Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: URBAN BLUE SPACE INFRASTRUCTURE INITIATIVES IN PLYMOUTH (UK)

GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: URBAN BLUE SPACE INFRASTRUCTURE... INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021, VOL. 13, NO. 2, 279–296 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2021.1885038 ARTICLE GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: URBAN BLUE SPACE INFRASTRUCTURE INITIATIVES IN PLYMOUTH (UK) a b b c,d Evelyn A Adade , Lewis R Elliott , Lora E Fleming and Susanne Wuijts a b MSc Sustainable Development, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK; European Centre for Environment and Human Health (ECEHH), University of Exeter Medical School, Truro, UK; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Utrecht University, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht, The Netherlands ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 17 December 2019 Building on evidence of the links between bluespace and public health, this study Accepted 31 January 2021 explores the governance of bluespace infrastructure to promote human health and well-being in Plymouth (UK). Using in-depth retrospective interviews and document KEYWORDS analysis, this study focused on the role of governance in urban planning and devel- Water governance; opment, specifically, the implementation phase of a bluespace infrastructure inter- implementation; urban vention. A deductive qualitative approach categorised content into themes related to infrastructure; global change pre-established water governance frameworks. Key findings from this study empha- sise: the importance of health and welfare concerns around blue spaces as an incentive to getting started; collaborative stakeholder participation and engagement; the necessity of adequate funding; and the importance of continued monitoring and maintenance of urban blue space infrastructure. Based on reflective accounts of stakeholder experiences, the successes of the implementation process of the rede- velopment are highlighted. More successful and sustainable bluespace interventions can be realised through ongoing considerations of effective water governance. 1. Introduction and sanitation for all (SDG 6) (United Nations General Assembly 2015). Research on the relationship between green and blue Cities and towns offer opportunities for governing, spaces and health is receiving increasing attention. In allocating and utilising natural resources, even in the particular, blue space (e.g. lakes, canals, rivers, coastal, midst of uncertain environmental risks and limitations etc.) as a public health resource is now being evalu- on available natural resources (Keivani 2010; Koop ated for its potential benefits, as well as potential risks, et al. 2017). Although urban projects are dependent for human health and well-being (White et al. 2020). on the priorities of city authorities, urban planning Qualitative and quantitative systematic reviews of and development require an interdisciplinary and existing studies have highlighted that interactions trans-sectoral approach since any significant changes around blue space produce restorative effects that will affect the social, environmental, economic, and help reduce stress and promote good mental health cultural dimensions of sustainability (Wessells 2011). and physical activities (Völker and Kistemann 2011; The World Health Organisation (WHO) describes the Gascon et al. 2017). Especially in an urban environ- determinants of health as ‘the range of personal, social, ment, blue infrastructures may be an important con- economic and environmental factors which determine tributor to the UN Sustainable Development Goals the health status of individuals or populations’ (World (SDGs) related to ensuring healthy lives and promot- Health Organisation 1998). Hence, advanced strate- ing well-being for all at all ages (SDG 3) and ensuring gies, policies, and projects developed and initiated the availability and sustainable management of water CONTACT Lewis Elliott L.R.Elliott@exeter.ac.uk European Centre for Environment and Human Health, c/o Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, United Kingdom © 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 280 E. A. ADADE ET AL. in cities should seek the co-benefits of both the deter- strategies concerning urban blue infrastructure in minants of health and the determinants of environ- coastal urban areas with relatively deprived popula- mental sustainability for solving environmental issues tions, and their effects on the health and well-being of (de Oliveira et al. 2013). the urban populace within the context of England. More recently, there is increasing interest in the The study city, Plymouth, is among the 30% most relationship between urban water management and deprived local authority districts in England (Public promoting health for urban planning and develop- Health 2016). Further, this study explores the weak- ment, particularly around the quantification of its nesses and strengths in how urban planning and effectiveness (Rietveld et al. 2016). How urban institu- development strategies in the case study contribute tions and authorities develop, plan and implement to creating places for social cohesion among indivi- policy initiatives can both encourage and obstruct duals, and promotes their health and well-being. In so how people access and enjoy blue space infrastruc- doing, it adds support for the usefulness of applying tures (Völker and Kistemann 2011). Although climate water governance frameworks to urban blue space change and extreme events raise serious concerns for infrastructure developments whose primary aim is to health, the management of the natural environment foster good health and wellbeing (e.g. Wuijts et al. is identified as a vital moderating driver to realising 2020). more urban blue space infrastructures which aim to This paper capitalises on a specific intervention promote health and well-being (Figure 1) (Grellier conducted as part of the H2020 BlueHealth project et al. 2017). The aim of this study is to explore and (Grellier et al. 2017) to explore conditions for effective gain deeper knowledge of how conditions of govern- urban blue space governance in Plymouth, UK. It aims ance contribute to the creation of urban blue space to highlight conditions of governance that contribute infrastructures that promote good human health and to realise sustainable and strategic blue space inter- well-being. ventions that contribute to health and well-being. Given the continued and increasing global envir- Thus, the conditions of governance are defined in onmental and anthropogenic risks facing cities this study as: the requirements that are necessary in (Bogardi et al. 2012; Diffenbaugh et al. 2015; OECD a governance strategy to create healthy blue spaces. 2015), this study is significant. This study contributes While the aim of this study was to document the to providing a deeper understanding of governance governance situation in Plymouth broadly and not Figure 1. The mediating and moderating factors under investigation in the BlueHealth project. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 281 to presuppose particular issues of contestability, we Pahl-Wostl et al. 2010). An interdisciplinary framework appreciate that given the involvement of stakeholders is useful to assess the management of complex sys- in the specific BlueHealth intervention (Bell et al. tems and resources, even though policy solutions do 2020) which involved complex stakeholder interac- not always succeed and there is no one-size-fits-all tion and funding arrangements, that these aspects approach (Adger et al. 2003; Ostrom 2010; OECD of governance may arise as particularly salient and/ 2015; Woodhouse and Muller 2017). or contestable. Specifically in the UK context, overall water policies The study explores: (a) which governance condi- emphasise inclusive governance, water quality objec- tions contribute to realising sustainable urban blue tives, reduction in pollution of rivers, and a policy space initiatives in Plymouth? and (b) to what extent environment with governance moving from are these governance conditions integrated in urban a unitary state to governance through and by net- planning and the development of blue space infra- works (i.e. polycentric governance) (OECD 2014). It is structures in Plymouth city? also important to note that as of 1989 in England and Wales, the provision of water and wastewater services was moved from the public to the private sector 1.1. Water and health (Martin 2017). Therefore, the governance of urban There is growing evidence of greater well-being and blue space infrastructure redevelopments depends mental health improvements when time is spent near on the integration of the past and present histories water (e.g., rivers or beaches) for recreational use in of the location, diverse aims and objectives of stake- both urban and rural settings (Gascon et al. 2017). holders, and opinions of communities and localities Nevertheless, when water quality is not well- (Hoyle 2000). regulated, it can contribute to gastrointestinal and other diseases affecting the physical and mental well- 2. Analytical frameworks of water being of users (Rietveld et al. 2016). governance The quality of blue spaces for swimming, exercis- ing, refreshing, or resting can be disturbed by nega- This study used the framework for sustainable water tive water characteristics (e.g. surface and sewage governance of Van Rijswick et al. (2014) selected from runoffs, etc.), and consequently, can threaten the various analytical frameworks on governance strate- health of users (Schets 2011). Thus, the users of water- gies for managing water safety, quality, and quantity related ecosystems (e.g. lakes, canals, rivers, coastal, for its ability to specifically address the implementa- wetlands, aquifers, beaches, etc.) can enjoy the bene- tion phase of policy interventions (Gober et al. 2011; fits and services associated with this blue infrastruc- Pahl-Wostl et al. 2012; Van Rijswick et al. 2014; OECD ture only if they are managed well and sustainably 2015). Conceptually, it is based on economics, law, (UN- public administration, and water system analysis and Water 2018b 2019). In the face of climate and envir- therefore has theoretical underpinnings concerning onmental changes, the management and mainte- organisational processes. The framework for sustain- nance of available resources to promote sustainable able water governance is composed of 10 interdepen- health and well-being of urban population are vital dent ‘building blocks’ which explore diverse elements (Rietveld et al. 2016). of governance within the dimensions of content, organisation, and implementation (presented in Figure 2). All these elements are tested against the 1.2. Water governance in the UK context objectives aimed for in the governance strategy, using The objective of the EU Water Framework Directive a set of standardised questions developed by Van (WFD, 2000/60/EC) to ensure ‘good’ water quality for Rijswick et al. (2014) and tailored to water quality the water-related ecosystems through different governance by Wuijts et al. (2020). The availability of actors’ involvement has led to the development of these elements in a governance strategy creates several frameworks for analysis. Among these frame- a system that is prepared and resilient for any unfore- works are the Social-Ecological System framework seen risks. (SESF) by (Ostrom 2009) and the Management and A continuous participatory consultation process Transition Framework (MTF) by (Pahl-Wostl 2009; between diverse stakeholders draws out interests, 282 E. A. ADADE ET AL. 1. Water System Knowledge Content 2. Values, Principles, Policy Discourses 3. Stakeholders Involvement 4. Trade-offs between Social Objectives Assessment of Organisation Water Management 5. Responsibility, Authority, Means and Governance 6. Regulations and Agreements 7. Financial arrangements 8. Engineering and Monitoring Implementation 9. Enforcement 10. Conflict Prevention and Resolution Figure 2. Outline of the multiple dimensions of water management and governance. Source: .Van Rijswick et al. (2014) opinions, values, histories, and the framing of social interdisciplinary aspect of this selected analytical fra- and institutional aspects in water governance mework (which emphasises legal, economic, engi- (Antunes et al. 2009). Also, the measuring and mon- neering, and health domains of water governance) itoring of performance against the service-level agree- allows for the identification of the successes, ments (SLAs) of every structure provide the ability to strengths and weaknesses in the phenomenon trace where improvements are needed (Van Rijswick under study. et al. 2014). Thus, the municipal objective to marry blue and green space design with the interests of the community is relevant to this study. 3. Materials and methods The efficiency, effectiveness, and legitimacy of Prior to collecting the research data, formal ethical water management and governance are dependent approval (eCORN001924) was obtained from the on the ability of a laid out structure to achieve agreed University of Exeter College of Life and Environmental goals, whilst managing any conflicts that may arise Sciences Research Ethics Committee. No personal during the planning through to the implementation details of interviewees were collected in this study. phases (Van Rijswick et al. 2014). This must also take into account the maintenance or risk reduction of an infrastructure built for all users of the ecosystem, safe- 3.1. Plymouth case study setting guarding the integrity principle of a system (Wiek and Larson 2012). Adaptive governance, which facilitates Plymouth City is surrounded by Tamar, Tavy, and Lynher continuous monitoring and flexible learning from Rivers and the Plymouth Sound, and is situated in Devon experiences and feedback, is a necessary condition in the South West of England (see Figure 3). Plymouth for the effective implementation of policies (Pahl- now has a population of greater than 256,000 (Uncles Wostl et al. 2012; Green et al. 2013). In particular, the and Torres 2013; Lambert 2015) with a population INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 283 Figure 3. Geographical location of Plymouth (UK) and its surrounding rivers. The European Environment Agency 2016 with study site, Teats Hill, indicated (*) and insert photo of the restoration. density of ca. 3,300/km (8,500/sq mi). Originally, in 2013 adopted a subsidy strategy to support a fishing community and grounded in maritime culture, low-income earners and motivate the population 33% of its coastline consist of built infrastructure to sustainably reduce their (potentially polluted) (Knights et al. 2016; Plymouth Population 2019). surface water drainage, which finds its way into The Plymouth study site, Teats Hill, is a waterside local water bodies (South West Water n.d; Walker area situated east of Plymouth city (Figure 3) and is 2009). home to about 6,035 people (Plymouth Community Historically, Plymouth City Council have conducted Homes n.d; Waddington 2017). The overall score of projects which aim to mitigate the effects of socio- the Index of Multiple Deprivation 2010 (IMD 2010) economic deprivation on poor health through nature- rd shows that this area of Plymouth is the 3 most based means. For example, Richardson et al. (2013) deprived neighbourhood of the city (Public Health describe the application of a Health Impact PCC 2014). According to the 2016 Plymouth Public Assessment approach to a greenspace project of the Health report, Plymouth City as a whole experiences council’s and how it had the potential to provide significantly lower life expectancy in comparison with health benefits to residents of a deprived area England for both males and females. To attempt to through increased physical activity, as well as mental address this, Plymouth City Council has laid down and social well-being. The present study draws on strategies and programmes to promote the health a similar recent attempt (Bell et al. 2020) by recruiting and well-being of all population age groups, including interviewees who had been directly involved in it. The through active outdoor activities (PCC 2017-2018; Bell longevity of Plymouth City Council’s efforts in this et al. 2020). regard reflect a long-standing way of working and More recently, Plymouth has experienced sig- collaborating with multiple stakeholders (e.g. acade- nificant changes in the management of water mia, wildlife trusts, public health bodies, and local resources to meet increasing population demands NGOs) to evidence the wide-ranging health effects (Pooley 2017). In particular, the local government of their initiatives. 