV- Southern California. The electrical infrastructure ready’ parking lots for use at a later time. needed to supply power to PEV charging stations is — An official in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma generally quite expensive and complex to instal, thus giving city governments reason to allow private utility Tied to the issue of economics is the matter of tax firms to bear those costs and to recoup the invest- incentives for the purchase of PEVs, ostensibly offered ment directly from the consumers of the energy. to reduce the cost of an PEV for consumers. As of 154 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN 2019, the United States federal government offers -A city staffer in Santa Ana, California a tax credit of between 2,500 USD and 7,500 USD In describing what they perceive as the greatest obsta- per new PEV purchased in the U.S. The specific tax cles to broader PEV adoption in their cities, respondents credit varies based on the vehicle purchased. In addi- listed several specific factors that engineers and policy- tion, several individual states offer supplemental tax makers have the power to investigate and address over credits and additional non-financial incentives (such time. Common factors include battery capacity (the time as waived inspections and complimentary access to an PEV can operate between charging events), battery carpool lanes) to consumers purchasing an EV. These material and electrical grid improvements (so PEVs can tax incentives can significantly reduce the initial costs be charged more rapidly and in more locations), afford - of purchasing an EV, and are thus a visible and power- ability (particularly for lower-income city-dwellers), and ful tool in advancing PEV adoption nationwide. The a broader catalogue of electric vehicles. Several respon- questionnaire asked respondents what state or fed- dents expressed a desire to see electrically-powered eral policies would help the most in increasing PEV utility trucks, emergency service vehicles, taxis, and tran- usage in their city, and virtually all respondents men- sit vehicles, rather than just personal automobiles. To tioned the tax credit system as integral to achieving address these, respondents recommend specific fixes that goal. In many cases, respondents made the case from a technical as well as a policy perspective. To put for increasing the tax credit across the board, or more electric-powered service vehicles on the road, boosting the credit for lower-income buyers specifi - a few respondents suggested broadening the federal cally. Others argued for increasing the state and fed- grant programmes used by cities to purchase fire eral gasoline tax with the twin goals of raising short- engines and transit vehicles to more explicitly cover term capital to fund PEV infrastructure and tax credits electric versions of those vehicles, which would opti- alongside a long-term goal of reducing demand for mally spur development of cheaper and more effective gasoline-powered vehicles over time. Geographically, versions going forward. For lower-income residents, city the strongest proponents of increased tax credits employees recommend a mix of incentives and were in the Western United States, where existing a shared-use model of PEVs. This latter idea was particu- state tax credits for PEV purchases are already visible larly popular among respondents, but evidence of local to consumers. Proponents of increased state and fed- governments having success with such programmes is eral fuel taxes were dispersed roughly equally across lacking. Improving battery capacity and charging station the United States, with no discernible clustering in availability would aid the public image of PEVs and states with lower state fuel tax rates. Respondents reduce discrete demand during charging events, but also made the case for adding new incentives to would also address a concept that emerged repeatedly help developers and homeowners reduce the costs throughout the questionnaires: Crowding at charging of installing PEV infrastructure on their property and stations due to ‘range anxiety.’ This concept, loosely prepare more ‘raceway’ conduit for future PEV usage. defined, refers to the tendency of some PEV drivers to Respondents here saw a clear and robust role for state underestimate their vehicle’s remaining electric charge and federal governments, and perceived the main while driving. This supposed anxiety is said to lead many power of those governments to be that of financial PEV drivers to plug in their vehicle for charging long heft and consumer-friendly tax incentives to grow before it truly needs it, which several respondents demand for PEVs over time. claimed can lead to congestion at public charging sta- tions. and something that must be overcome through education and/or direct financial costs that compel PEV Respondents list a range of obstacles to broader drivers not to recharge their vehicles until truly needed. PEV adoption, but have solutions in mind One respondent further commented that consumer mis- understandings about range anxiety are likely deterring Battery capacity and efficiency play a key role in consu- some consumers from buying PEVs, reinforcing the call mer adoption of PEVs. Range anxiety is a real thing, and for more education. The range of obstacles listed in the it’s doing great harm to PEV sales. Increasing their usable range while increasing performance characteristics questionnaire responses, and the depth of participants’ would surely increase interest among younger knowledge on the issue, reflects a growing technical and consumers. policy understanding of PEVs in American cities. Many INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 155 respondents used detailed technical terminology (such incentives and public charging infrastructure) as well as range anxiety, raceways, and state of charge) in as from a consumer perspective (for example, ques- describing PEVs and charging infrastructure, while tions of how lower-income families might have access a few wrote in only general terms about electric vehicles. to PEV technology, as well as PEV owners’ willingness The authors did not expect such a detailed knowledge of to pay for electricity to charge their vehicles). As elec- PEVs among elected officials and generalist urban plan- tric vehicles mature and become more mainstream in ners, and found the suggested policy solutions the coming decade, it is recommended to analyse a colourful addition to this analysis. how transportation policies in major US cities have evolved over time in response. Given the slow rise of PEV adoption among Discussion American consumers, as well as the uneven ways in These findings indicate a broad diversity of policy with which major American cities are adding PEV infra- regard to PEV adoption and infrastructure in American structure, it remains unclear just how influential city- cities. By allowing each respondent to describe not only level policies can be on PEV adoption by consumers their community’s EV-related policies but also their ori- and businesses living in those cities. This study docu- gins and outcomes, the authors were able to capture the mented several ways in which individual govern- broader story of how these communities are grappling ments are advancing political and environmental with the changes related to PEV usage by consumers, goals through PEV infrastructure and incentives, but businesses, and government agencies. While this study deeper study is needed regarding the degree to did not incorporate an element of policy evolution or which an EV-supportive (or an EV-sceptical) city gov- time-series progression simply because of how nascent ernment influences residents to buy an PEV rather this technology is, it is evident from the analysis that than an AFV or gasoline-powered automobile. It is many of these policymakers are already conceptualising also not evident just how much power local govern- the future of PEVs on their own streets, with or without ments have to launch structured tax incentives or any broader guidance from industry or elected officials. shared-use PEV programmes, and the authors encou- Planners and policymakers (at least in the cities where rage deeper study on this topic. Still, the study PEV policies have been proposed or enacted) seem to remains highly relevant to those seeking to under- the authors to be committed to the long-range goals of stand local governments’ preparations and regula- PEV adoption. Their questionnaire responses often rely tions for PEV infrastructure. It also represents on long-term language, and one gets the distinct a colourful glance into how several communities are impression of two forces at work: First, that many policy- working with utility providers, tax regulators, and the makers are aware of PEVs’ present novelty and slow building-code process to prepare their cities for adoption, and second, that these officials are willing to a wider national adoption of PEV technology that, in wait a long time for PEVs to become widespread enough their eyes, is soon to come. to justify their cities’ investments on PEV-related infra- structure. The questionnaire gave respondents the opportunity to expound on what they wish their city Conclusion had done earlier with regard to electrical infrastructure for transportation, and well over half of the respondents The results presented in this study represent one exam- clearly stated a wish that their city government had ination of the state of PEV adoption and infrastructure installed this infrastructure sooner, as it might have policies in America’s largest cities. While a number of spurred quicker adoption of PEVs by area consumers. questionnaires were completed by representatives of The authors were intrigued by this optimism among several cities, much work remains to be done in truly policymakers, and were also surprised to observe the capturing the spirit and scope of EV-related local gov- technical knowledge of respondents, many of whom ernment actions. This is arguably pressing, given the rate wrote with clarity about specific technical components at which policies will need to adapt to coming changes. of PEV mechanics and charging. The expected growth in PEV usage among American The authors recommend deeper study into the consumers is sure to be a key motivator in reforming economics of PEV adoption and infrastructure, both the nation’s building codes, electrical infrastructure, from a government perspective (for example, parking regulations, and financial incentives packages 156 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN for vehicle purchase. This growth also represents a new to do so would likely have to work directly on challenge for infrastructure finance, as declining fuel tax a pilot project involving a local government as revenues will be further impacted by a broader shift to well as a manufacturer of PEVs. Still, the potential electric vehicles. Regulators may need to formulate an for a shared pool of PEVs for on-demand transpor- alternative model of taxation/registration that captures tation is a captivating idea to reduce the owner- revenue from PEVs as a parallel to fuel tax revenues from ship costs of PEVs while also providing vulnerable gasoline-powered vehicles. PEVs as an enduring compo- populations with a zero-emission means of nent of American automobility is a relatively young transportation. concept, and regulations and building codes on the The authors also encourage the scientific commu- subject will arguably take time to mature. nity and the nation’s urban policymakers to continue to The PEV literature, in all its streams and techni- work together in order to develop flexible best prac- cal or policy directions, is growing but still largely tices that can be adapted to virtually any cityscape unwritten. A tremendous amount of additional contending with PEV adoption. At present, PEV adop- study is needed in order to fully flesh out the tion varies considerably across regions in the United various angles and issues of this topic area. This States, and much of the work being done on best study constitutes one small contribution to that practices and infrastructure adaptation is being con- broader goal. In the course of analysing question- ducted within those regions with a large volume of PEV naire responses and cataloguing ideas for future ownership. This leads to asymmetries in both policy research, the authors documented a few key con- preparation and electrification adaptations that will, in cepts ripe for deeper study at a later point, and the short term, pose an obstacle to truly national-scale these are presented here for the benefit of other best practices. These asymmetries also impacted ques- scholars. The authors also wish to point out that tionnaire responses in this study, and are arguably many of the boldest research ideas came directly a limitation of this work but still instructional for future from the audience of practitioners. First and most studies on the topic. The authors anticipate a greater pressing is the need for deeper technical study into degree of friction (chiefly motivated by financial con- the time and usage aspects of PEV charging sys- cerns) between cities and utility providers with regard tems. For example, innovators must work towards to PEV charging infrastructure. As it stands, many of the fast-charging technology, so that PEVs can be cities investigated in this study rely on utility compa- recharged more expeditiously in public places. At nies to provide public charging stations at virtually no the same time, social scientists must do more to cost to the consumer. As more and more PEVs enter the investigate and ameliorate ‘range anxiety’ among nation’s roadways, and demand for this accessible and PEV users, given its potential to deter potential PEV ‘free’ electricity grows, cities and utility providers will be customers from purchasing an electric vehicle. faced with the dilemma of how best to set a reasonable Many city officials also expressed a desire to see price for public charging infrastructure that formerly more research and creativity in the area of electri- cost PEV drivers nothing. The potential role of private cally-powered service vehicles, such as fire engines players such as parking garages offering PEV charging and delivery trucks. Given those vehicles’ size, at no or reduced cost as an incentive to use their expense, and capacity to pollute with diesel services is also worthy of investigation. The role of engines, efforts to electrify those vehicle fleets utility providers in setting policy is also an area that, will arguably lead to cleaner air in the same way while not explored in depth in this study, deserves PEVs for personal autos would. One final area of richer exploration as PEV adoption grows nationally deeper research recommended by this study is that and local governments adapt to them. There must of PEV accessibility for lower-income consumers. also be more explicit and detailed guidelines on uni- Several respondents described the concept of an versal building codes for PEV infrastructure in the con- ‘electric carshare’ programme as being ideal in this struction industry. While only a handful of places in the situation, as it would likely require far less financial US require newly-constructed dwellings to have EV- investment on the part of individual drivers than ready electrical infrastructure in place, the sooner the buying a single PEV. Studying and implementing nation’s homebuilders can develop safe and affordable such a concept would be a complex undertaking best practices for installation and maintenance of such from a research perspective, and a scholar wishing infrastructure, the easier it will be to adapt structures in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 157 other parts of the nation at a later date. Another factor (2007) and M.S. (2003) in Mechanical Engineering from Stanford University, where he received the Stanford Graduate in the area of vehicle energy and infrastructure is the Fellowship (SGF) and his B.Tech. (2001) in Mechanical decline in fuel tax revenues, which will continue to Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi cause a decrease in available funding for road construc- with the highest GPA among the class of Mechanical tion and maintenance as vehicles grow more fuel- Engineering. He has published more than 80 journal articles on efficient. Furthermore, as PEV adoption grows, regula- topics including thermal engineering of Li-ion cells. In addition to the engineering of batteries, he has an interest in sustain- tors will need to formulate fuel-tax alternatives that can ability issues related to Li-ion batteries and electric vehicles. be applied to drivers who operate vehicles that do not consume gasoline. As interest in PEVs continues to grow in American cities, the literature on the subject ORCID will no doubt mature and diversify, and the authors Ankur Jain http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5573-0674 look forward to ways in which new knowledge can contribute to a cleaner transportation system. References BeardKW. 