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Contrasting practices and perceptions of urban agriculture in Portugal

Contrasting practices and perceptions of urban agriculture in Portugal INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2018, VOL. 10, NO. 2, 170–185 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2018.1481069 ARTICLE Cecília Delgado CICS.NOVA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Social Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 7 July 2017 This paper presents a conceptual exploration of Urban Agriculture in Portugal. We Accepted 23 May 2018 argue that Portuguese Urban Agriculture primarily focuses on food production for self-consumption and that its links with the other components of urban as a system KEYWORDS are quite limited. Urban agriculture; To substantiate our argument several Urban Agriculture international definitions peri-urban agriculture; are presented and critically analysed along with: 1) interviews of relevant key actors; urban planning; urban food system; Portugal and, 2) a web search based on key words. We conclude that there is a need to clarify the very concept of Urban Agriculture among actors involved. This could be achieved through a national network able to raise a must needed debate about this promising sector. Political decision makers, civil society, and planners, among others should be involved in this collaborative process. Finally, the paper brings some reflections on what the Portuguese experience contributes to the broader debate and definitions of Urban Agriculture. Portuguese urban food system, both in theory and 1. Introduction practice. This paper presents a conceptual exploration of In this paper, we recognize the UA framework urban agriculture (UA) in Portugal. As used in this [D1], proposed by the Research Center for Urban paper, UA is conceived as a component of the Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) in 2006. urban system (RUAF 2006) and understood as a RUAF defines UA as: key piece of a complex, interrelated environmental, D1:“” the growing of plants and the raising of animals social, economic, political, spatial, and physical within and around cities. The most striking feature of system. urban agriculture, which distinguishes it from rural agri- The work presented in this paper is a part of a culture, is that it is integrated into the urban economic larger research—action project that merges UA, and ecological system: urban agriculture is embedded in – urban planning and local food public policies with and interacting with – the urban ecosystem. Such linkages include the use of urban residents as labourers, use of the intent to develop UA as part of a municipal urban typical urban resources (like organic waste as compost food system, based on a multi-stakeholder collabora- and urban wastewater for irrigation), direct links with tive governance approach. Defining how UA is linked urban consumers, direct impacts on urban ecology (posi- to food system, in order to ensure a common plat- tive and negative), being part of the urban food system, form, when discussing the topic among stakeholders competing for land with other urban functions, being influenced by urban policies and plans, etc. Urban agri- fuels the need to: 1) identify the scope and breadth culture is not a relic of the past that will fade away (urban of UA in the Portuguese context; 2) find a way for all agriculture increases when the city grows) nor brought to stakeholders to share a common understanding of the city by rural immigrants that will lose their rural habits the scope; and 3) make visible to stakeholders the over time” (RUAF 2006). Additional UA definitions will be numerous and diverse connections UA has to the added to the discussed later on. CONTACT Cecília Delgado cmndelgado@gmail.com CICS.NOVA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Social Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 171 We also recognize the regional food system defini- a relevant issue regarding the development of a UA tion proposed in the Milan Urban Pact (MUFPP local and national policies. Here, we argue that the 2015b) which states that a food system ‘gathers all Portuguese UA context is still focused uttermost on the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, food production for self-consumption, without taking infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that into account UA as part of the food system. This relate to the production, processing, distribution, pre- narrow focus reduces its stability through time, its paration and consumption of food, and the outputs of competitiveness and its capacity to contribute to the these activities, including socioeconomic and environ- development of sustainable city development. mental outcomes’. We use such definitions to com- Why does this matter? If findings corroborate our pare Portuguese UA to the larger recognized food argument, special emphasis needs to be given to UA system concepts and to demonstrate that UA is only conceptual clarification not only in Portugal but also in a component of this larger food system (Dubbeling other cities and countries dealing with similar issues. 