Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Environmental justice, sustainability and vulnerability

Environmental justice, sustainability and vulnerability International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development Vol. 2, Nos. 1–2, May–November 2010, 135–140 TJUE International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development Christopher G. Boone* School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA (Received 5 June 2010; final version received 7 June 2010) Justice is a core yet often ignored principle of sustainability. However, sustainability for some at the expense of others undermines the principles and practice of sustainability as a force for positive change. In this commentary, I argue that sustainability research and practice can benefit from a closer reading of environmental justice scholarship. At the same time, environmental justice can draw on sustainability principles of systems thinking, anticipatory action and environmental stewardship to strengthen its methods and approaches while broadening its constituency. Vulnerability science can bridge environmental justice and sustainability and can also benefit from the convergence of ideas, principles and practices of these fields. Keywords: sustainability; climate justice; systems thinking; anticipatory action; environmental stewardship 1. Introduction the 1980s touched a nerve in the international community, leading to the Basel Convention on Justice is a core yet often ignored principle of sus- the Control of Transboundary Movements of tainability. In efforts to find ways to reduce harm Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1992). The to the natural systems that support us while seek- Basel Convention was an important step forward ing ways to expand economies and improve liveli- in righting environmental wrongs, but it has not hoods, many neglect or pay lip-service to justice fully restricted international transfer of hazardous as a central sustainability principle. Yet, sustaina- waste, including for so-called recycling pur- bility for some at the expense of others under- poses (Steady 2009). Environmental justice is a mines the principles and practice of sustainability well-established field of scholarship and social as a force for positive change. A case in point is activism that draws attention to, and seeks ways to the shipment of highly toxic materials from ameliorate, such injustices. In this commentary, wealthy to poor countries. Such a transfer might I argue that sustainability research and practice improve environmental conditions in the rich can benefit from a closer reading of environmental world and save high costs of treating and disposing justice scholarship. At the same time, environmen- of toxic wastes, but it subjects vulnerable popula- tal justice can draw on sustainability principles of tions in poor countries with weaker environmental systems thinking, anticipatory action and environ- monitoring to lethal materials (Pellow 2007). It is mental stewardship to strengthen its methods and the figurative equivalent of sweeping the dust approaches while broadening its constituency. under the rug – ignoring the problem does not Furthermore, vulnerability science can provide make it go away, nor is it the right thing to do. an important bridge between the two spheres of Indeed, high profile cases of ‘toxic colonialism’ in *Email: cgboone@asu.edu ISSN 1946-3138 print/ISSN 1946-3146 online © 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/19463138.2010.513772 http://www.informaworld.com 136 C.G. Boone environmental justice and sustainability while also examined, or at least called attention to, the need benefitting from the convergence of ideas, princi- for understanding the process or causal mecha- ples and practices from these fields of inquiry. nisms of injustice (Boone et al. 2009). This can include the processes that lead to unjust outcomes but also injustice of the process itself. Fairness in 2. An evolving environmental justice the application of environmental law and removing Environmental justice emerged in the United barriers for citizen participation, especially for the States in the 1980s as a social movement and field most marginalised, in environmental decision- of inquiry in response to the growing concern that making are two examples of process justice. The poor and racial/ethnic minority populations were struggle of marginalised groups for recognition in disproportionately burdened with the worst envi- environmental decision-making has also been a ronmental conditions. Early studies showed, what subject of interest to environmental justice schol- many activists had long suspected, that the loca- ars and activist groups (Young 1990). tion of hazardous waste and toxic release facilities correlated most strongly with racial and ethnic 3. Opportunities for convergence minority populations, even when controlling for income (Mohai and Saha 2007). Such findings A key principle of sustainability is systems think- suggested that racial and ethnic discrimination ing (Gibson 2006). Sustainability shares this prin- guided decisions about where to concentrate toxic ciple with other sciences, such as engineering and and polluting facilities. Drawing on hard-won ecology. Systems thinking emphasises that proc- social justice battles from the Civil Rights era, esses are linked at multiple temporal and spatial activists and scholars lobbied for new legislation scales and cannot be understood, let alone altered, that made information about hazardous pollutants without recognising such connections. For part of the public domain (Environmental Plan- example, the consumption of goods relies on sev- ning and Community