284 E. A. ADADE ET AL. 3.2. Study design questions were tailored and asked to aid the parti- cipants in reflecting on the planning and imple- To explore which governance conditions contribute mentation of the redevelopment project to to realising sustainable urban blue space initiatives promote human health and well-being. At several and how these conditions are incorporated in urban stages during these interviews, the researchers planning and development in Plymouth, evaluated the level of additional information a retrospective study was undertaken using obtained in the interviews in order to assess a qualitative approach (i.e. in-depth interviews and when a sufficient level of saturation had been document analysis). achieved and interviews provided little additional information. 3.3 Sampling procedure for interviews 3.5. Document analysis method A purposive, snowball, sampling procedure was used to reach out to key stakeholders. Members of the The responses from the stakeholder interviews H2020 BlueHealth consortium were purposely chosen were substantiated with a review of policy docu- since they were also involved in stakeholder consulta- ments, project application reports, project summa- tions. They were identified as having research exper- ries, Plymouth ‘vision’ statements, and annual tise in how urban blue space infrastructure can reports from the Plymouth City Council. Annual promote health and well-being, as well as being reports from the Plymouth City Council and the involved in the Teats Hill redevelopment project H2020 BlueHealth project were examined and sub- (Bell et al. 2020). sequently followed up with additional interviews. Other key stakeholders from Devon Wildlife Trust, Annual reports examined included the Active National Marine Aquarium, the Environment Agency, Neighbourhood report, and the Plymouth City and the Public Health and Natural Infrastructure Council (PCC) 2017-2018 annual report. Reviewing teams of the Plymouth City Council were then con- these annual documents led to two further key tacted through the recommendations of the H2020 stakeholders being contacted as interview partici- BlueHealth project team. In total, ten (10) key stake- pants. Reports prepared by the Plymouth City holders of different groups were interviewed for this authorities (between 2013 and 2019) and academic study. research papers accessed and examined were used For transparency, Plymouth City Council over- to identify the integration of the governance con- saw the entire redevelopment of Teats Hill from ditions in the Teat’s Hill redevelopment project and its conception as a potential intervention site, the wider Plymouth City policies. Both methods through to its ongoing maintenance long after (interviews and document analysis) were triangu- the proposed redevelopments took place. They lated (Figure 4) to achieve the overarching aim of approached the BlueHealth project team to: (a) the research by exploring the conditions for gov- evaluate its effects on the health and wellbeing erning blue space infrastructure in Plymouth (UK). of the local community and (b) provide landscape architecture expertise at no cost to facilitate parti- 3.6 Qualitative analysis methods cular aspects of the site’s redevelopment (e.g. a small open air theatre; Bell et al. 2020). Audio–recorded interviews were transcribed with Microsoft Word and manually corrected. NVivo 12 software was used to code and categorise all inter- 3.4 Semi-structured interview method view transcripts into nodes and themes, and attribu- The interview questions were developed from the ted to the building blocks of the framework for framework for sustainable water governance (Van sustainable water governance (Van Rijswick et al. Rijswick et al. 2014) to map the perspectives of 2014). All classification of content into themes was these stakeholders regarding their level of involve- performed by the first author. Similarly, documents ment, values and interests, and responsibilities, as were content analysed into the same nodes and well as their involvement in the implementation of themes. The analysis therefore followed a deductive the redevelopment at Teats Hill. Open interview approach (grounded theory) directed by the chosen INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 285 Analytical framework Face-to-face (Van Rijswick et. al. Literature reviews interviews 2014) Additional Strengths and Document Analysis interviews weaknesses Recomendations Figure 4. Outline of processes and method used to tackle research questions. analytical framework to summarise data and develop as a whole. For example, the rubbish (large amount of themes that address the study questions (Gale et al. dog waste, plastic bags, and broken glass) collected at 2013; Mihas 2019, May 23). the Teats Hill beach was an indicator that the local people were disconnected from the site in the way that the site was being used. 4. Results ‘Urban planners and developers should view good quality 4.1. Which governance conditions contribute to green and blue space in the light of the ‘broken window theory’ around health inequalities. I think of it as realising sustainable urban blue space initiatives a snowball that rolls down. I think it’s like that with green in Plymouth? spaces if they are maintained and they feel safe, people use them. If they look like they’ve just been abandoned and Questions asked during the interviews with the stake- nobody cares about them then people start to get afraid of holders explored the conditions of governance them and don’t want to use it’. (Participant C) towards realising more sustainable blue space infra- structure in Plymouth. The outlined conditions were The accumulation of plastic and other litter and Teats repeated and confirmed by all participants who took Hill as an indicator of deprivation influenced the selec- part in the interview. Results based on identified tion of the location for the redevelopment project. themes from the dimensions of the analytical frame- ‘Teat’s Hill was in poor condition, had no signage and a bad work are presented below (Table 1), and then further reputation with rubbish being washed into it, although, it described and illustrated. sits next to the National Marine Aquarium and on Devon Coast Path. If the regeneration had not happened at Teat’s Hill, it would not have occurred to the City Council to do 4.1.1. Health and welfare concerns anything in that part of the city’. (Participant K) During the interviews, the participants emphasised the importance of the public health team from the The Teats Hill site is connected to the broader municipality being involved in the planning of all Plymouth sewage system and there is a new waste- urban blue space infrastructures. This is due to welfare water treatment plant not far from the site. This plant concerns (e.g. quality, accessibility and safety), which has no known influence on the actual water quality at can impact on human health and on the environment the Teats Hill site. Nevertheless, the Plymouth city 286 E. A. ADADE ET AL. Table 1. Outline of governance conditions identified in the Teat’s Hill blue space redevelopment in Plymouth City clustered by the dimensions of the analytical framework. Building Blocks Water Revealed by Found in the policy document Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure interviewees review Content *Health and welfare concerns *Health and environmental focus in all planning. Water System Knowledge *Integration of range of objectives, histories and vested interest in the site. Values, Principles, Policy Discourse Organisation *Engaging stakeholders beyond existing contacts. *Early consultations and engagement *Continued consultation and feedbacks to community. Stakeholders Involvement Trade-offs *Common vision between social *The preparedness to compromise designs. objectives *Clearly defined roles and responsibilities. Responsibility, Authority and Means *Driven by existing vision Regulations and Agreements *Funding and landownership concerns Financial Arrangements (Continued) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 287 Table 1. (Continued). Building Blocks Water Revealed by Found in the policy document Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure interviewees review Implementation *Adaptive learning *Practicality and functionality of the redevelopment *continued monitoring and maintenance with various groups Engineering and Monitoring *All risks accounted for during implementation *Communication of results with the stakeholders and the wider community Enforcement *Compromise reached through common vision Conflict Prevention and Resolution 288 E. A. ADADE ET AL. authorities were also concerned about the potential Even though the different parties’ involvement was impacts of sanitation and water on human health and slightly hierarchical, all discussions were quite inclu- well-being, and on the immediate environment. sive since all these parties had vested interests in the site. The Teats Hill redevelopment saw different sta- ‘The health and safety of humans and the environment are keholders come together to achieve the aim of paramount because if the waters die, we have half of our improving the health and well-being of a local socio- economies gone. For Plymouth, we pride ourselves as being the “Ocean City”; and the city needs to have that connec- economically deprived community and environment. tion with its blue space’. (Participant M) 4.1.3. Funding and land ownership Financial resources are crucial to getting the project 4.1.2. Early stakeholders involvement started and engaging stakeholders. The Plymouth The various stakeholders for the Teats Hill redevelop- City Council through the Heritage Lottery Fund and ment were accessed and selected through Plymouth Plymouth Section 106 developer contribution City Council existing networks and through the Port of funded the improvements at the site (plymouth. Plymouth Marine Liaison Committee, which brings gov.uk). The H2020 BlueHealth Project had funding together different users and those who live and from the European Commission to install an work in the local area. amphitheatre at the site after a consultative process by BlueHealth landscape architect researchers with ‘To get started in developing blue space interventions, I would say working with a range of partners (don’t work the local community and other stakeholders (Bell with the usual suspects, try and find new partners). It’s et al. 2020). The requirement of the funders, time really important to engage not with the usual suspects’. scale and budget established the focus of the rede- (Participant Z) velopment and the choice of the location of the Each stakeholder meeting had an agenda with actions Teat’s Hill project. The majority of interviewees clas- agreed on, and constant follow up on agreed tasks sified the funding and the land ownership as very and responsibilities for successive meetings (though necessary if more blue space infrastructure loca- this was normally informal). During the planning stage tions in Plymouth are to be envisaged and realised. of the redevelopment, stakeholder meetings were ‘The main thing that drove the choice of Teats Hill was the frequently held (monthly), and then less frequently funders: the Big Lottery Fund outlined 5 particular areas of (quarterly) after the implementation stage. Plymouth which were particularly suffering from social- economic deprivation and their related health effects. So ‘I remember we brought stakeholders together in one room Teat’s Hill, is a socially, economically deprived area of to discuss the improvements, there was a dialogue as we Plymouth and we wanted to invest the funding to improve tried reaching consensus about what’s possible, go through the health of the poorest people in society. And also, the options and finally reach agreement. There were also BlueHealth came in to say that, they can give us plenty of site visits, talks about what was possible, the heritage extra funding, landscape architecture and design work for features to keep, engineering perspective, money available, evaluation, so it was a fruitful collaboration’. (Participant J) and to have regard for health and safety impact’. (Participant Z) The Teats Hill site has multiple-ownership, but is broadly managed by Plymouth City Council. Most importantly, through the stakeholder partner- Locations with multiple landowners tend to constrain ship meetings, individuals and organisations were projects if they are less willing to accept changes and able to sufficiently contribute their views, ideas and are not buying into similar projects. questions on the redevelopment design. All partici- pants reiterated that urban planning should embrace ‘We had to reach a compromise since the landowners cross-sectoral collaboration with a range of partners weren’t willing to put sufficient money into putting the slipway back to how it was. Therefore, we had to find who have much detailed knowledge than an a more friendly solution (viewing platform now) to deal individual. with any conflict of interest. To be in agreement in terms of land ownership was important to me’. (Participant K) ‘Well, I wouldn’t take credit but, I must say that we can use Teat’s Hill as an example of how different agencies, orga- Statutory powers are often required to speed up nizations, and stakeholders come together to work to get improvements that will promote the health and well- a lovely space for the community to share communion’. (Participant M) being of populations: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 289 ‘Although there were different available sites to achieve the organisations such as Plymouth Community Homes same aim which had a mixture of land owners, it would (who manage social housing near the site) and the have been difficult to achieve the redevelopment within the National Marine Aquarium (situated next to the site) time constraints set by funders’. (Participant Z) to build their interest in the continued maintenance of the project. 