2019. Linden’s handbook of batteries. 5th ed. New Acknowledgements York, NY: McGraw-Hill Eduction The authors wish to thank the Center for Transportation Equity, Botsford C, Szczepanek A 2009. Fast charging vs. slow charging: Decisions, and Dollars – a Tier-1 University Transportation pros and cons for the new age of electric vehicles. Center supported by the U.S. Department of Transportation – International Battery Hybrid Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle for funding this research. Symposium, Stavanger, Norway; May. Budhia M, Covic GA, Boys JT, Huang CY 2011. Development and evaluation of single sided flux couplers for contactless elec- Disclosure statement tric vehicle charging. In: 2011 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition; September; IEEE, Phoenix, AZ, No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. USA. p. 614–621. Clinton B (2014). Impact of direct financial incentives on battery PEV adoption. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Funding Presentation to DOE. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy15osti/ 63263.pdf This work was supported by the Center for Transportation Davidov S, Pantos M. 2017. Planning of electric vehicle infra- Equity, Decisions, and Dollars, a University Transportation structure based on charging reliability and quality of service. Center funded by the United States Department of Energy. 118:1156–1167. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2016.10.142. Transportation (Grant No. 69A2551747134). Dong J, Liu C, Lin Z. 2014. Charging infrastructure planning for promoting battery electric vehicles: an activity-based approach using multiday travel data. Transport Res Part C. 38:44–55. Notes on contributors Dougherty S, Nigro N 2014. Alternative fuel vehicle and fueling James Wood serves as Program Manager at the Center for infrastructure deployment barriers and the potential role of Transportation Equity, Decisions, and Dollars, a University private sector financial solutions. Center for Climate and Transportation Center funded by the United States Energy Solutions. http://www.afdc.energy.gov/uploads/publi Department of Transportation. He holds a Ph.D. in Urban and cation/afv_fueling_infrastructure_deployment_barriers.pdf Regional Planning from Florida State University, and a Master of Edison Electric Institute, 2019.https://www.eei.org/issuesandpo Regional and Community Planning from Kansas State University. licy/electrictransportation/Documents/FINAL_EV_Sales_ His research focuses on qualitative transportation policy, parti- Update_April2019.pdf cularly the experiences and preferences of vulnerable popula- Electric Vehicle Outlook, 2019.https://webstore.iea.org/down tions in Western cities. load/direct/2807?filename=global_ev_outlook_2019.pdf Ankur Jain is an Associate Professor in the Mechanical and Gomez San Roman T, Momber I, Abbad MR, Miralles AS. 2011. Aerospace Engineering Department at the University of Texas, Regulatory framework and business models for charging Arlington, USA. He directs the Microscale Thermophysics plug-in electric vehicles: infrastructure, agents, and commercial Laboratory (www.uta.edu/mtl), which carries out experimental relationships. Energy Policy. 39(10):6360–6375. doi:10.1016/j. and theoretical research on heat transfer and energy conversion, enpol.2011.07.037. including in Li-ion batteries. He received the Lockheed Martin Greene D, Park S, Liu C. 2014. Public policy and transition to Excellence in Teaching Award (2018), UTA College of Engineering Outstanding Early Career Award (2017), NSF E-drive vehicles in the U.S.: the role of ZEV mandates. Energy CAREER Award (2016) and the ASME EPP Division Young Strategy Rev. 5:66–77. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/ Engineer of the Year Award (2013). He received his Ph.D. science/article/pii/S2211467X14000455 >. 158 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN Greene DL, Kontou E, Borlaug B, Brooker A, Muratori M. 2020. the-art and future research needs for multiscale analysis of Public charging infrastructure for plug-in electric vehicles: Li-ion cells. ASME J Electrochem Energy Convers Storage. what is it worth? Transportation Research Part D. Transport 14:020801:1–17. Environ. 78:102182. Soltani-Sobh A, Heaslip K, Stevanovic A, Bosworth R, Guo S, Zhao H. 2015. Optimal site selection of electric vehicle Radivojevic D. 2017. Analysis of the electric vehicles adoption charging station by using fuzzy TOPSIS based on sustainability over the United States. Transport Res Procedia. 22:203–212. perspective. Appl Energy. 158:390–402. doi:10.1016/j. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2017.03.027. apenergy.2015.08.082. Tseng F, Pedersen JS, Wooding S, Potoglou D (2012). Bringing Jin L, Searle S, Lutsey N 2014. Evaluation of state-level U.S. PEV the electric vehicle to the mass market: a review of barriers, incentives. facilitators and policy interventions. RAND Corporation work- ing paper. Kim, J, Rasouli, S&, Timmermans, H 2014. Expanding scope of ZEV Task Force. 2018. Multi-state ZEV action plan: accelerating hybrid choice models allowing for mixture of social influ - the adoption of zero emission vehicles. A publication of the ences and latent attitudes: Application to intended purchase Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management. of electric cars. Transportation Research Part A: Policy https://www.nescaum.org/documents/2018-zev-action-plan. Practice.69: 71-85. pdf Liu Z, Wen F, Ledwich G. 2012. Optimal planning of electric-vehicle Zheng C, Lai JS, Chen R, Faraci WE, Zahid ZU, Gu B, Anderson D, charging stations in distribution systems. IEEE Trans Power Lisi G, Anderson D. 2014. High-efficiency contactless power Deliv. 28(1):102–110. doi:10.1109/TPWRD.2012.2223489. transfer system for electric vehicle battery charging Morrow K, Karner D, Francfort J. 2008. Plug-in hybrid electric application. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron. 3 vehicle charging infrastructure review. In: US department of energy-vehicle technologies program. p. 34. https://wecanfi (1):65–74. doi:10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2339279. gurethisout.org/ENERGY/Lecture_notes/Electrification_of_ Zheng Y, Dong ZY, Xu Y, Meng K, Zhao JH, Qiu J. 2013. Electric Tranportation_Supporting_Materials%20/INL%20-%20PHEV vehicle battery charging/swap stations in distribution systems: %20infrastructure%20review.pdf comparison study and optimal planning. IEEE Trans Power Syst. Narassimhan E, Johnson C. 2018. The role of demand-side incen- 29(1):221–229. doi:10.1109/TPWRS.2013.2278852. tives and charging infrastructure on plug-in electric vehicle Zhou Y, Levin T, Plotkin SE. 2016. Plug-in electric vehicle policy adoption: analysis of US States. Environ Res Lett. 13 effectiveness: literature review. Argonne National Laboratory. (7):074032. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aad0f8. Technical Report ANL/ESD-16/8. 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Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: an exploration of several American cities’ policies to facilitate electric vehicle purchase and usage