2013). Comparisons also assist to identify any missing Local municipal governments often initially come to links or elements. Food consumption is not consid- food and agriculture issues in terms of urban and ered as being part of UA. However, some UA prac- peri-UA, meaning horticulture and forestry (FAO, n.d.), tices in Portugal do relate to food consumption as in and lack UA-innovative projects as part of the urban various cases UA produces are for urban farmers’ self- food system, which are needed to have UA contribute consumption. It is crucial to stress here the very to a sustainable post-crisis approach (Delgado 2017). limited economical (e.g. market-oriented) and ecolo- The first contribution of this paper is to outline a gical perspectives (e.g. climate change mitigation) of national UA Portuguese profile based on the following UA in the country. research question: How is Portuguese UA being con- What do we know so far? A review of published ceptualized by relevant key actors in the field? The literature suggests that Portuguese UA primarily con- second contribution of this paper is to understand the sists of allotment gardens, mainly for self-consump- missing links between UA and the food systems at tion of produced food (Pinto 2007; Luiz and Jorge national level. This will be done through addressing 2011; Ramos 2011; Saraiva 2011; Abreu 2012; the following research questions: 1) within the frame- Cabannes and Raposo 2013; Cancela 2014; work of international definitions, what are the missing Gonçalves 2014; Sousa 2014). This insight is based links, and missing elements of Portuguese UA; and 2) on an assessment of: national academic literature what are, if any, specific aspects that are not embraced which included masters and PhD thesis; grey litera- by existing definitions? ture available from local governments; unpublished We argue that those two explorations are particu- reports and notes from Non Governmental larly important since UA is still a relatively new topic Organizations (NGOs) and activists, and newspapers both in the international context (Pothukuchi and articles and interviews. Kaufman 1999; Veenhuizen 2006; Morgan 2014; However, we also know that there are Portuguese Cabannes and Marocchino 2016) and in Portugal. UA initiatives that go far beyond a program of allot- Furthermore, UA is currently higher in the national ment gardens. For instance, there exist quite a few agenda, so key-stakeholders do play an advocacy well establish initiatives dealing with urban food role for the future of Portuguese UA, either being waste including Ugly Fruit (‘Fruta Feia in Portuguese’) connected or not with the whole food system. founded in 2013 (FRUTA FEIA CRL, 2017) and Re-Food, To do so, we argue that some ground work must founded in 2012 (Food 2017). Both of these programs be done. First, we need to clarify what relevant key- are active at a national scale. There also exist some actors perceive as UA. Second, we need to take a attempts to link up urban local food efforts with social broader look on what is going on by examining canteens, such as the Program for food sustainability critically current practices. Finally, we need to revisit in schools (‘Programa de Sustentabilidade na international definitions at the light of Portuguese Alimentação Escolar in Portuguese’) which is a munici- specificities. pal initiative in Torres Vedras, located near Lisbon This paper presents the findings from two methods (CMTV 2017), to mention one among many. applied to the research on the contrasting UA percep- However, we still do not know if those initiatives tions and practices in Portugal, namely: 1) nterviews of are part of the UA Portuguese key actors’ perception, a selection of relevant key actors; and, 2) web search 172 C. DELGADO of sites and videos based on key words. Before pre- Madeira Island region, started a formal process to senting the results in section five, some insights on the allocate gardens as part of its environmental policy. Portuguese UA background since 2000 are given in This project currently covers around 6 ha cultivated by section two. In the third section, we discuss UA defini- 900 urban gardeners. tions based on selected concepts from academia, A market-oriented initiative, PROVE, was launched practice and institutional empirical—or conventional by ADREPES in 2006. PROVE (2017) is a national uses. Fourth section comprises the methodology and programme that promotes new forms of short mar- the design research