4.1.4. Community consultation and feedbacks ‘One of the things that is part of the Strategic planning and Interview participants commented on the necessity of infrastructure environmental planning division’s work is to frequent and ongoing engagement with the commu- deliver capital improvements to sites by working together nities to get these communities to accept and buy with the local community. We go out to ask people what into the intervention. As mentioned in the interview, it they would like to see on the site and support them to deliver those improvements’. (Participant Z) is important to ‘build local community-driven designs’. Through a wide group of local stakeholders (e.g. Thus, by working with other groups, creative ways to National Marine Aquarium and Plymouth maintain the quality and good conditions at the Teats Community Homes), tree plantings, clean-ups and Hill site will be ensured into the future. fun days were organised at the site to engage resi- dents, families and visitors to share their views of the redevelopment. 4.2. To what extent are these governance ‘When designing the improvement, we were looking at conditions integrated in urban planning and the robust things. In the Marine environment, you need to development of blue space infrastructures in consider those things which aren’t going to rust or fall Plymouth city? apart. By working with organizations that are still there (for example, Plymouth Community Homes and National Policy documents and reports obtained online were Marine Aquarium), the idea was to build their best interest analysed to address the question of integration into so they will continue to be the eyes and ears of the site. You have to start with getting people to understand where they urban planning and the development of Plymouth live, else they will never be ready to protect it’. (Participant City. Documents accessed for analysis included the Z) Heritage Lottery Fund project application report, PCC Health and Well-being topic paper, PCC Natural Environment topic paper, PCC Infrastructure, and 4.1.5. Continued monitoring and maintenance Investment topic paper, and the Plymouth and South Natural environment infrastructures in Plymouth are West Devon Joint Local Plan (www.plymouth.gov.uk). managed and maintained by the Plymouth City Council. The operational team within the Council cares for the blue and green spaces around 4.2.1. Health and well-being priority in all policies Plymouth to ensure good standards and conditions To ensure a thriving city for all populations, the of the spaces. The redevelopment of Teats Hill has Plymouth Plan follows the PCC Health and Wellbeing seen the local volunteering groups (the Friends and the Natural Environment strategies, among Group) coming together to care for the redevelop- others. The documents have a well-defined terminol- ment site. However, Participant M expressed that: ogy of what is considered ‘urban infrastructures’ in Plymouth, with improving personal well-being and ‘I think the municipality needs to get hold of the continued social cohesion as a central focus. Blue space is valued maintenance – regular litter pick – ups and bins should be emptied regularly ensure the longevity and care of the as one of the most beautiful and unique aspects of space. If people could see that the council are actual look- Plymouth with impacts on health and well-being, ing after that space, I think that would be a way to moti- both positive and negative depending on how it is vate them to keep it clean’. accessed and utilised: Representatives from the Plymouth City Council ‘More than one third of Plymouth is greenspace and it’s assured that going forward, there is going to be surrounded by blue space on its coast, with rivers and streams a new guideline that will make the Council to be running through it. This unique green and blue city has the more able to guide and influence the maintenance potential to deliver many health and well-being benefits for of interventions. Another objective of the Council the people of Plymouth, as well as providing special spaces prior to the redevelopment was to work with for nature’. (Active Neighbourhoods PCC 2016-2019). 290 E. A. ADADE ET AL. Table 2. Outline of governance conditions identified in both the Plymouth and the Netherlands (Wuijts et al. 2020) blue space redevelopments clustered by the dimensions of the analytical framework. Building Blocks Water Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure Found in Plymouth study Found in Wuijts et al. (2020) Content *Health and welfare concerns *Health and environmental focus in all planning. Water System Knowledge *Integration of range of clear objectives, histories and interest in the redevelopment. Values, Principles, Policy Discourse Organisation *Engaging stakeholders at all stages beyond existing contacts. *Continued consultation and feedbacks to community. Stakeholders Involvement *Common vision. Trade-offs between social objectives *Clearly defined roles and responsibilities. Responsibility, Authority and Means *Driven by clear existing vision Regulations and Agreements *Funding resources Financial arrangements (Continued) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 291 Table 2. (Continued). Building Blocks Water Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure Found in Plymouth study Found in Wuijts et al. (2020) Implementation *Continued monitoring, maintenance and adaptive learning with various groups Engineering and Monitoring *Communication of risks and results with the stakeholders and the wider community Enforcement *Compromise reached through common vision Conflict Prevention and Resolution 292 E. A. ADADE ET AL. 4.2.2. Multiple stakeholders and a shared vision a means by which urban design can contribute to Plymouth City Authorities embrace the need to work the SDGs. By creating both opportunities for enjoying with various stakeholders to tap from resources that healthy ecosystems, and for keeping fit and fostering may not be readily available. The Joint Local Plan (JLP) social interactions, positive impacts on mental health recognises the ‘duty to cooperate’ where neighbouring and well-being can be achieved (McCay et al. 2017). local authorities (three councils) come together to iden- The cooperative approach to put the health, safety tify cross-boundary issues and solutions to these issues and access concerns of the population at the top of (Plymouth and South West Devon Joint Local Plan 2014- the design priorities of the intervention is an example 2034 2019). of a strong and shared vision among collaborative parties. A primary challenge of many city waterfront redevelopments is agreeing on a shared vision amid 4.2.3. Continued community consultation and varied interests, objectives, and influences of different engagement partners involved (Hoyle 2000). Therefore, it is impor- In light of this, there has been significant awareness of tant to inquire about the common interests, values, the importance of engaging the population of perspectives, and contexts of the various stakeholders Plymouth to comment and express concerns on plan- to help in identifying possible trade-offs (Van Rijswick ning policies. The communication methods used to et al. 2014; Wuijts et al. 2020). reach the population in order to collect their com- At the same time, the complexity of delivering water ments included ‘social media platforms, emails, adver- management functions in a multi-level context often tisement, letters, and various meetings’ to present contributes to minimal stakeholder participation and development plans (Plymouth City Council PCC 2014). commitment to objectives (OECD 2014; Wuijts et al. ‘You can make comments on any neighbourhood, not just 2020). Multi-level governance, as several other research- the neighbourhood you live in. Just let us know which ers have noted, facilitates societal learning, monitoring, neighbourhood you are commenting on’. (Plymouth City feedback, and boosts resilience (Cosens 2010; Pahl-Wostl Council PCC 2011) et al. 2011; Pahl-Wostl et al. 2012; Green et al. 2013). As In the Teats Hill re-development project, all interactions an example of multi-level governance, the Plymouth with community groups, businesses, public and private redevelopment exhibited significant and ongoing stake- organisations were quite strong as diverse voices were holder participation and commitment, as well as feed- represented through early and continuous back to shared visions and objectives. consultations. A collaborative partnership between urban devel- opment and planning agencies, the public health team, researchers, and the local community was criti- 5. Discussion cal to realising more and sustainable blue spaces This study has explored the governance conditions of infrastructure in urban areas. The accessibility, blue space infrastructure to promote human health approaches, expertise, and the willingness of all sta- and well-being in Plymouth (UK). The crucial govern- keholders and the community to mobilise resources ance conditions identified were: stakeholder involve- are important conditions for utilising resources such ment and participation throughout the process; as capital, people, and assets (Avelino and Rotmans funding and land ownership; community consultation 2009). Although involving varied views from different and feedback; and continued monitoring and main- groups can slow down implementation, early partici- tenance of blue space infrastructure. pation can ensure the practicality and functionality of an intervention or project. Nevertheless, a certain amount of stewardship is necessary to ensure that 5.1. Governance conditions for successful blue public blue spaces can be used correctly and safely. space interventions Moreover, an effective governance process The global 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals requires the principles of inclusivity, accountability, (SDGs) explicitly focus on enhancing both the health participation, transparency, predictability, and of humans and the ecosystems through targeted poli- responsiveness of varied stakeholders to promote cies and management of water resources. The blue development (Rogers and Hall 2003). On the contrary, space infrastructure realised in Plymouth could be the inability of the public to access, comment and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 293 have their voices represented in planning issues and identified (Table 2), which may give indications ‘not in my back yard’ (NIMBY) syndrome, can set about particular governance conditions that barriers towards the definition and realisation of set could apply regardless of geographic or policy objectives (Hartley and Wood 2005). The Plymouth context. However, we refrain from making such case study exhibited effective coordinated structures conclusions as: (a) more studies need to adopt in realising the intervention; this is consistent with and test this framework with similar methods to findings from previous research by Dore and Lebel see what themes emerge and how these emerge (2010) and Pahl-Wostl et al. (2012). and (b) the very different national arrangements Lastly, using the Teats Hill case study as a model, for water governance in different countries pre- adequate financial resources would be required to clude overarching generalisations such as this. ensure continued improvement to blue space infrastruc- ture. Infrastructure financing, disaster management, and 5.3. Strengths and limitations ensuring the resilience of blue space infrastructure call for broader viewpoints of diverse groups of actors in Some of the stakeholders invited to participate in the order to create co-benefits (OECD 2015). study never responded to the invitation; therefore, the results of this study may not be truly representa- tive of the whole governance process. The outcomes 5.2. Application of water governance of the study may have missed some vital viewpoints frameworks in different geographic and policy that could have been added, although the informa- contexts tion gathered from the interviews did reach The Plymouth case study was developed to improve a saturation point in the end: where viewpoints were the physical and mental health of users by encoura- merely confirmed and little additional information ging individuals to interact around blue space. The came up. Furthermore, the results found are consis- intervention drew on high stakeholder and commu- tent with the Netherlands case studies discussed nity interactions that attempted to deal with all con- above. Political devolution in the UK (Bradbury cerns. We believe this study to represent the first 2006), especially with regards to water governance, application of the cited water governance framework further means that the findings are limited in their to a citizen – and stakeholder-led bluespace interven- generalisability. However, the aim in the present case tion whose primary purpose was to improve the was to highlight the importance and nuance of local health and wellbeing of the surrounding socioecono- water governance as it pertains to the impacts of mically deprived community. bluespace developments on health and wellbeing. This demonstrates that the framework can be Methodologically, resource constraints did not permit successful at uncovering the conditions for suc- double-coding of transcripts to check for the correct cessful water governance in diverse contexts. For classification of content into themes, but we recom- example, the same framework has been previously mend this approach for future studies employing applied in the Netherlands to investigate user similar methods. interactions with bathing water sites in the In the future, an online survey method with quanti- Netherlands (Wuijts et al. 2020). Successful condi- tative or mixed data collection could be used to com- tions for water governance in this study included pliment interviews and document analysis to expand the use of incentives as a catalyst for interven- the comparisons between European cities and reach tions, the inclusion of urban bathing water policy stakeholders who may not be physically available as in into municipal planning, clear delineation of the the case of this study. Nevertheless, supplementing roles and responsibilities of different authorities, with reports and documents helped to deal with the and meaningful engagements with citizens and biases that emerge from a single interviewer’s percep- stakeholders. A number of similarities with the tions (Hewitt 2007). Although interviews can be biased, present findings (e.g. engagement of citizens and combining different data sources (in this case,: reports, stakeholders in the intervention process) can be policy documents, and interview transcripts) in analysis 294 E. A. ADADE ET AL. to show congruence can help to reduce these possible Funding biases (Bowen 2009). This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 666773. Evelyn A Adade was supported by a 6. Conclusions Commonwealth Shared Scholarship and the work was further supported by the National Institute of Public Health and the Interviews around a citizen – and stakeholder-led Environment (RIVM) in the Netherlands. urban recreational bluespace intervention in a deprived area of Plymouth, UK, revealed that long- Notes on contributors term engagement of stakeholders and citizens, ade- quate funding, cohesion around land ownership, rig- Evelyn A Adade is a graduate of the MSc Sustainable orous consultation, and continued environmental Development programme at the University of Exeter. monitoring and maintenance, are all successful gov- Lewis R Elliott is a lecturer and environmental psychologist at ernance conditions for the realisation of a bluespace the European Centre for Environment and Human Health, intervention which provides health and wellbeing University of Exeter Medical School. benefits to its surrounding community. Document Lora E Fleming is Director of the European Centre for analysis further underlined that these are consistent Environment and Human Health and Chair of Oceans, with city-level arrangements for urban blue infrastruc- Epidemiology, and Human Health at the University of Exeter. tures. Understanding successful governance condi- Susanne Wuijts is a senior researcher and policy advisor at the tions is crucial if policies and practices are to be National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) in the Netherlands. transferred to other bluespace interventions in dis- tinct geographical and policy contexts. We also demonstrated the flexibility and utility ORCID of an established water governance framework in a context in which it has not previously been Susanne Wuijts http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1170-8082 applied, but warn against generalisation of suc- cessful governance conditions more globally due References to different national arrangements which may fun- Active Neighbourhoods PCC 2016-2019. Urban nature deliver- damentally alter how blue spaces are managed. ing healthier communities for people and wildlife Final Nonetheless, we assert that similar investigations Report. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: http://democ be undertaken in order to make the ‘story’ of how racy.plymouth.gov.uk/mgConvert2PDF.aspx?ID=89015 . such urban bluespace interventions are realised, Adger WN, Brown K, Fairbrass J, Jordan A, Paavola J, Rosendo S, more transparent which may illuminate or explain Seyfang G. 2003. Governance for sustainability: towards a ‘thick’ analysis of environmental decision-making. Environ research findings which potentially accompany Plan A. 35(6):1095–1110. doi:10.1068/a35289. them. Antunes P, Kallis G, Videira N, Santos R 2009. Participation and evaluation for sustainable river basin governance. Avelino F, Rotmans J. 2009. Power in transition: an interdisci- Acknowledgements plinary framework to study power in relation to structural change. Eur J Social Theory. 12(4):543–569. doi:10.1177/ This project was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Bell S, Mishra SK, Elliott LR, Shellock R, Vassiljev P, Porter M, grant agreement no. 666773; https://bluehealth2020.eu Sydenham Z, White MP. 2020. Urban Blue Acupuncture: and the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health a Protocol for Evaluating a Complex Landscape Design and the Environment (RIVM). We thank two anonymous Intervention to Improve Health and Wellbeing in a Coastal reviewers and the editor for their constructive comments Community. Sustainability. 12(10):4084. doi:10.3390/ on two previous versions of this manuscript. su12104084. Bogardi JJ, Dudgeon D, Lawford R, Flinkerbusch E, Meyn A, Pahl- Wostl C, Vielhauer K, Vörösmarty C. 2012. Water security for a planet under pressure: interconnected challenges of Disclosure statement a changing world call for sustainable solutions. Curr Opin The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Environ Sustain. 4:35–43. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2011.12.002. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 295 Bowen GA. 2009. Document analysis as a qualitative research Lambert T 2015. A brief history of Plymouth, Devon, England, method. Qual Res J. 9(2):27–40. doi:10.3316/QRJ0902027. [Accessed Feb 2019] Available from: http://www.localhis Bradbury J. 2006. Territory and Power Revisited: theorising tories.org/plymouth.html . Territorial Politics in the United Kingdom after Devolution. Martin P 2017. 24 Years Later: a Look at Water Privatisation Polit Stud. 54(3):559–582. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2006.00615.x. in England and Wales. https://www.bv.com/perspectives/ Cosens B. 2010. Transboundary river governance in the face of 24-years-later-look-water-privatisation-england-and-wales uncertainty: resilience theory and the Columbia River Treaty. McCay L, Bremer I, Endale T, Jannati M, Yi J. 2017. Urban design J Land Res & Envtl L. 30:229. and mental health. UK: Oxford University Press. Chapter 3, de Oliveira JAP, Doll CN, Kurniawan TA, Geng Y, Kapshe M, Urban Design and Mental Health; p. 32-48.UK: Oxford Huisingh D. 2013. Promoting win–win situations in climate University Press. Chapter 3, Urban Design and Mental change mitigation, local environmental quality and develop- Health; p. 32–48. ment in Asian cities through co-benefits. J Clean Prod. 58:1–6. Mihas, P. (2019, May 23). Qualitative Data Analysis. Oxford doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.011. Research Encyclopedia of Education. Retrieved 9 Feb. 2021, Diffenbaugh NS, Swain DL, Touma D 2015. Anthropogenic from https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/ warming has increased drought risk in California. 9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e–1195 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. OECD 2015. Stakeholder Engagement for Inclusive Water 112:3931–3936. Governance. OECD Studies on Water, OECD publishing Dore J, Lebel L. 2010. Deliberation and scale in Mekong Region Paris. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: doi: 10.1787/ water governance. Environ Manage. 46(1):60–80. 9789264231122-en. doi:10.1007/s00267-010-9527-x. Ostrom E. 2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability European Environment Agency. 2016. Urban Atlas 2012. of socialecological systems. Science. 325(5939):419e422. Gale NK, Heath G, Cameron E, Rashid S, Redwood S. 2013. Using doi:10.1126/science.1172133. the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in Ostrom E. 2010. Polycentric systems for coping with collective multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Med Res Methodol. action and global environmental change. Global Environ 13(1):117. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-13-117. Change. 20(4):550–557. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.004. Gascon M, Zijlema W, Vert C, White MP, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ. Pahl-Wostl C. 2009. A conceptual framework for analysing adap- 2017. Outdoor blue spaces, human health and well-being: tive capacity and multi-level learning processes in resource a systematic review of quantitative studies. Int J Hyg Environ governance regimes. Global Environ Change. 19(3):354–365. Health. 220(8):1207–1221. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.004. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.06.001. Gober P, Wentz EA, Lant T, Tschudi MK, Kirkwood CW. 2011. Pahl-Wostl C, Holtz G, Kastens B, Knieper C. 2010. Analyzing WaterSim: a simulation model for urban water planning in complex water governance regimes: the management and Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Environ Plan. 38(2):197–215. transition framework. Environ Sci Policy. 13(7):571–581. doi:10.1068/b36075. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2010.08.006. Green O, Garmestani A, van Rijswick H, Keessen A. 2013. EU Pahl-Wostl C, Lebel L, Knieper C, Nikitina E. 2012. From applying water governance: striking the right balance between regu- panaceas to mastering complexity: toward adaptive water latory flexibility and enforcement? Ecol Soc. 18(2). governance in river basins. Environ Sci Policy. 23:24–34. doi:10.5751/ES-05357-180210. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2012.07.014. Grellier J, White MP, Albin M, Bell S, Elliott LR, Gascón M, Plymouth & South West Devon Joint Local Plan consideration Gualdi S, Mancini L, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Sarigiannis DA, summary report January 2017. [Accessed Jul 2019]. Available et al. 2017. BlueHealth: a study programme protocol for from: https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/plymouthandsouthwest mapping and quantifying the potential benefits to public devonjlppastconsultation . health and well-being from Europe’s blue spaces. BMJ Plymouth and South West Devon Joint Local Plan 2014-2034. Open. 7. Available from:https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/ [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://www.plymouth. 7/6/e016188 gov.uk/sites/default/files/JLPAdoptedVersion.pdf . Hartley N, Wood C. 2005. Public participation in environmental Plymouth City Council (PCC) Annual report 2017-2018. impact assessment—implementing the Aarhus Convention. Plymouth. [Accessed Jul 2019]. Available from: https://www. Environ Impact Assess Rev. 25(4):319–340. doi:10.1016/j. plymouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Annual_Report_2017_ eiar.2004.12.002. 2018.pdf . Hoyle B. 2000. Global and local change on the port-city water- Plymouth City Council PCC 2011. Your Place Your Future: mak- front. Geogr Rev. 90(3):395–417. doi:10.2307/3250860. ing your neighbourhood the place you want it to be. Knights AM, Firth LB, Thompson RC, Yunnie AL, Hiscock K, [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://www.ply Hawkins SJ. 2016. Plymouth—a world harbour through the mouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ ages. Reg Stud Mar Sci. 8:297–307. doi:10.1016/j. SustainableNeighbourhoodKeySiteAllocationBooklet.pdf . rsma.2016.02.002. Plymouth City Council PCC 2014. Community and Stakeholder Koop S, Koetsier L, Doornhof A, Reinstra O, Van Leeuwen C, Engagement Strategy. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: Brouwer S, Dieperink C, Driessen P. 2017. Assessing the gov- https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/plymouthandsouthwestde ernance capacity of cities to address challenges of water, vonjlppastconsultation . waste, and climate change. Water Res Manag. 31 Plymouth Community Homes n.d. Your Neighbourhood Plan . (11):3427–3443. doi:10.1007/s11269-017-1677-7. [Accessed August 2019]. Available from: https://www.ply 296 E. A. ADADE ET AL. mouthcommunityhomes.co.uk/media/1527/coxside- L.1. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://sustainable neigbourhood-plan.pdf . development.un.org/post2015/summit . Plymouth Population. 2019. World Population Review. UN-Water2019. Water Quality and Wastewater. [Accessed May [Accessed Apr 2019]. Available from: http://worldpopulation 2019]. Available from: http://www.unwater.org/water-facts review.com/world-cities/plymouth-population/ . /quality-and-wastewater/, accessed 2019 Apr 17. Pooley A 2017. Aspen Woolf, 10 Fascinating facts about Van Rijswick M, Edelenbos J, Hellegers P, Kok M, Kuks S. 2014. Historical Plymouth, UK. [Accessed Mar 2019]. Available Ten building blocks for sustainable water governance: an from: https://aspenwoolf.co.uk/10-fascinating-facts-about- integrated method to assess the governance of water. historical-plymouth-uk/ . Water Int. 39(5):725–742. doi:10.1080/ Public Health 2016. Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) 2015 02508060.2014.951828. Plymouth summary analysis. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available Völker S, Kistemann T. 2011. The impact of blue space on human from: https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/IMD% health and well-being–Salutogenetic health effects of inland 202015%20report_FINALv1.1.pdf . surface waters: a review. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 214 Public Health PCC 2014. Area profile: east End (6):449–460. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.05.001. Neighbourhood. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: Waddington S 2017. The ambitious plan to transform https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ Plymouth’s forgotten estate and our most neglected beach. EastEndNeighbourhoodProfile.pdf . [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://www.plymouth Richardson J, Goss Z, Pratt A, Sharman J, Tighe M. 2013. Building HIA herald.co.uk/news/plymouth-news/ambitious-plan-trans approaches into strategies for green space use: an example from form-plymouths-forgotten-336568 . Plymouth’s (UK) Stepping Stones to Nature project. Health Walker A 2009. Independent Review of Charging for Household Promot Int. 28(4):502–511. [accessed 2017Dec11https://aca Water and Sewerage Services. Final report. [Accessed Feb demic.oup.com/heapro/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/heapro/ 2019]. Available from: https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/ das033 siteassets/documents/final_report-walker_review_of_char Rietveld LC, Siri JG, Chakravarty I, Arsénio A, Biswas R, ging_for_water.pdf . Chatterjee A. 2016. Improving health in cities through sys- Wessells AT. 2011. The Ultimate Team Sport?: urban Waterways tems approaches for urban water management. Environ and Youth Rowing in Seattle. In: The Paradox of Urban Space. Health. 15(S1):S31. doi:10.1186/s12940-016-0107-2. New York: Springer; p. 53–71. Rogers P, Hall AW, Effective water governance. 2003. TEC White MP, Elliott LR, Gascon M, Roberts B, Fleming LE. 2020. Blue Background Paper 7. Global water partnership Stockholm. space, health and well-being: a narrative overview and synth- Schets FM 2011. The microbiological safety of bathing water– esis of potential benefits. Environ Res. 191:110169. Waterborne pathogens beyond bathing water legislation. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110169 [Internet]: Utrecht University. Available from: https://dspace. Wiek A, Larson KL. 2012. Water, people, and sustainability—a library.uu.nl/handle/1874/197430 . systems framework for analyzing and assessing water gov- South West Water n.d. Drainage and Wastewater Management ernance regimes. Water Res Manag. 26(11):3153–3171. Planning – process Overview and Progress. [Accessed Aug doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0065-6. 2019]. Available from: https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/ Woodhouse P, Muller M. 2017. Water governance- An histor- siteassets/document-repository/business-plan-2020-2025/ ical perspective on current debates. World Dev. drainage-and-wastewater-management-plan.pdf . 92:225–241. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.11.014. Uncles R, Torres R. 2013. Estimating dispersion and flushing World Health Organisation. 1998. Health Promotion Glossary. time-scales in a coastal zone: application to the Plymouth area. Switzerland: world Health Organisation. [Accessed Aug Ocean Coast Manag. 72:3–12. doi:10.1016/j. 2019]. Available from: https://www.who.int/healthpromo ocecoaman.2011.09.013. tion/about/HPR%20Glossary%201998.pdf . United Nations General Assembly 2015. Transforming Our Wuijts S, Friederichs L, Hin JA, Schets FM, Van Rijswick HFMW, World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Draft Driessen PPJ. 2020. Governance conditions to overcome the resolution referred to the United Nations summit for the challenges of realizing safe urban bathing water sites. adoption of the post- 2015 development agenda by the Int J Water Resour Dev. 1–25. doi:10.1080/ General Assembly at its sixty-ninth session. UN Doc. A/70/ 07900627.2020.1755617 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development Taylor & Francis

GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: URBAN BLUE SPACE INFRASTRUCTURE INITIATIVES IN PLYMOUTH (UK)

Loading next page...