Right-to-Know Act 1986) eral upstream (production, delivery) and down- and inspired the creation of an Office of Environ- stream (waste, reuse) processes that extend well mental Justice in the Environmental Protection beyond the immediate moment and place of pur- Agency (EPA) (1992) as well as an environmental chase or use. A single act within such complex justice executive order (1994) mandating all fed- systems can lead to unintended consequences, eral agencies to consider environmental justice in such as the exploitation of child labour or the their operations. elimination of wildlife habitat (Smith et al. 2006). Over the last decade, the purview of environ- Embedded in the purchase of a computer is the mental justice has continued to expand. Although energy, materials and labour that may come from research on toxics continues, environmental jus- great distances and affect livelihoods and the tice scholars and activists have begun to examine environment far removed from the purchaser. the role of privilege rather than disadvantage alone Older computers may be recycled using children as a factor in the distribution of both environmen- or other workers in poor countries who are tal goods and bads (Pulido 2000; Grineski et al. exposed to toxic materials as they crush circuit 2007). Privilege and power can be very effective boards to retrieve tiny amounts of valuable metals at deflecting unwanted land uses or pollutants as (Williams et al. 2008). well as attracting environmental amenities such as Although environmental justice activists and clean air or parks and recreation areas. A refocus- scholars understand the unfair burdens that arise ing on privilege and power can also draw attention from systems of production and consumption, to justice concerns about fairness of processes. most of the emphasis is placed on the ‘here and Whereas early work focused on outcomes, now’. This occurs for good reasons, as single local increasingly environmental justice scholarship has incidents such as the establishment of a trash International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 137 incinerator can galvanise a community to resist an sustainability could focus on prevention rather unwanted activity, often more so than the impact than solely on the burden of curing well- their actions (such as consuming goods) may have entrenched injustices. on labour conditions in a far-flung poor country. Another limitation of environmental justice is Environmental justice has been similarly con- that it has neglected or underplayed the import- strained by a focus on reaction rather than proac- ance of the biophysical environment, both as an tive decisions. This ‘militant particularism’ object of concern and as part of the dynamic (Harvey 1996) has served the environmental jus- processes that lead to injustice (Pickett et al. tice movement well in bringing to light the every- 2007). In part this reflects the historical trajec- day injustices that occur, but to move beyond tory of the US Civil Rights movement and the proximate causes and effects and to seek enduring general disregard (early on) of urban environ- opportunities for change, environmental justice mental issues by national mainstream environ- would benefit from the broader systems perspec- mental organisations. At the same time, draping tive that sustainability prescribes. To a degree, this social justice concerns in the environment has begun, as the environmental justice movement matched an expanding interest in environmental and scholarship have moved beyond the United issues, allowing groups to make old struggles States and taken root in other regions of the world politically palatable to a wider constituency of (Omer and Or 2005; Okereke 2008). Development environmentalists. Sustainability research and of environmental justice in other countries has practice advocates very strongly for protecting encouraged the beginning of comparative studies, the environment for its instrumental value and to which draw increasing attention to global proc- a lesser degree its intrinsic value. A core argu- esses and connections. However, environmental ment of sustainability is that we depend ulti- justice should embrace more seriously how global mately on Earth’s systems to support human life and local processes are linked, and how present (instrumental value), and that we take a lot of conditions and processes are shaped by the past those services for granted. An emerging oppor- and may guide the future. tunity for environmental justice is to examine the Sustainability is a future-oriented science outcomes and process justice of how those Earth whereas environmental justice tends to focus on systems, sometimes termed ‘ecosystem services’, the present and, to a certain degree, the past. This are managed. For example, governments and is not to suggest that a focus on present and past non-profit groups around the world have initiated wrongs is unnecessary or not worthwhile. Indeed, programmes to increase urban tree canopies valuable lessons can be learned from environmen- because of the multiple ecosystem services and tal justice struggles that can be applied to future benefits from trees in metropolitan areas. Trees plans. However, environmental justice would provide shade, mitigate extremes of climate, benefit by shifting from blaming to framing a reduce human vulnerability to heat stress, pro- more just future. Similar to environmental justice, vide habitat for wildlife, absorb pollutants, sustainability incorporates a normative stance, or reduce loads on stormwater systems and add what ought to be. Through such sustainability value to properties (Donovan and Butry 2010). In mechanisms as scenarios and visioning, many of anticipation of likely regulations on greenhouse the struggles of environmental justice, from equi- gas emissions, municipalities are promoting table outcomes to recognition justice and fair increased tree planting and improved stewardship application of the law, can be addressed and incor- for carbon sequestration and storage benefits porated into long-range planning (Okereke 2008). (Cumming et al. 2008). Whereas municipalities Because sustainability anticipates future condi- embrace the benefits of increasing tree canopy tions, both probable and normative, an environ- cover, little attention has been paid to the environ- mental justice informed and inspired by mental justice implications of such investments. 