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021, VOL. 13, NO. 2, 148–158 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2020.1843467 ARTICLE Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: an exploration of several American cities’ policies to facilitate electric vehicle purchase and usage a b James Wood and Ankur Jain a b Center for Transportation Equity, Decisions, and Dollars, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 24 March 2020 Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) form a critical part of the infrastructure needed for Accepted 25 October 2020 sustainable transportation. Local governments are expected to play a key role in ensuring widespread adoption of PEVs by their residents. This study specifically KEYWORDS investigates how large American cities have used the policy process to prepare for Plug-in electric vehicles broader PEV usage. Based on a questionnaire sent to policy leaders in major American (PEVs); transportation policy; cities, this study investigates issues of building codes, city-utility relations, tax incen- electrification; infrastructure; tives for PEV users, and social equity. The study identifies and analyzes common and city planning influential policies perceived as being most effective at advancing PEV adoption. Findings suggest that cities are either not preparing for PEVs at all, or are preparing in a very substantive and tech-savvy manner. Policymakers also highlight key areas of needed focus, and lay out ways in which regulators and electricity providers can aid in PEV adoption. Introduction 2017). When connected to a source of electricity dur- ing the charging process, the cells in a Li-ion battery Vehicular technologies in the United States are in the are able to convert and store electrical energy in the midst of a torrent of new ideas and new systems, form of chemical energy through a reversible electro- particularly in the realm of alternative fuels and elec- chemical reaction (Beard 2019). Subsequently, the trification. Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs), which are reverse reaction occurs when the vehicle moves, so generally powered by ethanol, hydrogen, or com- the stored chemical energy is converted into electrical pressed natural gas, as well as Plug-in Electric Vehicles energy and used to run the electric motor, which (PEVs) that must be plugged in to the electrical grid in propels the vehicle forward. The Li-ion battery pack order to recharge, have boomed in popularity among of a PEV typically comprises thousands of cells, each American consumers over the past two decades. This capable of storing a small amount of energy. growth in demand has been fuelled by a host of perso- While the departure from reliance on gasoline as nal and practical factors, ranging from a personal desire a fuel represents a fascinating shift in energy con- to reduce emissions, to federal and state tax incentives sumption and vehicular pollution, PEVs do offer new for purchasing such vehicles. Figure 1 shows the dra- technological and societal challenges. For example, matic increase in PEV sales in the US since 2011 (Edison the manufacturing of Li-ion batteries is an intensive Electric Institute, 2019). This rapid growth in PEVs on process and has required manufacturers to develop American roads is expected to continue in the future brand new infrastructure, such as the Tesla (Electric Vehicle Outlook, 2019). Gigafactory. Similar infrastructure related to charging The technology behind PEVs is based on energy of PEVs on the road – akin to gas stations – is also conversion and storage in Li-ion batteries (Shah et al. CONTACT Ankur Jain jaina@uta.edu Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article. © 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 149 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Figure 1. Cumulative PEV sales in the United States (in thousands of units sold). under development. From a consumer’s perspective, critical role that local governments will play in ensur- PEVs present challenges related to the need for retro- ing successful adoption of PEVs, with all its associated fitting of homes and/or offices for charging infrastruc- environmental and sustainability benefits, must be ture. The ability to rapidly charge a PEV – within a time investigated. that is competitive to the few minutes it takes to fill up The growth of PEVs as a segment of the American vehicle market has already compelled urban planners a traditional vehicle at a gas station – is also an important consumer-related concern. and policymakers to reconsider the existing ecosys- The physical infrastructure that accommodates the tem of fuelling stations, parking lots, and municipal personal automobile in American cities has arguably electrical infrastructure. For example, a gasoline- not kept pace with the growing demand for these powered vehicle is fuelled at a separate location vehicles, particularly PEVs. The in-situ electrical equip- from where it is usually parked, whereas an PEV can ment required to recharge PEVs has yet to be installed be refueled/recharged while parked. Two core needs in many American parking lots, leaving PEV owners to of the vehicle (fuel and a place to park when not in charge their vehicles at home – provided they reside use) are thus combined for PEVs. However, knowledge in a structure with the necessary electrical infrastruc- gaps remain among both practitioners and scholars. ture installed. These critical issues have a significant Studies have explored PEV adoption factors among and direct impact on the adoption and usage of PEVs American consumers (Soltani-Sobh et al. 2017; Kim by consumers on American roadways, and it remains et al, 2014) and the optimal models for constructing unclear the degree to which local governments can PEV charging infrastructure (Dong et al. 2014; Davidov (and do) address these issues through the regulatory and Pantos 2017). However, little attention has been process. As the authors will assert here, local govern- paid in the literature to the specific actions local gov- ments have the explicit power to set and monitor ernments can take to promote PEV adoption and land-use regulations, vehicle parking lot standards, charging within their boundaries (ZEV Task Force and the rules governing the placement of critical 2018). In addition, studies that examine the govern- infrastructure including electrical systems. Thus, the ment-EV relationship through a regulatory or policy case can be made that a local government can influ - lens are also lacking in the literature of both transpor- ence, through action or inaction, the wider adoption tation planning and public policy. An exploration of and usage of PEVs by its residents and taxpayers. The this relationship – how it functions, how the parties 150 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN inform one another, and its various outcomes for the platforms (Budhia et al. 2011; Zheng et al. 2014). The broader public – is thus badly needed for this growing focus of much of this research has been in improving the performance of charging technology, ostensibly body of literature. This study undertakes such an for the benefit of manufacturers and the convenience exploration, using a chiefly qualitative approach to of consumers (who might then become more likely to understand not merely what American cities are purchase an EV). This stream of literature, while at doing to prepare their physical infrastructure for PEV times dense with patents and equations, is essential usage, but also what factors are driving their decision for our shared understanding of what PEV charging to build (or not build) such infrastructure. systems require and what the manufacturers are cap- This study explores and compares the various able of implementing as the machinery continues to methods by which several large American cities have mature. sought to prepare their communities and physical The second relevant stream of literature focuses on infrastructure to service a growing number of PEVs. the planning and siting of PEV charging stations. Previous studies, such as the one completed by While this subset of studies moves somewhat away Gomez San Roman et al. (2011), have attempted to from technical analyses and more into questions of illustrate the complex network of regulators, consu- land use and community access, it lacks the policy mers, and physical infrastructure involved in city- focus necessary to truly understand all dimensions of dwellers using PEVs, but most are technical in tone this issue. Studies in this area have thus far focused on and centred on innovations to make PEVs easier to the optimal placement of PEV charging stations based charge and cheaper to own. The policy perspectives, on electrical grid capacity (Liu et al. 2012; Zheng et al. and the regulatory frameworks necessary to influence 2013) or “environmental and economic sensitivity„ long-range building code changes that might more (Guo and Zhao 2015). However, investigations into easily accommodate PEV charging systems, remain the government’s role in planning for PEV charging missing. The literature also has little information on stations remain scarce. The authors feel it is vital for the public sector’s internal attitudes towards PEV the growth of the PEV literature to better link these adoption, and the degree to which planners’ views efficiency-focused studies to a better understanding on the environment and technology might influence of the decision-making