 
/lp/taylor-francis/governance-strategies-to-promote-health-and-well-being-urban-blue-TYhFog20aB

References (59)

Publisher
Taylor & Francis
Copyright
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
ISSN
1946-3146
eISSN
1946-3138
DOI
10.1080/19463138.2021.1885038
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021, VOL. 13, NO. 2, 279–296 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2021.1885038 ARTICLE GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: URBAN BLUE SPACE INFRASTRUCTURE INITIATIVES IN PLYMOUTH (UK) a b b c,d Evelyn A Adade , Lewis R Elliott , Lora E Fleming and Susanne Wuijts a b MSc Sustainable Development, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK; European Centre for Environment and Human Health (ECEHH), University of Exeter Medical School, Truro, UK; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Utrecht University, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht, The Netherlands ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 17 December 2019 Building on evidence of the links between bluespace and public health, this study Accepted 31 January 2021 explores the governance of bluespace infrastructure to promote human health and well-being in Plymouth (UK). Using in-depth retrospective interviews and document KEYWORDS analysis, this study focused on the role of governance in urban planning and devel- Water governance; opment, specifically, the implementation phase of a bluespace infrastructure inter- implementation; urban vention. A deductive qualitative approach categorised content into themes related to infrastructure; global change pre-established water governance frameworks. Key findings from this study empha- sise: the importance of health and welfare concerns around blue spaces as an incentive to getting started; collaborative stakeholder participation and engagement; the necessity of adequate funding; and the importance of continued monitoring and maintenance of urban blue space infrastructure. Based on reflective accounts of stakeholder experiences, the successes of the implementation process of the rede- velopment are highlighted. More successful and sustainable bluespace interventions can be realised through ongoing considerations of effective water governance. 1. Introduction and sanitation for all (SDG 6) (United Nations General Assembly 2015). Research on the relationship between green and blue Cities and towns offer opportunities for governing, spaces and health is receiving increasing attention. In allocating and utilising natural resources, even in the particular, blue space (e.g. lakes, canals, rivers, coastal, midst of uncertain environmental risks and limitations etc.) as a public health resource is now being evalu- on available natural resources (Keivani 2010; Koop ated for its potential benefits, as well as potential risks, et al. 2017). Although urban projects are dependent for human health and well-being (White et al. 2020). on the priorities of city authorities, urban planning Qualitative and quantitative systematic reviews of and development require an interdisciplinary and existing studies have highlighted that interactions trans-sectoral approach since any significant changes around blue space produce restorative effects that will affect the social, environmental, economic, and help reduce stress and promote good mental health cultural dimensions of sustainability (Wessells 2011). and physical activities (Völker and Kistemann 2011; The World Health Organisation (WHO) describes the Gascon et al. 2017). Especially in an urban environ- determinants of health as ‘the range of personal, social, ment, blue infrastructures may be an important con- economic and environmental factors which determine tributor to the UN Sustainable Development Goals the health status of individuals or populations’ (World (SDGs) related to ensuring healthy lives and promot- Health Organisation 1998). Hence, advanced strate- ing well-being for all at all ages (SDG 3) and ensuring gies, policies, and projects developed and initiated the availability and sustainable management of water CONTACT Lewis Elliott L.R.Elliott@exeter.ac.uk European Centre for Environment and Human Health, c/o Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, United Kingdom © 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 280 E. A. ADADE ET AL. in cities should seek the co-benefits of both the deter- strategies concerning urban blue infrastructure in minants of health and the determinants of environ- coastal urban areas with relatively deprived popula- mental sustainability for solving environmental issues tions, and their effects on the health and well-being of (de Oliveira et al. 2013). the urban populace within the context of England. More recently, there is increasing interest in the The study city, Plymouth, is among the 30% most relationship between urban water management and deprived local authority districts in England (Public promoting health for urban planning and develop- Health 2016). Further, this study explores the weak- ment, particularly around the quantification of its nesses and strengths in how urban planning and effectiveness (Rietveld et al. 2016). How urban institu- development strategies in the case study contribute tions and authorities develop, plan and implement to creating places for social cohesion among indivi- policy initiatives can both encourage and obstruct duals, and promotes their health and well-being. In so how people access and enjoy blue space infrastruc- doing, it adds support for the usefulness of applying tures (Völker and Kistemann 2011). Although climate water governance frameworks to urban blue space change and extreme events raise serious concerns for infrastructure developments whose primary aim is to health, the management of the natural environment foster good health and wellbeing (e.g. Wuijts et al. is identified as a vital moderating driver to realising 2020). more urban blue space infrastructures which aim to This paper capitalises on a specific intervention promote health and well-being (Figure 1) (Grellier conducted as part of the H2020 BlueHealth project et al. 2017). The aim of this study is to explore and (Grellier et al. 2017) to explore conditions for effective gain deeper knowledge of how conditions of govern- urban blue space governance in Plymouth, UK. It aims ance contribute to the creation of urban blue space to highlight conditions of governance that contribute infrastructures that promote good human health and to realise sustainable and strategic blue space inter- well-being. ventions that contribute to health and well-being. Given the continued and increasing global envir- Thus, the conditions of governance are defined in onmental and anthropogenic risks facing cities this study as: the requirements that are necessary in (Bogardi et al. 2012; Diffenbaugh et al. 2015; OECD a governance strategy to create healthy blue spaces. 2015), this study is significant. This study contributes While the aim of this study was to document the to providing a deeper understanding of governance governance situation in Plymouth broadly and not Figure 1. The mediating and moderating factors under investigation in the BlueHealth project. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 281 to presuppose particular issues of contestability, we Pahl-Wostl et al. 2010). An interdisciplinary framework appreciate that given the involvement of stakeholders is useful to assess the management of complex sys- in the specific BlueHealth intervention (Bell et al. tems and resources, even though policy solutions do 2020) which involved complex stakeholder interac- not always succeed and there is no one-size-fits-all tion and funding arrangements, that these aspects approach (Adger et al. 2003; Ostrom 2010; OECD of governance may arise as particularly salient and/ 2015; Woodhouse and Muller 2017). or contestable. Specifically in the UK context, overall water policies The study explores: (a) which governance condi- emphasise inclusive governance, water quality objec- tions contribute to realising sustainable urban blue tives, reduction in pollution of rivers, and a policy space initiatives in Plymouth? and (b) to what extent environment with governance moving from are these governance conditions integrated in urban a unitary state to governance through and by net- planning and the development of blue space infra- works (i.e. polycentric governance) (OECD 2014). It is structures in Plymouth city? also important to note that as of 1989 in England and Wales, the provision of water and wastewater services was moved from the public to the private sector 1.1. Water and health (Martin 2017). Therefore, the governance of urban There is growing evidence of greater well-being and blue space infrastructure redevelopments depends mental health improvements when time is spent near on the integration of the past and present histories water (e.g., rivers or beaches) for recreational use in of the location, diverse aims and objectives of stake- both urban and rural settings (Gascon et al. 2017). holders, and opinions of communities and localities Nevertheless, when water quality is not well- (Hoyle 2000). regulated, it can contribute to gastrointestinal and other diseases affecting the physical and mental well- 2. Analytical frameworks of water being of users (Rietveld et al. 2016). governance The quality of blue spaces for swimming, exercis- ing, refreshing, or resting can be disturbed by nega- This study used the framework for sustainable water tive water characteristics (e.g. surface and sewage governance of Van Rijswick et al. (2014) selected from runoffs, etc.), and consequently, can threaten the various analytical frameworks on governance strate- health of users (Schets 2011). Thus, the users of water- gies for managing water safety, quality, and quantity related ecosystems (e.g. lakes, canals, rivers, coastal, for its ability to specifically address the implementa- wetlands, aquifers, beaches, etc.) can enjoy the bene- tion phase of policy interventions (Gober et al. 2011; fits and services associated with this blue infrastruc- Pahl-Wostl et al. 2012; Van Rijswick et al. 2014; OECD ture only if they are managed well and sustainably 2015). Conceptually, it is based on economics, law, (UN- public administration, and water system analysis and Water 2018b 2019). In the face of climate and envir- therefore has theoretical underpinnings concerning onmental changes, the management and mainte- organisational processes. The framework for sustain- nance of available resources to promote sustainable able water governance is composed of 10 interdepen- health and well-being of urban population are vital dent ‘building blocks’ which explore diverse elements (Rietveld et al. 2016). of governance within the dimensions of content, organisation, and implementation (presented in Figure 2). All these elements are tested against the 1.2. Water governance in the UK context objectives aimed for in the governance strategy, using The objective of the EU Water Framework Directive a set of standardised questions developed by Van (WFD, 2000/60/EC) to ensure ‘good’ water quality for Rijswick et al. (2014) and tailored to water quality the water-related ecosystems through different governance by Wuijts et al. (2020). The availability of actors’ involvement has led to the development of these elements in a governance strategy creates several frameworks for analysis. Among these frame- a system that is prepared and resilient for any unfore- works are the Social-Ecological System framework seen risks. (SESF) by (Ostrom 2009) and the Management and A continuous participatory consultation process Transition Framework (MTF) by (Pahl-Wostl 2009; between diverse stakeholders draws out interests, 282 E. A. ADADE ET AL. 1. Water System Knowledge Content 2. Values, Principles, Policy Discourses 3. Stakeholders Involvement 4. Trade-offs between Social Objectives Assessment of Organisation Water Management 5. Responsibility, Authority, Means and Governance 6. Regulations and Agreements 7. Financial arrangements 8. Engineering and Monitoring Implementation 9. Enforcement 10. Conflict Prevention and Resolution Figure 2. Outline of the multiple dimensions of water management and governance. Source: .Van Rijswick et al. (2014) opinions, values, histories, and the framing of social interdisciplinary aspect of this selected analytical fra- and institutional aspects in water governance mework (which emphasises legal, economic, engi- (Antunes et al. 2009). Also, the measuring and mon- neering, and health domains of water governance) itoring of performance against the service-level agree- allows for the identification of the successes, ments (SLAs) of every structure provide the ability to strengths and weaknesses in the phenomenon trace where improvements are needed (Van Rijswick under study. et al. 2014). Thus, the municipal objective to marry blue and green space design with the interests of the community is relevant to this study. 3. Materials and methods The efficiency, effectiveness, and legitimacy of Prior to collecting the research data, formal ethical water management and governance are dependent approval (eCORN001924) was obtained from the on the ability of a laid out structure to achieve agreed University of Exeter College of Life and Environmental goals, whilst managing any conflicts that may arise Sciences Research Ethics Committee. No personal during the planning through to the implementation details of interviewees were collected in this study. phases (Van Rijswick et al. 2014). This must also take into account the maintenance or risk reduction of an infrastructure built for all users of the ecosystem, safe- 3.1. Plymouth case study setting guarding the integrity principle of a system (Wiek and Larson 2012). Adaptive governance, which facilitates Plymouth City is surrounded by Tamar, Tavy, and Lynher continuous monitoring and flexible learning from Rivers and the Plymouth Sound, and is situated in Devon experiences and feedback, is a necessary condition in the South West of England (see Figure 3). Plymouth for the effective implementation of policies (Pahl- now has a population of greater than 256,000 (Uncles Wostl et al. 2012; Green et al. 2013). In particular, the and Torres 2013; Lambert 2015) with a population INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 283 Figure 3. Geographical location of Plymouth (UK) and its surrounding rivers. The European Environment Agency 2016 with study site, Teats Hill, indicated (*) and insert photo of the restoration. density of ca. 3,300/km (8,500/sq mi). Originally, in 2013 adopted a subsidy strategy to support a fishing community and grounded in maritime culture, low-income earners and motivate the population 33% of its coastline consist of built infrastructure to sustainably reduce their (potentially polluted) (Knights et al. 2016; Plymouth Population 2019). surface water drainage, which finds its way into The Plymouth study site, Teats Hill, is a waterside local water bodies (South West Water n.d; Walker area situated east of Plymouth city (Figure 3) and is 2009). home to about 6,035 people (Plymouth Community Historically, Plymouth City Council have conducted Homes n.d; Waddington 2017). The overall score of projects which aim to mitigate the effects of socio- the Index of Multiple Deprivation 2010 (IMD 2010) economic deprivation on poor health through nature- rd shows that this area of Plymouth is the 3 most based means. For example, Richardson et al. (2013) deprived neighbourhood of the city (Public Health describe the application of a Health Impact PCC 2014). According to the 2016 Plymouth Public Assessment approach to a greenspace project of the Health report, Plymouth City as a whole experiences council’s and how it had the potential to provide significantly lower life expectancy in comparison with health benefits to residents of a deprived area England for both males and females. To attempt to through increased physical activity, as well as mental address this, Plymouth City Council has laid down and social well-being. The present study draws on strategies and programmes to promote the health a similar recent attempt (Bell et al. 2020) by recruiting and well-being of all population age groups, including interviewees who had been directly involved in it. The through active outdoor activities (PCC 2017-2018; Bell longevity of Plymouth City Council’s efforts in this et al. 2020). regard reflect a long-standing way of working and More recently, Plymouth has experienced sig- collaborating with multiple stakeholders (e.g. acade- nificant changes in the management of water mia, wildlife trusts, public health bodies, and local resources to meet increasing population demands NGOs) to evidence the wide-ranging health effects (Pooley 2017). In particular, the local government of their initiatives. 