138 C.G. Boone Measuring the distribution of ecosystem service measure human exposure to harm, the differential benefits from urban forests in relation to social sensitivity of social groups to harm and differ- groups is one potential avenue for integrating ences in adaptive capacity or the ability to respond biophysical environment characteristics into or ‘bounce back’ after the harm occurs (Cutter environmental justice. Equally compelling is to 2003). Related to the idea of adaptive capacity is comprehend the justice of decision-making the ecological concept of resilience, or the ability regarding urban tree canopy goals (Pincetl 2010). of ecosystems to adapt to change while maintain- An urban tree canopy programme that considers ing ecological structure and function (Walker et al. only the voices of environmental scientists would 2004). The concept of resilience has ecological not fit the recognition justice concerns of envi- origins, but it has been applied to socioecological ronmental justice nor the scenario and visioning systems, where resilient societies are understood principles of sustainability. A focus on process is as less vulnerable and better able to deal with per- important because a proper and just delivery of turbations, shocks and surprises than less resilient ecosystem services can help to ameliorate envi- societies (Janssen and Ostrom 2006; Buchmann ronmental injustices and unsustainable practices. 2009). Some scholars have also stressed the import- From sustainability and environmental justice ance of protecting Earth’s systems for their own perspectives, one limitation of vulnerability sci- sake, because they have intrinsic value that may ence and resilience is a paucity of normative not have significant or immediate value to human stances. Despite innate concerns of reducing harm life and livelihood (Elliot 1997; Rolston 2003). An to vulnerable populations, justice is rarely uttered environmental ethic embodied in sustainability next to the discussions of adaptive capacity or that seeks to protect ecosystems from the hegem- resilience. An expanded notion of vulnerability, ony of the market has merits that could inform a however, can easily incorporate principles and broader environmental justice. Environmental practices of sustainability and environmental justice. justice, with its emphasis on justice and equity, Similar to sustainability, vulnerability adopts a could be a fruitful forum for dealing with the ques- systems approach to understanding the relation- tion of intrinsic value of nature in sustainability ship between people and the environment. It (Schlosberg 2007). argues that there are thresholds of harm that can be avoided with a proper understanding of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of both social 4. Vulnerability science as a bridge and biophysical systems. Another similarity is that What I have suggested thus far is that sustainabil- vulnerability is anticipatory. A driving force ity and environmental justice could mutually behind vulnerability is to anticipate change to mit- benefit from a closer relationship in scholarship igate or adapt to potential harm. A broader con- and in practice. One potential bridge to facilitate ceptualisation of vulnerability can also meet the that interaction is vulnerability science. The field demands of environmental justice. New vulnera- of vulnerability is itself a convergence of multiple bility research that draws from political economy intellectual streams, from risk hazards research, and political ecology perspectives is sensitive to political economy, political ecology and more the structural forces that lead to marginalisation. recently from ecology (Turner et al. 2003; Adger Two leading scholars (Eakin and Luers 2006) in 2006). Vulnerability offers a framework for under- vulnerability science proclaim that vulnerability is standing the dynamics of human–environment ‘inherently about ethics and equity’ (p. 388). relationships, with an emphasis on reducing or However, it is not clear to what degree social jus- eliminating harm to people and to a lesser degree tice will become a fundamental metric as opposed the environments that support them. Vulnerability to an ideal in vulnerability analyses (Bolin 2006). science has developed sophisticated ways to Continued attention to the struggles highlighted in International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 139 environmental justice scholarship and activism is References therefore a necessary step for developing an Adger W. 2006. Vulnerability. Glob Environ Change. 