that includes key-actors inter- keting chains by linking up small scale producers in views and key words website research. Next sections peri-urban areas to urban consumers (Maciel 2016). summarize the findings obtained through the inter- Nowadays, the programme involves 132 producers views and the web search and subsequently discuss and 7000 consumers. Fresh local vegetables and fruit these findings. Concluding remarks and findings baskets are distributed through 118 distribution implications close of the present paper. points primarily in Lisbon and Porto Metropolitan Areas (Delgado 2017). The year 2011 brought a landmark when the 2. Some insights into the background of Seixal Municipality, located in the Lisbon Portuguese 21st century UA Metropolitan area, organized the First International At the beginning of the twenty-first century Portugal Congress on Urban and Peri-UA (Lança, 2011). This was predominantly a rural society (Ferraz 1975)and event was well attended with a significant national remained the same through the dictatorial period from and international audience. 1933 until 1974. Portugal’s non-participation in the Due to the large number of experiences popping Second World War might also explain why Portuguese up and the intensity of the international debate and UA initiatives started later than other European warring practices, a Portuguese Network on Urban and Peri- countries, which developed specific allotment gardens Urban Agriculture [PORTAU] was created in 2011 programmes as a response towar relatedfoodcrisis (Moreira and Malta, 2011) with a clear intention of (Delgado 2017). Only in the 1980´s did Portugal start a linking up grassroots organizations, public and pri- process of fast urban expansion and institute societal vate institutions, universities, municipalities and changes that encouraged UA initiatives. farmers involved in this growing phenomenon. In response to these urban and societal changes, Unfortunately, this network is currently dormant the first Portuguese institutional UA allotment gar- due to a lack of financial support to ensure a perma- dens initiative began in 2003 led by LIPOR (2017) ,a nent person in charge of its management. Financial municipal waste management enterprise based in resources to keep networking platforms active is an the Porto Metropolitan Area. As part of its environ- enormous challenge in Portugal and can be viewed mental awareness program, LIPOR began to educate as explaining some of the Portuguese’s gaps. the population about the importance of selective Also in 2011, Lisbon Municipality revamped its waste collection and home-based composting. This Green Plan, conceived as early as 1994 by a well- effort lead to an innovative process involving allot- known Portuguese landscape architect Gonçalo ment gardens, now located in 50 different areas and Robeiro Teles (Teles 1997). In the city master plan covering roughly six hectares of cultivated spaces (2011), the green zoning opened opportunities for an (Delgado 2015). ambitious program called ‘Parques Horticolas One year later in 2004, the Municipality of Coimbra Municipais,’ which included several allotment gardens. and the Coimbra University Faculty of Agronomy This program currently involves around 500 farmers in [ESAC] worked together to transform an informal 20 different locations (CML 2017). community garden; close to a low income neighbour- Finally, an economic crisis in Portugal brought hood facing social tensions, into 25 well-designed about a significant increase of allotment gardens serviced plots of 150 square meters each. As far as (Delgado 2015). According to the National Report to we know, this is the first formally designed allotment Habitat III (2016) by 2013 16 of a total of 18 Portuguese garden resulting from a collaborative process in districts enjoyed allotment gardens initiatives called Portugal. Shortly after, in 2005, the Funchal ‘hortas urbanas’, summing up to 27 ha divided into Municipality (CMF 2015), which is the capital of the 4079 cultivated plots. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 173 and wastewater, low degree of farmers organization, All those emerging processes, resulting primarily mainly perishable products, high degree of specialization, from the economic crisis that hit the country in to name few. (. . .) UA to a large extent complements rural 2007, were underpinned by different logics. The agriculture and increases the efficiency of national food first one was to improve the access to food for system. (Veenhuizen 2006) poor people. The second logic was more a political D4: UPA can be defined as the growing of plants and concern about how to legalize informal practices in the raising of animals within and around cities. Urban and public spaces that were no longer fitting the pre- peri-urban agriculture provides food