processes in Western infra- their job performance as regulators of both transpor- structure planning, to better encapsulate how factors tation and infrastructure assets in the community. This such as energy efficiency and carrying capacity mesh study sheds light on all of these aforementioned gaps with issues of local politics and long-range regional by exploring attitudes as well as regulatory frame- planning. works related to PEVs. The findings are expected to The third stream of PEV literature, which helps to be useful to planners, energy providers, developers, close the loop with the other two, centres on examin- and PEV manufacturers, all of whom may seek to ing and evaluating the various government incentives better understand and formalise the local govern- and regulations offered by the public sector to boost ment’s role in ensuring our cities are prepared for PEV usage by consumers. Of the three streams, this the full extent of PEV adoption predicted to occur in one is the least technical and the most socially- the coming decades. focused, dominated by questions of economics, envir- onmental justice, and public policy. It is also the stream with the least amount of published academic Literature review study behind it. The critical role of public policy on The literature surrounding PEV charging technology PEV adoption has been recognised in the context of and adoption by consumers can readily be divided US (Greene et al. 2014) and Europe (Tseng et al. 2012). into a few distinct streams, three of which are relevant Narassimhan and Johnson (2018) found a strong rela- for the present work. The first stream is the robust and tionship between tax incentives, suitable charging technically centred literature on the technology of infrastructure, and PEV adoption. Most literature in PEV charging. Studies on the subject have evolved this direction, however, focuses on the role of the from general overviews a decade ago (Morrow et al. federal government in facilitating PEV adoption 2008; Botsford and Szczepanek 2009) to detailed eva- through tax rebates and other federal interventions. luations of specific technologies and delivery A summary of several studies in this direction has INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 151 been presented (Zhou et al. 2016). Specifically, federal population (according to 2017 Census Bureau data). tax credits have been shown to play a key role in The questionnaire was aimed specifically at city plan- encouraging PEV adoption, alongside High ners, transportation officials, sustainability officers, Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lane access in many places municipal utility directors, and anyone at the local (Clinton 2014; Jin et al. 2014). The role of other, non- level with firsthand knowledge of their city’s experi- federal financial incentives such as longer loan terms ences, needs, and capabilities with regard to electric and securitisation has been discussed (Dougherty and vehicle adoption, charging, and usage. Contact infor- Nigro 2014). A study of California’s state-level PEV mation for city leaders was obtained from city web- purchasing incentives, combined with the state’s sites. In some cases, when direct contact information robust public PEV charging infrastructure (Greene was not available, the departments of et al. 2020), placed a dollar value on PEV drivers’ will- Communications or Public Information or equivalent ingness to pay for vehicle charging access in that were contacted, which, in some cases were able to state. Still, deeper study of local policies is needed. route our request to the appropriate city leaders. The authors contend that there is indeed a vital role Multiple reminders were sent out in order to boost for local governments in encouraging (or at least allow- the response rate. Topics covered in the questionnaire ing for) the charging infrastructure necessary in urban included the specifics of a city’s policies regarding areas to facilitate PEV adoption by residents and public PEVs, local efforts to build and manage charging infra- agencies. Urban planners and regulators are in a unique structure, financial incentives offered to PEV consu- position to address the physical and regulatory barriers mers, and the political lessons learned by each city’s that make it difficult in many places to charge an EV, and experiences in the realm of adapting policies to better they are also arguably in a position to set and enact serve the needs of PEVs and their drivers. policies that advance goals of environmental sustainabil- Responses to the questionnaire were analysed ity, cleaner air, and broader consumer choice. By explor- using a form of axial coding, with particular attention ing the policies and practices of PEV readiness set forth paid to text indicating long-term reforms to infrastruc- by many of America’s largest cities, this work aims to ture, policy, or the management of transportation contribute to a beachhead of scholarly knowledge services. The study’s research questions focused on regarding how local governments are preparing cities policy changes over time, so the authors focused on and the built environment for a growing number of PEVs those responses that described either a long-range adopted by consumers and businesses. policy action being established in the present or a present-day outcome of a years-active policy regard- ing PEVs and their supporting infrastructure. The unit Methodology of analysis is thus the policies themselves and their This project addressed a sequence of three research outcomes (where documented by respondents). The questions: First, how have large American cities coding process generated numerous findings of note, encouraged the adoption of PEVs through regulatory and they are explored in the following section. These or economic means? Second, how have those efforts findings showcase several recurring trends in the been enacted and received over time? And third, what landscape of PEV adoption and infrastructure adapta- best practices and broader policy lessons can be tion in American cities, and each provides a clear drawn from these cities’ experiences in regulating indication of where major U.S. cities are in terms of and promoting the usage of PEVs? infrastructure preparedness and the political/regula- The authors sought to investigate policies and tory appetite for deeper adaptation. their impacts in the nation’s largest cities by popula- tion based on their assertion that larger cities would Results be reasonably more likely to have both the political incentive and financial means to promote PEV usage Of the 125 questionnaires sent to major American through formal policy. In order to capture a nationally cities, a total of 31 were returned, indicating relevant sampling of PEV policies and regulations, the a response rate of roughly 25%, which the authors authors developed a questionnaire on PEV issues and found acceptable for the purposes of this study. sent it to the 125 largest American cities by Responses were submitted from cities across the 152 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN mainland United States, with no specific pattern of contrast, cities such as St. Louis, Missouri and geographic, political, or size clustering. The authors Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania have no master plan for also found wide variety in response length and detail PEV adoption, but the city governments do pur- among the 31 participants. Some responding officials chase PEVs and AFVs as a matter of internal policy. went into generous detail about the numerous pro- At the far end of the regulatory spectrum are cities grammes and policies their communities are offering with no policies related to PEVs or AFVs at all, such in the realm of PEV adoption and adaptation, while as Arlington, Texas and Mesa, Arizona. While the others were vague or downright flip in their answers authors expected to find a broad range of city to the questionnaire. Still, several solid recurring policies regarding PEV adoption and infrastructure – themes emerged from the dataset, and the lessons indeed, the purpose of a national-scale question- derived from those themes inform the bulk of this naire was precisely to capture this diversity of poli- section. The themes are ordered in rough correspon- cies – it remains notable for its potential to inform dence to their position on the questionnaire, begin- the broader discussion