16(3):268–281. enhanced vulnerability science, one that can Bolin B. 2006. Race, class, ethnicity, and disaster vul- bridge sustainability and environmental justice nerability. In: Rodriguez H, Quarantelli E, Dynes R, principles and concerns. editors. Handbook of disaster research. New York: Springer. p. 113–129. Boone CG, Buckleyb GL, Grovec JM, Sisterd C. 2009. Parks and people: an environmental justice inquiry 5. Conclusions in Baltimore, Maryland. Ann Assoc Am Geogr. For nearly 30 years, the environmental justice 99(4):767–787. movement has championed the rights of disadvan- Buchmann C. 2009. Cuban home gardens and their role in social–ecological resilience. Hum Ecol. taged groups and fought to make sure that the 37(6):705–721. ‘environment’ should include central city neigh- Cumming A, Twardus D, Nowak D. 2008. Urban forest bourhoods as much as wilderness or tropical for- health monitoring: large-scale assessments in the ests. Initially a marginal movement based in the United States. Arboric Urban For. 34(6):341–346. United States, environmental justice has success- Cutter S. 2003. The vulnerability of science and the sci- ence of vulnerability. Ann Assoc Am Geogr. fully become a working principle of non-profit 93(1):1–12. groups and governments in many parts of the Donovan GH, Butry DT. 2010. Trees in the city: valu- world. However, opportunities exist to better ing street trees in Portland, Oregon. Landsc Urban incorporate environmental justice’s ideas, meth- Plan. 94(2):77–83. ods and principles into sustainability, which has Eakin H, Luers A. 2006. Assessing the vulnerability of social – environmental systems. Environ Resour. 31:365–394. been broadly accepted and adopted in the global Elliot R. 1997. Faking nature: the ethics of environmen- arena. Sustainability is typically understood and tal restoration. London (England): Routledge. implemented as a balance between environmental Gibson RB. 2006. Sustainability assessment: basic com- and economic priorities; social justice needs to be ponents of a practical approach. Imp Assess Proj an equal consideration, and environmental justice Apprais. 24(3):170–182. Grineski S, Bolin B, Boone CG. 2007. Criteria air pollu- scholars and activists should continue to struggle tion and marginalized populations: environmental to make sure that it is. At the same time, environ- inequity in Metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, USA. mental justice has an opportunity to hitch its Soc Sci Q. 88(2):535–554. wagon to the sustainability train and embrace Harvey D. 1996. Justice, nature and the geography of some of the attributes of sustainability that make it difference. Chichester (England): Wiley-Blackwell. Janssen M, Ostrom E. 2006. Resilience, vulnerability, so tenable. Climate justice exemplifies how this and adaptation: a crosscutting theme of the interna- may occur, where the principles of environmental tional human dimensions programme on global justice have combined with the global-level systems environmental change [editorial]. Glob Environ thinking, biophysical concerns and anticipatory Change. 16:237–239. principles of sustainability. From vulnerability, Mohai P, Saha R. 2007. Racial inequality in the distri- bution of hazardous waste: a national-level reas- climate justice research and protests have also sessment. Soc Probl. 54(3):343–370. drawn attention to the differential impacts that are Okereke C. 2008. Global justice and neoliberal environ- likely to occur, especially in developing countries, mental governance: ethics, sustainable development and the lack of institutional and other means for and international co-operation. Abingdon (Eng- mitigating or adapting to such change. Conver- land): Routledge. Omer I, Or U. 2005. Distributive environmental justice gence of the ideas, principles and practices from in the city: differential access in two mixed Israeli environmental justice, sustainability and vulnera- cities. Tijdschr Econ Soc Geogr. 96(4):433–443. bility could be a very powerful mix for effecting Pellow D. 2007. Resisting global toxics: transnational positive change, from local neighbourhoods to movements for environmental justice. Cambridge global systems and from now into the future. (MA): The MIT Press. 140 C.G. Boone Pickett S, Boone C, Cadenasso M. 2007. Relationships Steady FC. 2009. Environmental Justice cross-culturally. of environmental justice to ecological theory. Bull In: Steady FC, editor. Environmental justice in the Ecol Soc Am. 88(2):166–170. new millennium: global perspectives on race, Pincetl S. 2010. Implementing municipal tree planting: ethnicity, and human rights. New York: Palgrave Los Angeles million-tree initiative. Environ Manage. MacMillan. p. 47–64. 45(2):227–238. Turner BL, Kasperson RE, Matson PA, McCarthy JJ, Pulido L. 2000. Rethinking environmental racism: white Corell RW, Christensen L, Eckley N, Kasperson JX, privilege and urban development in southern Cali- Luers A, Martello ML, et al. 2003. A framework for fornia. Ann Assoc Am Geogr. 90(1):12–40. vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proc Rolston H III. 2003. Value in nature and the nature of Natl Acad Sci USA. 100(14):8074–8079. value. In: Light A, Rolston H III, editors. Environ- Walker B, Holling CS, Carpenter SR, Kinzig A. 2004. mental ethics: an anthology. Oxford (England): Resilience, adaptability and transformability in Blackwell. p. 143–53. social–ecological systems. Ecol Soc. 9(2):5. Schlosberg D. 2007. Defining environmental justice: Williams E, Kahhat R, Allenby B, Kavazanjian E, Kim J, theories, movements, and nature. Oxford (England): Xu M. 2008. Environmental, social, and economic Oxford University Press. implications of global reuse and recycling of Smith T, Sonnenfeld D, Pellow D. 2006. Challenging personal computers. Environ Sci Technol. the Chip: labor rights and environmental justice in 42(17):6446–6454. the global electronics industry. Philadelphia (PA): Young IM. 1990. Justice and the politics of difference. Temple University Press. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development Taylor & Francis

Environmental justice, sustainability and vulnerability

Loading next page...