products from differ- viously designed urban scenario, made obsolete by ent types of crops (grains, root crops, vegetables, mush- the economic crisis. The result was, and still is, an rooms, fruits), animals (poultry, rabbits, goats, sheep, cattle, enormous national impact on the food and UA pigs, guinea pigs, fish, etc.) as well as non-food products (e.g. aromatic and medicinal herbs, ornamental plants, tree agenda, which started in various cities and was products). UPA includes trees managed for producing fruit increasingly discussed in the political arena and and fuelwood, as well as tree systems integrated and man- academic circles. aged with crops (agroforestry) and small-scale aquaculture. (FAO, s.d) 3. Urban agriculture definitions: variations Even though all these definitions share various ele- among actors and time ments, at the same time they frame UA in their specific way. D2 and D3 are more specific because they include A first challenge to establish a precise Portuguese the larger urban system in the definition whereas D4 UA profile is to recognize that UA is context refers specifically to urban and peri-UA [UPA]. dependent and manifests itself in different ways. All four agree that UA is practiced within and While there are numerous existing definitions, we around cities and that it contributes both food and have chosen four UA definitions that were coined non-food products, such medical herbs and ornamen- by distinct actors, each providing important nuan- tal plants. There exists a clear attempt to describe UA ces to better delineate what this article relates to: as a process ‘from production to supply’ [D1, D2, and 1.) Definition 1 (D1) is practice-based and was D3], including marketing [D1]. Additionally, all of them already introduced previously in this paper; 2.) consider UA as an intensive and technological pro- Definition 2 (D2) is academic-based; Definition 3 cess, competing and taking advantage of other city (D3) is a bridging of joint venture-based practice resources, and as being part of the food system [D1, and academic; and lastly, Definition 4 (D4) comes D2, and D3]. Surprisingly, explicit reference of food from the intergovernmental sector, such as the production, processing and distribution, which are Food and Agriculture Organization of the United part of the urban system, is not part of FAO definition Nations. Box 1 summarizes the UA definitions [D4], at least in this official definition. In conclusion, we adopted by each of the referred actors. find some consensual ideas about UA as: (1) being located within and on the fringe of a city; (2) raising, 3.1. Box 1: definitions, variations among actors processing, and distributing food and non-food pro- ducts; (3) using urban and peri-urban resources and D2:‘UA is an activity located within (intraurban) or on supplying resources mainly to urban areas; and, (4) the fringe (periurban) of a town, a city or a metropolis, integrated into and being part of the urban system. which grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non-food products, (re-)using largely human As a complementary view to UA definitions, and material resources, products and services found in Cabannes (2015)andRUAF(2006) state that UA, and around that urban area, and in turn supplying according to each locale and specific situation, can human and material resources, products and services lar- have a quite different perspective or focus. UA can gely to that urban area.’ (Mougeot 2005) be viewed as ecological (environmental), where UA D3: “UA can be defined as the growing of plants and serves to provide urban greening, reduce the eco- raising animals for food and other uses within and around logical footprint, or enhance landscape manage- cities and towns, and related activities such as the produc- ment; biodiversity, environmental education and tion and delivery of inputs, and the processing and mar- recreation. It can be viewed as a social action to keting of products. (. . .) UA is generally characterized by alleviate poverty, increase food security and nutri- closeness to markets, high competition for land, limited space, use of urban resources such as organic solid wastes tion, or as a purely social activity to enhance 174 C. DELGADO community building. Finally, UA can be viewed as to identify missing areas of knowledge. We know that an economical or market oriented undertaking by biased findings can result when using snowball samples small-scale families or by larger scale entrepreneur- and websites research as the method is not conducive to ial enterprises; part of the food market chain. representative sampling. Still we assume that these two However, as Cabannes (2015) highlights in every methodsasfairlyefficient at providing the atomized single context, UA is a dynamic combination of complexity of the topic and the exploratory