284 E. A. ADADE ET AL. 3.2. Study design questions were tailored and asked to aid the parti- cipants in reflecting on the planning and imple- To explore which governance conditions contribute mentation of the redevelopment project to to realising sustainable urban blue space initiatives promote human health and well-being. At several and how these conditions are incorporated in urban stages during these interviews, the researchers planning and development in Plymouth, evaluated the level of additional information a retrospective study was undertaken using obtained in the interviews in order to assess a qualitative approach (i.e. in-depth interviews and when a sufficient level of saturation had been document analysis). achieved and interviews provided little additional information. 3.3 Sampling procedure for interviews 3.5. Document analysis method A purposive, snowball, sampling procedure was used to reach out to key stakeholders. Members of the The responses from the stakeholder interviews H2020 BlueHealth consortium were purposely chosen were substantiated with a review of policy docu- since they were also involved in stakeholder consulta- ments, project application reports, project summa- tions. They were identified as having research exper- ries, Plymouth ‘vision’ statements, and annual tise in how urban blue space infrastructure can reports from the Plymouth City Council. Annual promote health and well-being, as well as being reports from the Plymouth City Council and the involved in the Teats Hill redevelopment project H2020 BlueHealth project were examined and sub- (Bell et al. 2020). sequently followed up with additional interviews. Other key stakeholders from Devon Wildlife Trust, Annual reports examined included the Active National Marine Aquarium, the Environment Agency, Neighbourhood report, and the Plymouth City and the Public Health and Natural Infrastructure Council (PCC) 2017-2018 annual report. Reviewing teams of the Plymouth City Council were then con- these annual documents led to two further key tacted through the recommendations of the H2020 stakeholders being contacted as interview partici- BlueHealth project team. In total, ten (10) key stake- pants. Reports prepared by the Plymouth City holders of different groups were interviewed for this authorities (between 2013 and 2019) and academic study. research papers accessed and examined were used For transparency, Plymouth City Council over- to identify the integration of the governance con- saw the entire redevelopment of Teats Hill from ditions in the Teat’s Hill redevelopment project and its conception as a potential intervention site, the wider Plymouth City policies. Both methods through to its ongoing maintenance long after (interviews and document analysis) were triangu- the proposed redevelopments took place. They lated (Figure 4) to achieve the overarching aim of approached the BlueHealth project team to: (a) the research by exploring the conditions for gov- evaluate its effects on the health and wellbeing erning blue space infrastructure in Plymouth (UK). of the local community and (b) provide landscape architecture expertise at no cost to facilitate parti- 3.6 Qualitative analysis methods cular aspects of the site’s redevelopment (e.g. a small open air theatre; Bell et al. 2020). Audio–recorded interviews were transcribed with Microsoft Word and manually corrected. NVivo 12 software was used to code and categorise all inter- 3.4 Semi-structured interview method view transcripts into nodes and themes, and attribu- The interview questions were developed from the ted to the building blocks of the framework for framework for sustainable water governance (Van sustainable water governance (Van Rijswick et al. Rijswick et al. 2014) to map the perspectives of 2014). All classification of content into themes was these stakeholders regarding their level of involve- performed by the first author. Similarly, documents ment, values and interests, and responsibilities, as were content analysed into the same nodes and well as their involvement in the implementation of themes. The analysis therefore followed a deductive the redevelopment at Teats Hill. Open interview approach (grounded theory) directed by the chosen INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 285 Analytical framework Face-to-face (Van Rijswick et. al. Literature reviews interviews 2014) Additional Strengths and Document Analysis interviews weaknesses Recomendations Figure 4. Outline of processes and method used to tackle research questions. analytical framework to summarise data and develop as a whole. For example, the rubbish (large amount of themes that address the study questions (Gale et al. dog waste, plastic bags, and broken glass) collected at 2013; Mihas 2019, May 23). the Teats Hill beach was an indicator that the local people were disconnected from the site in the way that the site was being used. 4. Results ‘Urban planners and developers should view good quality 4.1. Which governance conditions contribute to green and blue space in the light of the ‘broken window theory’ around health inequalities. I think of it as realising sustainable urban blue space initiatives a snowball that rolls down. I think it’s like that with green in Plymouth? spaces if they are maintained and they feel safe, people use them. If they look like they’ve just been abandoned and Questions asked during the interviews with the stake- nobody cares about them then people start to get afraid of holders explored the conditions of governance them and don’t want to use it’. (Participant C) towards realising more sustainable blue space infra- structure in Plymouth. The outlined conditions were The accumulation of plastic and other litter and Teats repeated and confirmed by all participants who took Hill as an indicator of deprivation influenced the selec- part in the interview. Results based on identified tion of the location for the redevelopment project. themes from the dimensions of the analytical frame- ‘Teat’s Hill was in poor condition, had no signage and a bad work are presented below (Table 1), and then further reputation with rubbish being washed into it, although, it described and illustrated. sits next to the National Marine Aquarium and on Devon Coast Path. If the regeneration had not happened at Teat’s Hill, it would not have occurred to the City Council to do 4.1.1. Health and welfare concerns anything in that part of the city’. (Participant K) During the interviews, the participants emphasised the importance of the public health team from the The Teats Hill site is connected to the broader municipality being involved in the planning of all Plymouth sewage system and there is a new waste- urban blue space infrastructures. This is due to welfare water treatment plant not far from the site. This plant concerns (e.g. quality, accessibility and safety), which has no known influence on the actual water quality at can impact on human health and on the environment the Teats Hill site. Nevertheless, the Plymouth city 286 E. A. ADADE ET AL. Table 1. Outline of governance conditions identified in the Teat’s Hill blue space redevelopment in Plymouth City clustered by the dimensions of the analytical framework. Building Blocks Water Revealed by Found in the policy document Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure interviewees review Content *Health and welfare concerns *Health and environmental focus in all planning. Water System Knowledge *Integration of range of objectives, histories and vested interest in the site. Values, Principles, Policy Discourse Organisation *Engaging stakeholders beyond existing contacts. *Early consultations and engagement *Continued consultation and feedbacks to community. Stakeholders Involvement Trade-offs *Common vision between social *The preparedness to compromise designs. objectives *Clearly defined roles and responsibilities. Responsibility, Authority and Means *Driven by existing vision Regulations and Agreements *Funding and landownership concerns Financial Arrangements (Continued) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 287 Table 1. (Continued). Building Blocks Water Revealed by Found in the policy document Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure interviewees review Implementation *Adaptive learning *Practicality and functionality of the redevelopment *continued monitoring and maintenance with various groups Engineering and Monitoring *All risks accounted for during implementation *Communication of results with the stakeholders and the wider community Enforcement *Compromise reached through common vision Conflict Prevention and Resolution 288 E. A. ADADE ET AL. authorities were also concerned about the potential Even though the different parties’ involvement was impacts of sanitation and water on human health and slightly hierarchical, all discussions were quite inclu- well-being, and on the immediate environment. sive since all these parties had vested interests in the site. The Teats Hill redevelopment saw different sta- ‘The health and safety of humans and the environment are keholders come together to achieve the aim of paramount because if the waters die, we have half of our improving the health and well-being of a local socio- economies gone. For Plymouth, we pride ourselves as being the “Ocean City”; and the city needs to have that connec- economically deprived community and environment. tion with its blue space’. (Participant M) 4.1.3. Funding and land ownership Financial resources are crucial to getting the project 4.1.2. Early stakeholders involvement started and engaging stakeholders. The Plymouth The various stakeholders for the Teats Hill redevelop- City Council through the Heritage Lottery Fund and ment were accessed and selected through Plymouth Plymouth Section 106 developer contribution City Council existing networks and through the Port of funded the improvements at the site (plymouth. Plymouth Marine Liaison Committee, which brings gov.uk). The H2020 BlueHealth Project had funding together different users and those who live and from the European Commission to install an work in the local area. amphitheatre at the site after a consultative process by BlueHealth landscape architect researchers with ‘To get started in developing blue space interventions, I would say working with a range of partners (don’t work the local community and other stakeholders (Bell with the usual suspects, try and find new partners). It’s et al. 2020). The requirement of the funders, time really important to engage not with the usual suspects’. scale and budget established the focus of the rede- (Participant Z) velopment and the choice of the location of the Each stakeholder meeting had an agenda with actions Teat’s Hill project. The majority of interviewees clas- agreed on, and constant follow up on agreed tasks sified the funding and the land ownership as very and responsibilities for successive meetings (though necessary if more blue space infrastructure loca- this was normally informal). During the planning stage tions in Plymouth are to be envisaged and realised. of the redevelopment, stakeholder meetings were ‘The main thing that drove the choice of Teats Hill was the frequently held (monthly), and then less frequently funders: the Big Lottery Fund outlined 5 particular areas of (quarterly) after the implementation stage. Plymouth which were particularly suffering from social- economic deprivation and their related health effects. So ‘I remember we brought stakeholders together in one room Teat’s Hill, is a socially, economically deprived area of to discuss the improvements, there was a dialogue as we Plymouth and we wanted to invest the funding to improve tried reaching consensus about what’s possible, go through the health of the poorest people in society. And also, the options and finally reach agreement. There were also BlueHealth came in to say that, they can give us plenty of site visits, talks about what was possible, the heritage extra funding, landscape architecture and design work for features to keep, engineering perspective, money available, evaluation, so it was a fruitful collaboration’. (Participant J) and to have regard for health and safety impact’. (Participant Z) The Teats Hill site has multiple-ownership, but is broadly managed by Plymouth City Council. Most importantly, through the stakeholder partner- Locations with multiple landowners tend to constrain ship meetings, individuals and organisations were projects if they are less willing to accept changes and able to sufficiently contribute their views, ideas and are not buying into similar projects. questions on the redevelopment design. All partici- pants reiterated that urban planning should embrace ‘We had to reach a compromise since the landowners cross-sectoral collaboration with a range of partners weren’t willing to put sufficient money into putting the slipway back to how it was. Therefore, we had to find who have much detailed knowledge than an a more friendly solution (viewing platform now) to deal individual. with any conflict of interest. To be in agreement in terms of land ownership was important to me’. (Participant K) ‘Well, I wouldn’t take credit but, I must say that we can use Teat’s Hill as an example of how different agencies, orga- Statutory powers are often required to speed up nizations, and stakeholders come together to work to get improvements that will promote the health and well- a lovely space for the community to share communion’. (Participant M) being of populations: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 289 ‘Although there were different available sites to achieve the organisations such as Plymouth Community Homes same aim which had a mixture of land owners, it would (who manage social housing near the site) and the have been difficult to achieve the redevelopment within the National Marine Aquarium (situated next to the site) time constraints set by funders’. (Participant Z) to build their interest in the continued maintenance of the project. 