 
/lp/taylor-francis/environmental-justice-sustainability-and-vulnerability-iV9k5ydfPc

References (28)

Publisher
Taylor & Francis
Copyright
Copyright Taylor & Francis
ISSN
1946-3146
eISSN
1946-3138
DOI
10.1080/19463138.2010.513772
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development Vol. 2, Nos. 1–2, May–November 2010, 135–140 TJUE International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development Christopher G. Boone* School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA (Received 5 June 2010; final version received 7 June 2010) Justice is a core yet often ignored principle of sustainability. However, sustainability for some at the expense of others undermines the principles and practice of sustainability as a force for positive change. In this commentary, I argue that sustainability research and practice can benefit from a closer reading of environmental justice scholarship. At the same time, environmental justice can draw on sustainability principles of systems thinking, anticipatory action and environmental stewardship to strengthen its methods and approaches while broadening its constituency. Vulnerability science can bridge environmental justice and sustainability and can also benefit from the convergence of ideas, principles and practices of these fields. Keywords: sustainability; climate justice; systems thinking; anticipatory action; environmental stewardship 1. Introduction the 1980s touched a nerve in the international community, leading to the Basel Convention on Justice is a core yet often ignored principle of sus- the Control of Transboundary Movements of tainability. In efforts to find ways to reduce harm Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1992). The to the natural systems that support us while seek- Basel Convention was an important step forward ing ways to expand economies and improve liveli- in righting environmental wrongs, but it has not hoods, many neglect or pay lip-service to justice fully restricted international transfer of hazardous as a central sustainability principle. Yet, sustaina- waste, including for so-called recycling pur- bility for some at the expense of others under- poses (Steady 2009). Environmental justice is a mines the principles and practice of sustainability well-established field of scholarship and social as a force for positive change. A case in point is activism that draws attention to, and seeks ways to the shipment of highly toxic materials from ameliorate, such injustices. In this commentary, wealthy to poor countries. Such a transfer might I argue that sustainability research and practice improve environmental conditions in the rich can benefit from a closer reading of environmental world and save high costs of treating and disposing justice scholarship. At the same time, environmen- of toxic wastes, but it subjects vulnerable popula- tal justice can draw on sustainability principles of tions in poor countries with weaker environmental systems thinking, anticipatory action and environ- monitoring to lethal materials (Pellow 2007). It is mental stewardship to strengthen its methods and the figurative equivalent of sweeping the dust approaches while broadening its constituency. under the rug – ignoring the problem does not Furthermore, vulnerability science can provide make it go away, nor is it the right thing to do. an important bridge between the two spheres of Indeed, high profile cases of ‘toxic colonialism’ in *Email: cgboone@asu.edu ISSN 1946-3138 print/ISSN 1946-3146 online © 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/19463138.2010.513772 http://www.informaworld.com 136 C.G. Boone environmental justice and sustainability while also examined, or at least called attention to, the need benefitting from the convergence of ideas, princi- for understanding the process or causal mecha- ples and practices from these fields of inquiry. nisms of injustice (Boone et al. 2009). This can include the processes that lead to unjust outcomes but also injustice of the process itself. Fairness in 2. An evolving environmental justice the application of environmental law and removing Environmental justice emerged in the United barriers for citizen participation, especially for the States in the 1980s as a social movement and field most marginalised, in environmental decision- of inquiry in response to the growing concern that making are two examples of process justice. The poor and racial/ethnic minority populations were struggle of marginalised groups for recognition in disproportionately burdened with the worst envi- environmental decision-making has also been a ronmental conditions. Early studies showed, what subject of interest to environmental justice schol- many activists had long suspected, that the loca- ars and activist groups (Young 1990). tion of hazardous waste and toxic release facilities correlated most strongly with racial and ethnic 3. Opportunities for convergence minority populations, even when controlling for income (Mohai and Saha 2007). Such findings A key principle of sustainability is systems think- suggested that racial and ethnic discrimination ing (Gibson 2006). Sustainability shares this prin- guided decisions about where to concentrate toxic ciple with other sciences, such as engineering and and polluting facilities. Drawing on hard-won ecology. Systems thinking emphasises that proc- social justice battles from the Civil Rights era, esses are linked at multiple temporal and spatial activists and scholars lobbied for new legislation scales and cannot be understood, let alone altered, that made information about hazardous pollutants without recognising such connections. For part of the public domain (Environmental Plan- example, the consumption of goods relies on sev- ning and Community