over the relationship ning with internal attitudes towards PEV policies and between municipal PEV policies and those vehicles’ expanding outward into broader lessons for a national usage in American cities. audience. City efforts rely heavily on internal fleet policies rather than construction regulations Cities’ PEV policies vary widely, ranging from dense regulations to no regulation at all Our city has an alternative fuel vehicle acquisition policy in place, which replaces city vehicles with alternative-fuel Portland has adopted an Electric Vehicle Strategy with 49 vehicles wherever possible. This includes CNG, propane, specific action areas, a Green Building Policy to promote EV and electric vehicles. In 2019, the city purchased nine infrastructure in new construction, and a list of priority areas PEV’s for its fleet. for PEV charging within city limits. We are actively working with community partners to encourage the installation of — A city staffer in Santa Ana, California publicly accessible EV charging stations on private property at strategic locations in the metro area. Related to the first finding, the authors found the PEV policies in the responding cities to be notably — An official in Portland, Oregon centred around internal policies for city vehicle pur- The questionnaire’s first question, and arguably the chases rather than broader or more intensive regu- most foundational component, centred on what lations regarding construction or municipal kind of policies related to PEV adoption and usage infrastructure. Fifteen of the 31 respondents indi- are present in respondents’ local government. cated their cities had policies in place to prioritise Roughly a quarter of respondents indicated their the purchase of PEVs and AFVs for city fleets. By city had no written policies regarding PEVs, and contrast, only eight respondents (most of whom are had no plans to draft them in the near future. also in the prior group of PEV purchasers) stated Among respondents whose cities did have active that their communities have enacted any building PEV policies on the books, the specifics varied con- codes or construction regulations to require PEV siderably from place to place. Many city govern- charging infrastructure in parking areas. Salt Lake ments have internal policies to prioritise the City, for example, requires all new construction to purchase of PEVs and hybrids for city vehicle fleets, incorporate EV-ready electrical infrastructure so that while other cities address the issue of PEV charging charging stations can quickly be added at a later infrastructure by mandating and/or subsidising the date. Denver has a similar building code in force, installation of charging infrastructure in public with a particular emphasis on multifamily residential places and residential developments. For example, construction being ready for PEV charging stations the City of Seattle has an expansive plan for PEV in the future. This apparent focus on internal poli- adoption and infrastructure, with over 300 charging cies, which are arguably easier to set and manage stations throughout the region and detailed require- than long-range construction codes and regulations, ments for all new parking stalls and residential dri- was noted by the authors and will be explored in veways to be built to ‘EV-ready’ specifications. By greater depth later in this paper. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 153 Cities view PEV infrastructure as the purview of City officials are aware of the costs of PEV utility companies, but remain supportive infrastructure, have ideas for innovations Utilities in America are facing declining load demand due Our main barrier to sustainable transportation is funding. to the successful energy conservation measures of the Cities are expanding their transportation options – past three decades. PEV’s offer a great opportunity for streetcars, light rail, bike-ped, and so forth – but the revenue for utility companies, provided the charging is funding isn’t keeping up. We have to do more with done off-peak and positioned smartly on the grid. a shrinking share of the budget. Studies have shown our city’s electric utility grid can — An official in Tempe, Arizona handle a high number of PEV’s without significant grid investments. Related to the previous point, respondents in several — A senior planning official in Seattle, Washington cases noted the costs of PEV infrastructure and defended their cities’ inaction on PEV issues in economic terms – The questionnaire did not ask specifically about cities’ for example, by claiming bike-ped infrastructure was relations with their electric utility providers, but both cheaper and better utilised by the public than a number of responses described those relations in any PEV infrastructure would be. The questionnaire detail. In many cases, respondents discussed PEV char- also gave respondents the opportunity to recommend ging infrastructure as being provided (built, operated, areas of future innovation and research focus at the and in many cases funded) directly by private-sector intersection of PEV technology, infrastructure, and public utility companies operating in the region. Because policy. Respondents provided an extensive list of ideas, electricity in many of these cities is purchased from ranging from questions about fast-charging batteries for private companies, city officials contend that the gov- PEVs to the exploration of socioeconomic factors such as ernment’s role in matching PEV users with suitable shared-use PEV networks and next-generation mechan- electrical infrastructure is limited. Electricity to charge ical training for blue-collar workers. Several respondents PEVs is sold at market rates (or occasionally at a city- also urged the authors to conduct deeper policy- negotiated discount) directly to the owners of those oriented research into lowering the costs of installing vehicles. In Kansas City, Missouri, the city has no set of and operating PEV infrastructure, while at the same time policies governing PEV adoption or charging, but offi - showcasing financial incentives for potential buyers. cials have worked with the local utility provider A curious but recurring stream of thought emerged on (Kansas City Power & Light) to eventually instal 1,000 this issue among respondents, namely that the environ- PEV charging stations throughout the city. Attitudes mental case for PEV adoption has already been made for towards utility providers as leaders of installing PEV consumers and elected officials, but the consumer-scale infrastructure are generally optimistic and supportive micro-economics of PEVs have not been readily studied in this set of responses. In cities such as Raleigh, North or publicised to that same audience. Carolina, and Phoenix, Arizona, city officials are work- ing with utilities to help manage the demand for PEV charging on the electrical grid, encouraging consu- Respondents view state/federal tax incentives as mers to charge vehicles during off-peak hours. An essential to broader PEV adoption official with the City of Santa Clarita, California pointed out that PEV owners seeking to recharge Beyond the existing federal purchase incentives, we their vehicle batteries may ultimately find themselves should offer support to offset the costs of installing charging stations in homes and multi-family complexes. at the economic mercy of private utility companies We could also offer guidance, information, and tax incen- that may or may not switch to a dynamic-pricing tives for businesses converting their fleets to electric, and model as demand for EV-scale electricity rises in show developers how to safely and cheaply build ‘EV- Southern California. The electrical infrastructure ready’ parking lots for use at a later time. needed to supply power to PEV charging stations is — An official in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma generally quite expensive and complex to instal, thus giving city governments reason to allow private utility Tied to the issue of economics is the matter of tax firms to bear those costs and to recoup the invest- incentives for the purchase of PEVs, ostensibly offered ment directly from the consumers of the energy. to reduce the cost of an PEV for consumers. As of 154 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN 2019, the United States federal government offers -A city staffer in Santa Ana, California a tax credit of between 2,500 USD