4.1.4. Community consultation and feedbacks ‘One of the things that is part of the Strategic planning and Interview participants commented on the necessity of infrastructure environmental planning division’s work is to frequent and ongoing engagement with the commu- deliver capital improvements to sites by working together nities to get these communities to accept and buy with the local community. We go out to ask people what into the intervention. As mentioned in the interview, it they would like to see on the site and support them to deliver those improvements’. (Participant Z) is important to ‘build local community-driven designs’. Through a wide group of local stakeholders (e.g. Thus, by working with other groups, creative ways to National Marine Aquarium and Plymouth maintain the quality and good conditions at the Teats Community Homes), tree plantings, clean-ups and Hill site will be ensured into the future. fun days were organised at the site to engage resi- dents, families and visitors to share their views of the redevelopment. 4.2. To what extent are these governance ‘When designing the improvement, we were looking at conditions integrated in urban planning and the robust things. In the Marine environment, you need to development of blue space infrastructures in consider those things which aren’t going to rust or fall Plymouth city? apart. By working with organizations that are still there (for example, Plymouth Community Homes and National Policy documents and reports obtained online were Marine Aquarium), the idea was to build their best interest analysed to address the question of integration into so they will continue to be the eyes and ears of the site. You have to start with getting people to understand where they urban planning and the development of Plymouth live, else they will never be ready to protect it’. (Participant City. Documents accessed for analysis included the Z) Heritage Lottery Fund project application report, PCC Health and Well-being topic paper, PCC Natural Environment topic paper, PCC Infrastructure, and 4.1.5. Continued monitoring and maintenance Investment topic paper, and the Plymouth and South Natural environment infrastructures in Plymouth are West Devon Joint Local Plan (www.plymouth.gov.uk). managed and maintained by the Plymouth City Council. The operational team within the Council cares for the blue and green spaces around 4.2.1. Health and well-being priority in all policies Plymouth to ensure good standards and conditions To ensure a thriving city for all populations, the of the spaces. The redevelopment of Teats Hill has Plymouth Plan follows the PCC Health and Wellbeing seen the local volunteering groups (the Friends and the Natural Environment strategies, among Group) coming together to care for the redevelop- others. The documents have a well-defined terminol- ment site. However, Participant M expressed that: ogy of what is considered ‘urban infrastructures’ in Plymouth, with improving personal well-being and ‘I think the municipality needs to get hold of the continued social cohesion as a central focus. Blue space is valued maintenance – regular litter pick – ups and bins should be emptied regularly ensure the longevity and care of the as one of the most beautiful and unique aspects of space. If people could see that the council are actual look- Plymouth with impacts on health and well-being, ing after that space, I think that would be a way to moti- both positive and negative depending on how it is vate them to keep it clean’. accessed and utilised: Representatives from the Plymouth City Council ‘More than one third of Plymouth is greenspace and it’s assured that going forward, there is going to be surrounded by blue space on its coast, with rivers and streams a new guideline that will make the Council to be running through it. This unique green and blue city has the more able to guide and influence the maintenance potential to deliver many health and well-being benefits for of interventions. Another objective of the Council the people of Plymouth, as well as providing special spaces prior to the redevelopment was to work with for nature’. (Active Neighbourhoods PCC 2016-2019). 290 E. A. ADADE ET AL. Table 2. Outline of governance conditions identified in both the Plymouth and the Netherlands (Wuijts et al. 2020) blue space redevelopments clustered by the dimensions of the analytical framework. Building Blocks Water Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure Found in Plymouth study Found in Wuijts et al. (2020) Content *Health and welfare concerns *Health and environmental focus in all planning. Water System Knowledge *Integration of range of clear objectives, histories and interest in the redevelopment. Values, Principles, Policy Discourse Organisation *Engaging stakeholders at all stages beyond existing contacts. *Continued consultation and feedbacks to community. Stakeholders Involvement *Common vision. Trade-offs between social objectives *Clearly defined roles and responsibilities. Responsibility, Authority and Means *Driven by clear existing vision Regulations and Agreements *Funding resources Financial arrangements (Continued) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 291 Table 2. (Continued). Building Blocks Water Governance Governance conditions for the realisation of urban blue space infrastructure Found in Plymouth study Found in Wuijts et al. (2020) Implementation *Continued monitoring, maintenance and adaptive learning with various groups Engineering and Monitoring *Communication of risks and results with the stakeholders and the wider community Enforcement *Compromise reached through common vision Conflict Prevention and Resolution 292 E. A. ADADE ET AL. 4.2.2. Multiple stakeholders and a shared vision a means by which urban design can contribute to Plymouth City Authorities embrace the need to work the SDGs. By creating both opportunities for enjoying with various stakeholders to tap from resources that healthy ecosystems, and for keeping fit and fostering may not be readily available. The Joint Local Plan (JLP) social interactions, positive impacts on mental health recognises the ‘duty to cooperate’ where neighbouring and well-being can be achieved (McCay et al. 2017). local authorities (three councils) come together to iden- The cooperative approach to put the health, safety tify cross-boundary issues and solutions to these issues and access concerns of the population at the top of (Plymouth and South West Devon Joint Local Plan 2014- the design priorities of the intervention is an example 2034 2019). of a strong and shared vision among collaborative parties. A primary challenge of many city waterfront redevelopments is agreeing on a shared vision amid 4.2.3. Continued community consultation and varied interests, objectives, and influences of different engagement partners involved (Hoyle 2000). Therefore, it is impor- In light of this, there has been significant awareness of tant to inquire about the common interests, values, the importance of engaging the population of perspectives, and contexts of the various stakeholders Plymouth to comment and express concerns on plan- to help in identifying possible trade-offs (Van Rijswick ning policies. The communication methods used to et al. 2014; Wuijts et al. 2020). reach the population in order to collect their com- At the same time, the complexity of delivering water ments included ‘social media platforms, emails, adver- management functions in a multi-level context often tisement, letters, and various meetings’ to present contributes to minimal stakeholder participation and development plans (Plymouth City Council PCC 2014). commitment to objectives (OECD 2014; Wuijts et al. ‘You can make comments on any neighbourhood, not just 2020). Multi-level governance, as several other research- the neighbourhood you live in. Just let us know which ers have noted, facilitates societal learning, monitoring, neighbourhood you are commenting on’. (Plymouth City feedback, and boosts resilience (Cosens 2010; Pahl-Wostl Council PCC 2011) et al. 2011; Pahl-Wostl et al. 2012; Green et al. 2013). As In the Teats Hill re-development project, all interactions an example of multi-level governance, the Plymouth with community groups, businesses, public and private redevelopment exhibited significant and ongoing stake- organisations were quite strong as diverse voices were holder participation and commitment, as well as feed- represented through early and continuous back to shared visions and objectives. consultations. A collaborative partnership between urban devel- opment and planning agencies, the public health team, researchers, and the local community was criti- 5. Discussion cal to realising more and sustainable blue spaces This study has explored the governance conditions of infrastructure in urban areas. The accessibility, blue space infrastructure to promote human health approaches, expertise, and the willingness of all sta- and well-being in Plymouth (UK). The crucial govern- keholders and the community to mobilise resources ance conditions identified were: stakeholder involve- are important conditions for utilising resources such ment and participation throughout the process; as capital, people, and assets (Avelino and Rotmans funding and land ownership; community consultation 2009). Although involving varied views from different and feedback; and continued monitoring and main- groups can slow down implementation, early partici- tenance of blue space infrastructure. pation can ensure the practicality and functionality of an intervention or project. Nevertheless, a certain amount of stewardship is necessary to ensure that 5.1. Governance conditions for successful blue public blue spaces can be used correctly and safely. space interventions Moreover, an effective governance process The global 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals requires the principles of inclusivity, accountability, (SDGs) explicitly focus on enhancing both the health participation, transparency, predictability, and of humans and the ecosystems through targeted poli- responsiveness of varied stakeholders to promote cies and management of water resources. The blue development (Rogers and Hall 2003). On the contrary, space infrastructure realised in Plymouth could be the inability of the public to access, comment and INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 293 have their voices represented in planning issues and identified (Table 2), which may give indications ‘not in my back yard’ (NIMBY) syndrome, can set about particular governance conditions that barriers towards the definition and realisation of set could apply regardless of geographic or policy objectives (Hartley and Wood 2005). The Plymouth context. However, we refrain from making such case study exhibited effective coordinated structures conclusions as: (a) more studies need to adopt in realising the intervention; this is consistent with and test this framework with similar methods to findings from previous research by Dore and Lebel see what themes emerge and how these emerge (2010) and Pahl-Wostl et al. (2012). and (b) the very different national arrangements Lastly, using the Teats Hill case study as a model, for water governance in different countries pre- adequate financial resources would be required to clude overarching generalisations such as this. ensure continued improvement to blue space infrastruc- ture. Infrastructure financing, disaster management, and 5.3. Strengths and limitations ensuring the resilience of blue space infrastructure call for broader viewpoints of diverse groups of actors in Some of the stakeholders invited to participate in the order to create co-benefits (OECD 2015). study never responded to the invitation; therefore, the results of this study may not be truly representa- tive of the whole governance process. The outcomes 5.2. Application of water governance of the study may have missed some vital viewpoints frameworks in different geographic and policy that could have been added, although the informa- contexts tion gathered from the interviews did reach The Plymouth case study was developed to improve a saturation point in the end: where viewpoints were the physical and mental health of users by encoura- merely confirmed and little additional information ging individuals to interact around blue space. The came up. Furthermore, the results found are consis- intervention drew on high stakeholder and commu- tent with the Netherlands case studies discussed nity interactions that attempted to deal with all con- above. Political devolution in the UK (Bradbury cerns. We believe this study to represent the first 2006), especially with regards to water governance, application of the cited water governance framework further means that the findings are limited in their to a citizen – and stakeholder-led bluespace interven- generalisability. However, the aim in the present case tion whose primary purpose was to improve the was to highlight the importance and nuance of local health and wellbeing of the surrounding socioecono- water governance as it pertains to the impacts of mically deprived community. bluespace developments on health and wellbeing. This demonstrates that the framework can be Methodologically, resource constraints did not permit successful at uncovering the conditions for suc- double-coding of transcripts to check for the correct cessful water governance in diverse contexts. For classification of content into themes, but we recom- example, the same framework has been previously mend this approach for future studies employing applied in the Netherlands to investigate user similar methods. interactions with bathing water sites in the In the future, an online survey method with quanti- Netherlands (Wuijts et al. 2020). Successful condi- tative or mixed data collection could be used to com- tions for water governance in this study included pliment interviews and document analysis to expand the use of incentives as a catalyst for interven- the comparisons between European cities and reach tions, the inclusion of urban bathing water policy stakeholders who may not be physically available as in into municipal planning, clear delineation of the the case of this study. Nevertheless, supplementing roles and responsibilities of different authorities, with reports and documents helped to deal with the and meaningful engagements with citizens and biases that emerge from a single interviewer’s percep- stakeholders. A number of similarities with the tions (Hewitt 2007). Although interviews can be biased, present findings (e.g. engagement of citizens and combining different data sources (in this case,: reports, stakeholders in the intervention process) can be policy documents, and interview transcripts) in analysis 294 E. A. ADADE ET AL. to show congruence can help to reduce these possible Funding biases (Bowen 2009). This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 666773. Evelyn A Adade was supported by a 6. Conclusions Commonwealth Shared Scholarship and the work was further supported by the National Institute of Public Health and the Interviews around a citizen – and stakeholder-led Environment (RIVM) in the Netherlands. urban recreational bluespace intervention in a deprived area of Plymouth, UK, revealed that long- Notes on contributors term engagement of stakeholders and citizens, ade- quate funding, cohesion around land ownership, rig- Evelyn A Adade is a graduate of the MSc Sustainable orous consultation, and continued environmental Development programme at the University of Exeter. monitoring and maintenance, are all successful gov- Lewis R Elliott is a lecturer and environmental psychologist at ernance conditions for the realisation of a bluespace the European Centre for Environment and Human Health, intervention which provides health and wellbeing University of Exeter Medical School. benefits to its surrounding community. Document Lora E Fleming is Director of the European Centre for analysis further underlined that these are consistent Environment and Human Health and Chair of Oceans, with city-level arrangements for urban blue infrastruc- Epidemiology, and Human Health at the University of Exeter. tures. Understanding successful governance condi- Susanne Wuijts is a senior researcher and policy advisor at the tions is crucial if policies and practices are to be National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) in the Netherlands. transferred to other bluespace interventions in dis- tinct geographical and policy contexts. We also demonstrated the flexibility and utility ORCID of an established water governance framework in a context in which it has not previously been Susanne Wuijts http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1170-8082 applied, but warn against generalisation of suc- cessful governance conditions more globally due References to different national arrangements which may fun- Active Neighbourhoods PCC 2016-2019. Urban nature deliver- damentally alter how blue spaces are managed. ing healthier communities for people and wildlife Final Nonetheless, we assert that similar investigations Report. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: http://democ be undertaken in order to make the ‘story’ of how racy.plymouth.gov.uk/mgConvert2PDF.aspx?ID=89015 . such urban bluespace interventions are realised, Adger WN, Brown K, Fairbrass J, Jordan A, Paavola J, Rosendo S, more transparent which may illuminate or explain Seyfang G. 2003. Governance for sustainability: towards a ‘thick’ analysis of environmental decision-making. Environ research findings which potentially accompany Plan A. 35(6):1095–1110. doi:10.1068/a35289. them. Antunes P, Kallis G, Videira N, Santos R 2009. Participation and evaluation for sustainable river basin governance. Avelino F, Rotmans J. 2009. Power in transition: an interdisci- Acknowledgements plinary framework to study power in relation to structural change. Eur J Social Theory. 12(4):543–569. doi:10.1177/ This project was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Bell S, Mishra SK, Elliott LR, Shellock R, Vassiljev P, Porter M, grant agreement no. 666773; https://bluehealth2020.eu Sydenham Z, White MP. 2020. Urban Blue Acupuncture: and the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health a Protocol for Evaluating a Complex Landscape Design and the Environment (RIVM). We thank two anonymous Intervention to Improve Health and Wellbeing in a Coastal reviewers and the editor for their constructive comments Community. Sustainability. 12(10):4084. doi:10.3390/ on two previous versions of this manuscript. su12104084. Bogardi JJ, Dudgeon D, Lawford R, Flinkerbusch E, Meyn A, Pahl- Wostl C, Vielhauer K, Vörösmarty C. 2012. Water security for a planet under pressure: interconnected challenges of Disclosure statement a changing world call for sustainable solutions. Curr Opin The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Environ Sustain. 4:35–43. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2011.12.002. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 295 Bowen GA. 2009. Document analysis as a qualitative research Lambert T 2015. A brief history of Plymouth, Devon, England, method. Qual Res J. 9(2):27–40. doi:10.3316/QRJ0902027. [Accessed Feb 2019] Available from: http://www.localhis Bradbury J. 2006. Territory and Power Revisited: theorising tories.org/plymouth.html . Territorial Politics in the United Kingdom after Devolution. Martin P 2017. 24 Years Later: a Look at Water Privatisation Polit Stud. 54(3):559–582. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2006.00615.x. in England and Wales. https://www.bv.com/perspectives/ Cosens B. 2010. Transboundary river governance in the face of 24-years-later-look-water-privatisation-england-and-wales uncertainty: resilience theory and the Columbia River Treaty. McCay L, Bremer I, Endale T, Jannati M, Yi J. 2017. Urban design J Land Res & Envtl L. 30:229. and mental health. UK: Oxford University Press. Chapter 3, de Oliveira JAP, Doll CN, Kurniawan TA, Geng Y, Kapshe M, Urban Design and Mental Health; p. 32-48.UK: Oxford Huisingh D. 2013. Promoting win–win situations in climate University Press. Chapter 3, Urban Design and Mental change mitigation, local environmental quality and develop- Health; p. 32–48. ment in Asian cities through co-benefits. J Clean Prod. 58:1–6. Mihas, P. (2019, May 23). Qualitative Data Analysis. Oxford doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.011. Research Encyclopedia of Education. Retrieved 9 Feb. 2021, Diffenbaugh NS, Swain DL, Touma D 2015. Anthropogenic from https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/ warming has increased drought risk in California. 9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e–1195 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. OECD 2015. Stakeholder Engagement for Inclusive Water 112:3931–3936. Governance. OECD Studies on Water, OECD publishing Dore J, Lebel L. 2010. Deliberation and scale in Mekong Region Paris. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: doi: 10.1787/ water governance. Environ Manage. 46(1):60–80. 9789264231122-en. doi:10.1007/s00267-010-9527-x. Ostrom E. 2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability European Environment Agency. 2016. Urban Atlas 2012. of socialecological systems. Science. 325(5939):419e422. Gale NK, Heath G, Cameron E, Rashid S, Redwood S. 2013. Using doi:10.1126/science.1172133. the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in Ostrom E. 2010. Polycentric systems for coping with collective multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Med Res Methodol. action and global environmental change. Global Environ 13(1):117. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-13-117. Change. 20(4):550–557. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.004. Gascon M, Zijlema W, Vert C, White MP, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ. Pahl-Wostl C. 2009. A conceptual framework for analysing adap- 2017. Outdoor blue spaces, human health and well-being: tive capacity and multi-level learning processes in resource a systematic review of quantitative studies. Int J Hyg Environ governance regimes. Global Environ Change. 19(3):354–365. Health. 220(8):1207–1221. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.004. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.06.001. Gober P, Wentz EA, Lant T, Tschudi MK, Kirkwood CW. 2011. Pahl-Wostl C, Holtz G, Kastens B, Knieper C. 2010. Analyzing WaterSim: a simulation model for urban water planning in complex water governance regimes: the management and Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Environ Plan. 38(2):197–215. transition framework. Environ Sci Policy. 13(7):571–581. doi:10.1068/b36075. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2010.08.006. Green O, Garmestani A, van Rijswick H, Keessen A. 2013. EU Pahl-Wostl C, Lebel L, Knieper C, Nikitina E. 2012. From applying water governance: striking the right balance between regu- panaceas to mastering complexity: toward adaptive water latory flexibility and enforcement? Ecol Soc. 18(2). governance in river basins. Environ Sci Policy. 23:24–34. doi:10.5751/ES-05357-180210. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2012.07.014. Grellier J, White MP, Albin M, Bell S, Elliott LR, Gascón M, Plymouth & South West Devon Joint Local Plan consideration Gualdi S, Mancini L, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Sarigiannis DA, summary report January 2017. [Accessed Jul 2019]. Available et al. 2017. BlueHealth: a study programme protocol for from: https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/plymouthandsouthwest mapping and quantifying the potential benefits to public devonjlppastconsultation . health and well-being from Europe’s blue spaces. BMJ Plymouth and South West Devon Joint Local Plan 2014-2034. Open. 7. Available from:https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/ [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://www.plymouth. 7/6/e016188 gov.uk/sites/default/files/JLPAdoptedVersion.pdf . Hartley N, Wood C. 2005. Public participation in environmental Plymouth City Council (PCC) Annual report 2017-2018. impact assessment—implementing the Aarhus Convention. Plymouth. [Accessed Jul 2019]. Available from: https://www. Environ Impact Assess Rev. 25(4):319–340. doi:10.1016/j. plymouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Annual_Report_2017_ eiar.2004.12.002. 2018.pdf . Hoyle B. 2000. Global and local change on the port-city water- Plymouth City Council PCC 2011. Your Place Your Future: mak- front. Geogr Rev. 90(3):395–417. doi:10.2307/3250860. ing your neighbourhood the place you want it to be. Knights AM, Firth LB, Thompson RC, Yunnie AL, Hiscock K, [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://www.ply Hawkins SJ. 2016. Plymouth—a world harbour through the mouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ ages. Reg Stud Mar Sci. 8:297–307. doi:10.1016/j. SustainableNeighbourhoodKeySiteAllocationBooklet.pdf . rsma.2016.02.002. Plymouth City Council PCC 2014. Community and Stakeholder Koop S, Koetsier L, Doornhof A, Reinstra O, Van Leeuwen C, Engagement Strategy. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: Brouwer S, Dieperink C, Driessen P. 2017. Assessing the gov- https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/plymouthandsouthwestde ernance capacity of cities to address challenges of water, vonjlppastconsultation . waste, and climate change. Water Res Manag. 31 Plymouth Community Homes n.d. Your Neighbourhood Plan . (11):3427–3443. doi:10.1007/s11269-017-1677-7. [Accessed August 2019]. Available from: https://www.ply 296 E. A. ADADE ET AL. mouthcommunityhomes.co.uk/media/1527/coxside- L.1. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://sustainable neigbourhood-plan.pdf . development.un.org/post2015/summit . Plymouth Population. 2019. World Population Review. UN-Water2019. Water Quality and Wastewater. [Accessed May [Accessed Apr 2019]. Available from: http://worldpopulation 2019]. Available from: http://www.unwater.org/water-facts review.com/world-cities/plymouth-population/ . /quality-and-wastewater/, accessed 2019 Apr 17. Pooley A 2017. Aspen Woolf, 10 Fascinating facts about Van Rijswick M, Edelenbos J, Hellegers P, Kok M, Kuks S. 2014. Historical Plymouth, UK. [Accessed Mar 2019]. Available Ten building blocks for sustainable water governance: an from: https://aspenwoolf.co.uk/10-fascinating-facts-about- integrated method to assess the governance of water. historical-plymouth-uk/ . Water Int. 39(5):725–742. doi:10.1080/ Public Health 2016. Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) 2015 02508060.2014.951828. Plymouth summary analysis. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available Völker S, Kistemann T. 2011. The impact of blue space on human from: https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/IMD% health and well-being–Salutogenetic health effects of inland 202015%20report_FINALv1.1.pdf . surface waters: a review. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 214 Public Health PCC 2014. Area profile: east End (6):449–460. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.05.001. Neighbourhood. [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: Waddington S 2017. The ambitious plan to transform https://www.plymouth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ Plymouth’s forgotten estate and our most neglected beach. EastEndNeighbourhoodProfile.pdf . [Accessed Aug 2019]. Available from: https://www.plymouth Richardson J, Goss Z, Pratt A, Sharman J, Tighe M. 2013. Building HIA herald.co.uk/news/plymouth-news/ambitious-plan-trans approaches into strategies for green space use: an example from form-plymouths-forgotten-336568 . Plymouth’s (UK) Stepping Stones to Nature project. Health Walker A 2009. Independent Review of Charging for Household Promot Int. 28(4):502–511. [accessed 2017Dec11https://aca Water and Sewerage Services. Final report. [Accessed Feb demic.oup.com/heapro/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/heapro/ 2019]. Available from: https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/ das033 siteassets/documents/final_report-walker_review_of_char Rietveld LC, Siri JG, Chakravarty I, Arsénio A, Biswas R, ging_for_water.pdf . Chatterjee A. 2016. Improving health in cities through sys- Wessells AT. 2011. The Ultimate Team Sport?: urban Waterways tems approaches for urban water management. Environ and Youth Rowing in Seattle. In: The Paradox of Urban Space. Health. 15(S1):S31. doi:10.1186/s12940-016-0107-2. New York: Springer; p. 53–71. Rogers P, Hall AW, Effective water governance. 2003. TEC White MP, Elliott LR, Gascon M, Roberts B, Fleming LE. 2020. Blue Background Paper 7. Global water partnership Stockholm. space, health and well-being: a narrative overview and synth- Schets FM 2011. The microbiological safety of bathing water– esis of potential benefits. Environ Res. 191:110169. Waterborne pathogens beyond bathing water legislation. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110169 [Internet]: Utrecht University. Available from: https://dspace. Wiek A, Larson KL. 2012. Water, people, and sustainability—a library.uu.nl/handle/1874/197430 . systems framework for analyzing and assessing water gov- South West Water n.d. Drainage and Wastewater Management ernance regimes. Water Res Manag. 26(11):3153–3171. Planning – process Overview and Progress. [Accessed Aug doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0065-6. 2019]. Available from: https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/ Woodhouse P, Muller M. 2017. Water governance- An histor- siteassets/document-repository/business-plan-2020-2025/ ical perspective on current debates. World Dev. drainage-and-wastewater-management-plan.pdf . 92:225–241. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.11.014. Uncles R, Torres R. 2013. Estimating dispersion and flushing World Health Organisation. 1998. Health Promotion Glossary. time-scales in a coastal zone: application to the Plymouth area. Switzerland: world Health Organisation. [Accessed Aug Ocean Coast Manag. 72:3–12. doi:10.1016/j. 2019]. Available from: https://www.who.int/healthpromo ocecoaman.2011.09.013. tion/about/HPR%20Glossary%201998.pdf . United Nations General Assembly 2015. Transforming Our Wuijts S, Friederichs L, Hin JA, Schets FM, Van Rijswick HFMW, World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Draft Driessen PPJ. 2020. Governance conditions to overcome the resolution referred to the United Nations summit for the challenges of realizing safe urban bathing water sites. adoption of the post- 2015 development agenda by the Int J Water Resour Dev. 1–25. doi:10.1080/ General Assembly at its sixty-ninth session. UN Doc. A/70/ 07900627.2020.1755617

Journal

International Journal of Urban Sustainable DevelopmentTaylor & Francis

Published: May 4, 2021

Keywords: Water governance; implementation; urban infrastructure; global change

There are no references for this article.