Right-to-Know Act 1986) eral upstream (production, delivery) and down- and inspired the creation of an Office of Environ- stream (waste, reuse) processes that extend well mental Justice in the Environmental Protection beyond the immediate moment and place of pur- Agency (EPA) (1992) as well as an environmental chase or use. A single act within such complex justice executive order (1994) mandating all fed- systems can lead to unintended consequences, eral agencies to consider environmental justice in such as the exploitation of child labour or the their operations. elimination of wildlife habitat (Smith et al. 2006). Over the last decade, the purview of environ- Embedded in the purchase of a computer is the mental justice has continued to expand. Although energy, materials and labour that may come from research on toxics continues, environmental jus- great distances and affect livelihoods and the tice scholars and activists have begun to examine environment far removed from the purchaser. the role of privilege rather than disadvantage alone Older computers may be recycled using children as a factor in the distribution of both environmen- or other workers in poor countries who are tal goods and bads (Pulido 2000; Grineski et al. exposed to toxic materials as they crush circuit 2007). Privilege and power can be very effective boards to retrieve tiny amounts of valuable metals at deflecting unwanted land uses or pollutants as (Williams et al. 2008). well as attracting environmental amenities such as Although environmental justice activists and clean air or parks and recreation areas. A refocus- scholars understand the unfair burdens that arise ing on privilege and power can also draw attention from systems of production and consumption, to justice concerns about fairness of processes. most of the emphasis is placed on the ‘here and Whereas early work focused on outcomes, now’. This occurs for good reasons, as single local increasingly environmental justice scholarship has incidents such as the establishment of a trash International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 137 incinerator can galvanise a community to resist an sustainability could focus on prevention rather unwanted activity, often more so than the impact than solely on the burden of curing well- their actions (such as consuming goods) may have entrenched injustices. on labour conditions in a far-flung poor country. Another limitation of environmental justice is Environmental justice has been similarly con- that it has neglected or underplayed the import- strained by a focus on reaction rather than proac- ance of the biophysical environment, both as an tive decisions. This ‘militant particularism’ object of concern and as part of the dynamic (Harvey 1996) has served the environmental jus- processes that lead to injustice (Pickett et al. tice movement well in bringing to light the every- 2007). In part this reflects the historical trajec- day injustices that occur, but to move beyond tory of the US Civil Rights movement and the proximate causes and effects and to seek enduring general disregard (early on) of urban environ- opportunities for change, environmental justice mental issues by national mainstream environ- would benefit from the broader systems perspec- mental organisations. At the same time, draping tive that sustainability prescribes. To a degree, this social justice concerns in the environment has begun, as the environmental justice movement matched an expanding interest in environmental and scholarship have moved beyond the United issues, allowing groups to make old struggles States and taken root in other regions of the world politically palatable to a wider constituency of (Omer and Or 2005; Okereke 2008). Development environmentalists. Sustainability research and of environmental justice in other countries has practice advocates very strongly for protecting encouraged the beginning of comparative studies, the environment for its instrumental value and to which draw increasing attention to global proc- a lesser degree its intrinsic value. A core argu- esses and connections. However, environmental ment of sustainability is that we depend ulti- justice should embrace more seriously how global mately on Earth’s systems to support human life and local processes are linked, and how present (instrumental value), and that we take a lot of conditions and processes are shaped by the past those services for granted. An emerging oppor- and may guide the future. tunity for environmental justice is to examine the Sustainability is a future-oriented science outcomes and process justice of how those Earth whereas environmental justice tends to focus on systems, sometimes termed ‘ecosystem services’, the present and, to a certain degree, the past. This are managed. For example, governments and is not to suggest that a focus on present and past non-profit groups around the world have initiated wrongs is unnecessary or not worthwhile. Indeed, programmes to increase urban tree canopies valuable lessons can be learned from environmen- because of the multiple ecosystem services and tal justice struggles that can be applied to future benefits from trees in metropolitan areas. Trees plans. However, environmental justice would provide shade, mitigate extremes of climate, benefit by shifting from blaming to framing a reduce human vulnerability to heat stress, pro- more just future. Similar to environmental justice, vide habitat for wildlife, absorb pollutants, sustainability incorporates a normative stance, or reduce loads on stormwater systems and add what ought to be. Through such sustainability value to properties (Donovan and Butry 2010). In mechanisms as scenarios and visioning, many of anticipation of likely regulations on greenhouse the struggles of environmental justice, from equi- gas emissions, municipalities are promoting table outcomes to recognition justice and fair increased tree planting and improved stewardship application of the law, can be addressed and incor- for carbon sequestration and storage benefits porated into long-range planning (Okereke 2008). (Cumming et al. 2008). Whereas municipalities Because sustainability anticipates future condi- embrace the benefits of increasing tree canopy tions, both probable and normative, an environ- cover, little attention has been paid to the environ- mental justice informed and inspired by mental justice implications of such investments. 