and 7,500 USD In describing what they perceive as the greatest obsta- per new PEV purchased in the U.S. The specific tax cles to broader PEV adoption in their cities, respondents credit varies based on the vehicle purchased. In addi- listed several specific factors that engineers and policy- tion, several individual states offer supplemental tax makers have the power to investigate and address over credits and additional non-financial incentives (such time. Common factors include battery capacity (the time as waived inspections and complimentary access to an PEV can operate between charging events), battery carpool lanes) to consumers purchasing an EV. These material and electrical grid improvements (so PEVs can tax incentives can significantly reduce the initial costs be charged more rapidly and in more locations), afford - of purchasing an EV, and are thus a visible and power- ability (particularly for lower-income city-dwellers), and ful tool in advancing PEV adoption nationwide. The a broader catalogue of electric vehicles. Several respon- questionnaire asked respondents what state or fed- dents expressed a desire to see electrically-powered eral policies would help the most in increasing PEV utility trucks, emergency service vehicles, taxis, and tran- usage in their city, and virtually all respondents men- sit vehicles, rather than just personal automobiles. To tioned the tax credit system as integral to achieving address these, respondents recommend specific fixes that goal. In many cases, respondents made the case from a technical as well as a policy perspective. To put for increasing the tax credit across the board, or more electric-powered service vehicles on the road, boosting the credit for lower-income buyers specifi - a few respondents suggested broadening the federal cally. Others argued for increasing the state and fed- grant programmes used by cities to purchase fire eral gasoline tax with the twin goals of raising short- engines and transit vehicles to more explicitly cover term capital to fund PEV infrastructure and tax credits electric versions of those vehicles, which would opti- alongside a long-term goal of reducing demand for mally spur development of cheaper and more effective gasoline-powered vehicles over time. Geographically, versions going forward. For lower-income residents, city the strongest proponents of increased tax credits employees recommend a mix of incentives and were in the Western United States, where existing a shared-use model of PEVs. This latter idea was particu- state tax credits for PEV purchases are already visible larly popular among respondents, but evidence of local to consumers. Proponents of increased state and fed- governments having success with such programmes is eral fuel taxes were dispersed roughly equally across lacking. Improving battery capacity and charging station the United States, with no discernible clustering in availability would aid the public image of PEVs and states with lower state fuel tax rates. Respondents reduce discrete demand during charging events, but also made the case for adding new incentives to would also address a concept that emerged repeatedly help developers and homeowners reduce the costs throughout the questionnaires: Crowding at charging of installing PEV infrastructure on their property and stations due to ‘range anxiety.’ This concept, loosely prepare more ‘raceway’ conduit for future PEV usage. defined, refers to the tendency of some PEV drivers to Respondents here saw a clear and robust role for state underestimate their vehicle’s remaining electric charge and federal governments, and perceived the main while driving. This supposed anxiety is said to lead many power of those governments to be that of financial PEV drivers to plug in their vehicle for charging long heft and consumer-friendly tax incentives to grow before it truly needs it, which several respondents demand for PEVs over time. claimed can lead to congestion at public charging sta- tions. and something that must be overcome through education and/or direct financial costs that compel PEV Respondents list a range of obstacles to broader drivers not to recharge their vehicles until truly needed. PEV adoption, but have solutions in mind One respondent further commented that consumer mis- understandings about range anxiety are likely deterring Battery capacity and efficiency play a key role in consu- some consumers from buying PEVs, reinforcing the call mer adoption of PEVs. Range anxiety is a real thing, and for more education. The range of obstacles listed in the it’s doing great harm to PEV sales. Increasing their usable range while increasing performance characteristics questionnaire responses, and the depth of participants’ would surely increase interest among younger knowledge on the issue, reflects a growing technical and consumers. policy understanding of PEVs in American cities. Many INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 155 respondents used detailed technical terminology (such incentives and public charging infrastructure) as well as range anxiety, raceways, and state of charge) in as from a consumer perspective (for example, ques- describing PEVs and charging infrastructure, while tions of how lower-income families might have access a few wrote in only general terms about electric vehicles. to PEV technology, as well as PEV owners’ willingness The authors did not expect such a detailed knowledge of to pay for electricity to charge their vehicles). As elec- PEVs among elected officials and generalist urban plan- tric vehicles mature and become more mainstream in ners, and found the suggested policy solutions the coming decade, it is recommended to analyse a colourful addition to this analysis. how transportation policies in major US cities have evolved over time in response. Given the slow rise of PEV adoption among Discussion American consumers, as well as the uneven ways in These findings indicate a broad diversity of policy with which major American cities are adding PEV infra- regard to PEV adoption and infrastructure in American structure, it remains unclear just how influential city- cities. By allowing each respondent to describe not only level policies can be on PEV adoption by consumers their community’s EV-related policies but also their ori- and businesses living in those cities. This study docu- gins and outcomes, the authors were able to capture the mented several ways in which individual govern- broader story of how these communities are grappling ments are advancing political and environmental with the changes related to PEV usage by consumers, goals through PEV infrastructure and incentives, but businesses, and government agencies. While this study deeper study is needed regarding the degree to did not incorporate an element of policy evolution or which an EV-supportive (or an EV-sceptical) city gov- time-series progression simply because of how nascent ernment influences residents to buy an PEV rather this technology is, it is evident from the analysis that than an AFV or gasoline-powered automobile. It is many of these policymakers are already conceptualising also not evident just how much power local govern- the future of PEVs on their own streets, with or without ments have to launch structured tax incentives or any broader guidance from industry or elected officials. shared-use PEV programmes, and the authors encou- Planners and policymakers (at least in the cities where rage deeper study on this topic. Still, the study PEV policies have been proposed or enacted) seem to remains highly relevant to those seeking to under- the authors to be committed to the long-range goals of stand local governments’ preparations and regula- PEV adoption. Their questionnaire responses often rely tions for PEV infrastructure. It also represents on long-term language, and one gets the distinct a colourful glance into how several communities are impression of two forces at work: First, that many policy- working with utility providers, tax regulators, and the makers are aware of PEVs’ present novelty and slow building-code process to prepare their cities for adoption, and second, that these officials are willing to a wider national adoption of PEV technology that, in wait a long time for PEVs to become widespread enough their eyes, is soon to come. to justify their cities’ investments on PEV-related infra- structure. The questionnaire gave respondents the opportunity to expound on