nature of these three basic perspectives that tend to evolve the research (Vásquez-Moreno and Córdova 2013). In the through time. following section we provide interviews with selected Cities that signed the Milan Urban Food Policy actors and the results of a web search for information Pact (MUFPP 2015a) have a critical role on think- about appropriate websites and available videos. ing what will be the contribution of the ongoing UA initiatives to the city food system. In Portugal, 4.1. Interviews of selected key-actors Funchal is the only municipality that has signed the Milan Pact, and it has initiated a large pro- The framework for the interviews was based on the gram of food production for self-consumption document ‘Urban Agriculture: What and why?’.Itfol- and recreational purposes (see section 2), so far lowed the definition proposed by RUAF (RUAF 2006) not connected with the Food System. However, due to its international relevance of the UA concept, its other Portuguese cities are expected to sign the foundation based on practical cases, and its convenient Milan Pact shortly. This means that times are multi-dimensional categories. The semi-structured ques- crucial to clarify concepts and it highlights the tionnaire covered several UA elements such as: a) typol- need to rethink UA Portuguese initiatives as part ogyofactorsinvolved; b)typesoflocation; c)typesof of the Food System. This is relevant as the Milan products grown: d) types of economic activities; e) pro- Urban Policy Pact (MUFPP 2015a) refers primarily duct destination/degree of market orientation; f) scales to a ‘food system’ andtofood-relatedpolicies of production and technology used; g) social impact, and food supply and distribution networks and environmental impact and economic impact. giveslessemphasisonUAasacore concept. At Interviews were carried out face to face except for thesametime, FAO(2017)ischangingits dis- one conducted using Skype due to key-actor agenda course and recognizing that the rapid growth of restriction. All the key-informants were informed of cities in the developing world is placing enor- the research purpose and author’s intention to use mous demands on urban food supply systems. the data in a scientific publication, and they agreed FAO remarkably advocates that agriculture pro- to participate without restrictions. vides fresh food, generates employment, recycles The first interview was carried out with the represen- urban wastes, creates greenbelts, and strengthens tative of the Portuguese Network of Urban and Peri-UA, cities’ resilience to climate change. In summary, based in Coimbra and the New University of Lisbon, there is a need to framed UA in Portugal, in order Department of Engineering and Environmental to clarify how much UA is, or should be asso- Sciences. One of the objectives of each interview was ciated, with the rest of the food system in com- to identify new relevant actors, so it included a closing ing times. question asking for three additional relevant persons worth interviewing. The methodology proved to be effi- cient, and the snowball process (Flyvbjerg 2006)kept 4. How to frame UA in a Portuguese context growing to the point of having a stable network of the Considering that UA is context dependent, and manifest same key actors. The set of interviewees covered a sig- itself in different ways (Vásquez-Moreno and Córdova nificant range of UA stakeholder, including those with 2013), the Portuguese UA context needs careful consid- national recognition, as well as those from the central eration. So far UA and food system analysis is very limited government, local government, academia, national net- in Portugal, and empirical data are scarce, as reported in works, associations, programs and foundations, and local our literature review. Therefore our exploratory metho- groups deeply involved on UA initiatives. The National dology needs to be an ongoing and interactive process. Association of Portuguese Municipalities, which represents The snowball method was an excellent way to start, as it local governments at national level, declined the invitation opened further avenues for more research and it helped explaining that ‘they had no competence on the matter’ INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 175 mirroring a strong handicap to the most need national and distribution as well as it various perspectives, debate on UA conceptualization. This list of interviewees is social, economic and ecological aspects. Since UA shown in Table 1. includes, but is not limited to, food production either The interviews were conducted between October for self-consumption or local distribution (Mougeot and December 2015. Each interview was fully tran- 2005; RUAF 2006; Veenhuizen 2006; FAO, n.d.) key scribed. Then the responses were coded by hand. words as social