138 C.G. Boone Measuring the distribution of ecosystem service measure human exposure to harm, the differential benefits from urban forests in relation to social sensitivity of social groups to harm and differ- groups is one potential avenue for integrating ences in adaptive capacity or the ability to respond biophysical environment characteristics into or ‘bounce back’ after the harm occurs (Cutter environmental justice. Equally compelling is to 2003). Related to the idea of adaptive capacity is comprehend the justice of decision-making the ecological concept of resilience, or the ability regarding urban tree canopy goals (Pincetl 2010). of ecosystems to adapt to change while maintain- An urban tree canopy programme that considers ing ecological structure and function (Walker et al. only the voices of environmental scientists would 2004). The concept of resilience has ecological not fit the recognition justice concerns of envi- origins, but it has been applied to socioecological ronmental justice nor the scenario and visioning systems, where resilient societies are understood principles of sustainability. A focus on process is as less vulnerable and better able to deal with per- important because a proper and just delivery of turbations, shocks and surprises than less resilient ecosystem services can help to ameliorate envi- societies (Janssen and Ostrom 2006; Buchmann ronmental injustices and unsustainable practices. 2009). Some scholars have also stressed the import- From sustainability and environmental justice ance of protecting Earth’s systems for their own perspectives, one limitation of vulnerability sci- sake, because they have intrinsic value that may ence and resilience is a paucity of normative not have significant or immediate value to human stances. Despite innate concerns of reducing harm life and livelihood (Elliot 1997; Rolston 2003). An to vulnerable populations, justice is rarely uttered environmental ethic embodied in sustainability next to the discussions of adaptive capacity or that seeks to protect ecosystems from the hegem- resilience. An expanded notion of vulnerability, ony of the market has merits that could inform a however, can easily incorporate principles and broader environmental justice. Environmental practices of sustainability and environmental justice. justice, with its emphasis on justice and equity, Similar to sustainability, vulnerability adopts a could be a fruitful forum for dealing with the ques- systems approach to understanding the relation- tion of intrinsic value of nature in sustainability ship between people and the environment. It (Schlosberg 2007). argues that there are thresholds of harm that can be avoided with a proper understanding of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of both social 4. Vulnerability science as a bridge and biophysical systems. Another similarity is that What I have suggested thus far is that sustainabil- vulnerability is anticipatory. A driving force ity and environmental justice could mutually behind vulnerability is to anticipate change to mit- benefit from a closer relationship in scholarship igate or adapt to potential harm. A broader con- and in practice. One potential bridge to facilitate ceptualisation of vulnerability can also meet the that interaction is vulnerability science. The field demands of environmental justice. New vulnera- of vulnerability is itself a convergence of multiple bility research that draws from political economy intellectual streams, from risk hazards research, and political ecology perspectives is sensitive to political economy, political ecology and more the structural forces that lead to marginalisation. recently from ecology (Turner et al. 2003; Adger Two leading scholars (Eakin and Luers 2006) in 2006). Vulnerability offers a framework for under- vulnerability science proclaim that vulnerability is standing the dynamics of human–environment ‘inherently about ethics and equity’ (p. 388). relationships, with an emphasis on reducing or However, it is not clear to what degree social jus- eliminating harm to people and to a lesser degree tice will become a fundamental metric as opposed the environments that support them. Vulnerability to an ideal in vulnerability analyses (Bolin 2006). science has developed sophisticated ways to Continued attention to the struggles highlighted in International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 139 environmental justice scholarship and activism is References therefore a necessary step for developing an Adger W. 2006. Vulnerability. Glob Environ Change. 