what they wish their city Conclusion had done earlier with regard to electrical infrastructure for transportation, and well over half of the respondents The results presented in this study represent one exam- clearly stated a wish that their city government had ination of the state of PEV adoption and infrastructure installed this infrastructure sooner, as it might have policies in America’s largest cities. While a number of spurred quicker adoption of PEVs by area consumers. questionnaires were completed by representatives of The authors were intrigued by this optimism among several cities, much work remains to be done in truly policymakers, and were also surprised to observe the capturing the spirit and scope of EV-related local gov- technical knowledge of respondents, many of whom ernment actions. This is arguably pressing, given the rate wrote with clarity about specific technical components at which policies will need to adapt to coming changes. of PEV mechanics and charging. The expected growth in PEV usage among American The authors recommend deeper study into the consumers is sure to be a key motivator in reforming economics of PEV adoption and infrastructure, both the nation’s building codes, electrical infrastructure, from a government perspective (for example, parking regulations, and financial incentives packages 156 J. WOOD AND A. JAIN for vehicle purchase. This growth also represents a new to do so would likely have to work directly on challenge for infrastructure finance, as declining fuel tax a pilot project involving a local government as revenues will be further impacted by a broader shift to well as a manufacturer of PEVs. Still, the potential electric vehicles. Regulators may need to formulate an for a shared pool of PEVs for on-demand transpor- alternative model of taxation/registration that captures tation is a captivating idea to reduce the owner- revenue from PEVs as a parallel to fuel tax revenues from ship costs of PEVs while also providing vulnerable gasoline-powered vehicles. PEVs as an enduring compo- populations with a zero-emission means of nent of American automobility is a relatively young transportation. concept, and regulations and building codes on the The authors also encourage the scientific commu- subject will arguably take time to mature. nity and the nation’s urban policymakers to continue to The PEV literature, in all its streams and techni- work together in order to develop flexible best prac- cal or policy directions, is growing but still largely tices that can be adapted to virtually any cityscape unwritten. A tremendous amount of additional contending with PEV adoption. At present, PEV adop- study is needed in order to fully flesh out the tion varies considerably across regions in the United various angles and issues of this topic area. This States, and much of the work being done on best study constitutes one small contribution to that practices and infrastructure adaptation is being con- broader goal. In the course of analysing question- ducted within those regions with a large volume of PEV naire responses and cataloguing ideas for future ownership. This leads to asymmetries in both policy research, the authors documented a few key con- preparation and electrification adaptations that will, in cepts ripe for deeper study at a later point, and the short term, pose an obstacle to truly national-scale these are presented here for the benefit of other best practices. These asymmetries also impacted ques- scholars. The authors also wish to point out that tionnaire responses in this study, and are arguably many of the boldest research ideas came directly a limitation of this work but still instructional for future from the audience of practitioners. First and most studies on the topic. The authors anticipate a greater pressing is the need for deeper technical study into degree of friction (chiefly motivated by financial con- the time and usage aspects of PEV charging sys- cerns) between cities and utility providers with regard tems. For example, innovators must work towards to PEV charging infrastructure. As it stands, many of the fast-charging technology, so that PEVs can be cities investigated in this study rely on utility compa- recharged more expeditiously in public places. At nies to provide public charging stations at virtually no the same time, social scientists must do more to cost to the consumer. As more and more PEVs enter the investigate and ameliorate ‘range anxiety’ among nation’s roadways, and demand for this accessible and PEV users, given its potential to deter potential PEV ‘free’ electricity grows, cities and utility providers will be customers from purchasing an electric vehicle. faced with the dilemma of how best to set a reasonable Many city officials also expressed a desire to see price for public charging infrastructure that formerly more research and creativity in the area of electri- cost PEV drivers nothing. The potential role of private cally-powered service vehicles, such as fire engines players such as parking garages offering PEV charging and delivery trucks. Given those vehicles’ size, at no or reduced cost as an incentive to use their expense, and capacity to pollute with diesel services is also worthy of investigation. The role of engines, efforts to electrify those vehicle fleets utility providers in setting policy is also an area that, will arguably lead to cleaner air in the same way while not explored in depth in this study, deserves PEVs for personal autos would. One final area of richer exploration as PEV adoption grows nationally deeper research recommended by this study is that and local governments adapt to them. There must of PEV accessibility for lower-income consumers. also be more explicit and detailed guidelines on uni- Several respondents described the concept of an versal building codes for PEV infrastructure in the con- ‘electric carshare’ programme as being ideal in this struction industry. While only a handful of places in the situation, as it would likely require far less financial US require newly-constructed dwellings to have EV- investment on the part of individual drivers than ready electrical infrastructure in place, the sooner the buying a single PEV. Studying and implementing nation’s homebuilders can develop safe and affordable such a concept would be a complex undertaking best practices for installation and maintenance of such from a research perspective, and a scholar wishing infrastructure, the easier it will be to adapt structures in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 157 other parts of the nation at a later date. Another factor (2007) and M.S. (2003) in Mechanical Engineering from Stanford University, where he received the Stanford Graduate in the area of vehicle energy and infrastructure is the Fellowship (SGF) and his B.Tech. (2001) in Mechanical decline in fuel tax revenues, which will continue to Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi cause a decrease in available funding for road construc- with the highest GPA among the class of Mechanical tion and maintenance as vehicles grow more fuel- Engineering. He has published more than 80 journal articles on efficient. Furthermore, as PEV adoption grows, regula- topics including thermal engineering of Li-ion cells. In addition to the engineering of batteries, he has an interest in sustain- tors will need to formulate fuel-tax alternatives that can ability issues related to Li-ion batteries and electric vehicles. be applied to drivers who operate vehicles that do not consume gasoline. As interest in PEVs continues to grow in American cities, the literature on the subject ORCID will no doubt mature and diversify, and the authors Ankur Jain http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5573-0674 look forward to ways in which new knowledge can contribute to a cleaner transportation system. References BeardKW. 2019. Linden’s handbook of batteries. 5th ed. New Acknowledgements York, NY: McGraw-Hill Eduction The authors wish to thank the Center for Transportation Equity, Botsford C, Szczepanek A 2009. 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Journal

International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development – Taylor & Francis

Published: May 4, 2021

Keywords: Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs); transportation policy; electrification; infrastructure; city planning

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