16(3):268–281. enhanced vulnerability science, one that can Bolin B. 2006. Race, class, ethnicity, and disaster vul- bridge sustainability and environmental justice nerability. In: Rodriguez H, Quarantelli E, Dynes R, principles and concerns. editors. Handbook of disaster research. New York: Springer. p. 113–129. Boone CG, Buckleyb GL, Grovec JM, Sisterd C. 2009. Parks and people: an environmental justice inquiry 5. Conclusions in Baltimore, Maryland. Ann Assoc Am Geogr. For nearly 30 years, the environmental justice 99(4):767–787. movement has championed the rights of disadvan- Buchmann C. 2009. Cuban home gardens and their role in social–ecological resilience. Hum Ecol. taged groups and fought to make sure that the 37(6):705–721. ‘environment’ should include central city neigh- Cumming A, Twardus D, Nowak D. 2008. Urban forest bourhoods as much as wilderness or tropical for- health monitoring: large-scale assessments in the ests. Initially a marginal movement based in the United States. Arboric Urban For. 34(6):341–346. United States, environmental justice has success- Cutter S. 2003. The vulnerability of science and the sci- ence of vulnerability. Ann Assoc Am Geogr. fully become a working principle of non-profit 93(1):1–12. groups and governments in many parts of the Donovan GH, Butry DT. 2010. Trees in the city: valu- world. However, opportunities exist to better ing street trees in Portland, Oregon. Landsc Urban incorporate environmental justice’s ideas, meth- Plan. 94(2):77–83. ods and principles into sustainability, which has Eakin H, Luers A. 2006. Assessing the vulnerability of social – environmental systems. Environ Resour. 31:365–394. been broadly accepted and adopted in the global Elliot R. 1997. Faking nature: the ethics of environmen- arena. Sustainability is typically understood and tal restoration. London (England): Routledge. implemented as a balance between environmental Gibson RB. 2006. Sustainability assessment: basic com- and economic priorities; social justice needs to be ponents of a practical approach. Imp Assess Proj an equal consideration, and environmental justice Apprais. 24(3):170–182. Grineski S, Bolin B, Boone CG. 2007. Criteria air pollu- scholars and activists should continue to struggle tion and marginalized populations: environmental to make sure that it is. At the same time, environ- inequity in Metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, USA. mental justice has an opportunity to hitch its Soc Sci Q. 88(2):535–554. wagon to the sustainability train and embrace Harvey D. 1996. Justice, nature and the geography of some of the attributes of sustainability that make it difference. Chichester (England): Wiley-Blackwell. Janssen M, Ostrom E. 2006. Resilience, vulnerability, so tenable. Climate justice exemplifies how this and adaptation: a crosscutting theme of the interna- may occur, where the principles of environmental tional human dimensions programme on global justice have combined with the global-level systems environmental change [editorial]. Glob Environ thinking, biophysical concerns and anticipatory Change. 16:237–239. principles of sustainability. From vulnerability, Mohai P, Saha R. 2007. Racial inequality in the distri- bution of hazardous waste: a national-level reas- climate justice research and protests have also sessment. Soc Probl. 54(3):343–370. drawn attention to the differential impacts that are Okereke C. 2008. Global justice and neoliberal environ- likely to occur, especially in developing countries, mental governance: ethics, sustainable development and the lack of institutional and other means for and international co-operation. Abingdon (Eng- mitigating or adapting to such change. Conver- land): Routledge. Omer I, Or U. 2005. Distributive environmental justice gence of the ideas, principles and practices from in the city: differential access in two mixed Israeli environmental justice, sustainability and vulnera- cities. Tijdschr Econ Soc Geogr. 96(4):433–443. bility could be a very powerful mix for effecting Pellow D. 2007. Resisting global toxics: transnational positive change, from local neighbourhoods to movements for environmental justice. Cambridge global systems and from now into the future. (MA): The MIT Press. 140 C.G. Boone Pickett S, Boone C, Cadenasso M. 2007. Relationships Steady FC. 2009. Environmental Justice cross-culturally. of environmental justice to ecological theory. Bull In: Steady FC, editor. Environmental justice in the Ecol Soc Am. 88(2):166–170. new millennium: global perspectives on race, Pincetl S. 2010. Implementing municipal tree planting: ethnicity, and human rights. New York: Palgrave Los Angeles million-tree initiative. Environ Manage. MacMillan. p. 47–64. 45(2):227–238. Turner BL, Kasperson RE, Matson PA, McCarthy JJ, Pulido L. 2000. Rethinking environmental racism: white Corell RW, Christensen L, Eckley N, Kasperson JX, privilege and urban development in southern Cali- Luers A, Martello ML, et al. 2003. A framework for fornia. Ann Assoc Am Geogr. 90(1):12–40. vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proc Rolston H III. 2003. Value in nature and the nature of Natl Acad Sci USA. 100(14):8074–8079. value. In: Light A, Rolston H III, editors. Environ- Walker B, Holling CS, Carpenter SR, Kinzig A. 2004. mental ethics: an anthology. Oxford (England): Resilience, adaptability and transformability in Blackwell. p. 143–53. social–ecological systems. Ecol Soc. 9(2):5. Schlosberg D. 2007. Defining environmental justice: Williams E, Kahhat R, Allenby B, Kavazanjian E, Kim J, theories, movements, and nature. Oxford (England): Xu M. 2008. Environmental, social, and economic Oxford University Press. implications of global reuse and recycling of Smith T, Sonnenfeld D, Pellow D. 2006. Challenging personal computers. Environ Sci Technol. the Chip: labor rights and environmental justice in 42(17):6446–6454. the global electronics industry. Philadelphia (PA): Young IM. 1990. Justice and the politics of difference. Temple University Press. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.

Journal

International Journal of Urban Sustainable DevelopmentTaylor & Francis

Published: Jan 1, 2010

Keywords: sustainability; climate justice; systems thinking; anticipatory action; environmental stewardship

There are no references for this article.