canteens, several of them (e.g. Torres The results highlighted converging and diverging Vedras municipality) supplied by urban farmers, were points of views on specific themes. included on the web search. In addition, the set of key words shown in Table 2 is also based on our own knowledge as well as on 4.2. Key words web search the words used by our interviewees. The set is com- posed of 26 key words that somehow delineate the Our second set of results was obtained by conducting a outer limit of UA as far as the web information is web search. The idea was to measure the gap between concerned (see Table 2). the key actors’ perception and the information available A deeper examination was made to the ten first on the web sites referred here as ‘practices’. Although key words to check subject relevance. Table 2 also virtual reality does not mirror per se, we argue that a shows how different terms and words can fit to potential gap can raise significant questions to inform describe UA practices according to the various inter- theUAconceptualdebateinPortugal. national definitions. Each Portuguese key word was introduced between quotation marks. In order to exclude prac- tices from other Portuguese speaking counties, the 5. Urban agriculture in Portugal: from word ‘Portugal’ was added. A first search using production for self-consumption to a broad ‘Urban Agriculture’ and ‘Urban and Peri-urban social dynamic Agriculture’ gave results essentially limited to allot- ment gardens. The search was then broadened to This section presents the findings from the key actors key words related to food production, processing, interviews. By coding the results, we were able to Table 1. List of Key actors, brief presentation. Interview Stakeholder Group Description: Key-Actor 1 National Network PORTAU—REDE de Agricultura Urbana e Peri-Urbana Site: Disabled Key-Actor 2 National Professional APAP—Associação Portuguesa de Arquitetos Paisagistas Association Site: http://apap.pt Key-Actor 3 National Association AGROBIO—Associação Portuguesa de Agricultura Biológica Site: http://www.agrobio.pt/en/index.php Key-Actor 4 National Association APH—Associação Portuguesa de Horticultura Site: http://www.aphorticultura.pt Key-Actor 5 National Program PROVE—Direção Nacional PROVE—ADREPES Site: http://www.prove.com.pt/www/english.T9.php Key-Actor 6 National Foundation Fundação EDP—Inovação Social Site:http://gulbenkian.pt/projecto/hortas-solidarias/ Key-Actor 7 Academia Department of Sciences and Environmental Engineering—UN Lisbon Site: http://vivertelheiras.pt/parceiros/parque-horticola-de-telheiras/ Key-actor 8 Community initiative from a AVAAL—Associação para a Valorização Ambiental da Alta de Lisboa local NGO Site: https://avaal.org Key-Actor 9 Local government Câmara Municipal de Lisboa Site: http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/viver/ambiente/parques-horticolas-municipais Key-Actor 10 Community Initiative from a Horta do Mundo local group http://hortadomundo.blogspot.pt Key-Actor 11 Local government Câmara Municipal de Sesimbra https://www.facebook.com/groups/970609516348766/ Key-Actor 12 Central Government Direção Regional de Agricultura e Pescas de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo Site: http://www.draplvt.mamaot.pt/DRAPLVT/Informacao-Institucional/missao-atri buicoes/Pages/Missao-Atribuicoes.aspx Author elaboration 2016 176 C. DELGADO Table 2. Web search through key words [in Portuguese and English equivalents]. Others: Production Processing Distribution Eng. Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture Allotments gardens Popular Kitchen Consumers Cooperatives PT Agricultura Urbana e Peri-Urbana Hortas Urbanas Cozinha popular Cooperativas de consumidores Eng. Urban Agriculture Social gardens Social kitchen Food Baskets PT Agricultura Urbana Hortas sociais Cozinha social Cabaz Eng. Transition and Permaculture Solidary Gardens Social canteen Food Chains PT Transição e permacultura Hortas solidárias Cantina social Circuitos curtos agro-alimentares Eng. Seeds Bank School gardens Round economy PT Banco de sementes Hortas escolares Economia Circular Eng. Urban Composting Entrepreneur Garden Local Food Markets (covered) PT Compostagem Urbana Horta empresarial Mercados locais Eng. UP education Community gardens Organic (open-air) food markets PT Formação Agricultura Urbana Hortas comunitárias Mercados biologicos Eng. Food marketing Urban beehives Food bank PT. Marketing alimentar Apicultura urbana Banco de alimentos Eng. Urban Hydroponics Food-Waste PT Hidroponia Urbana Desperdicio Alimentar Author elaboration 2016 provide qualitative results and quantitative insight however UPA is by private sector as well as local associa- into key actors perceptions. The last part of this ses- tions [or grassroots] driven’. sion is an attempt to illustrate the diversity of practices that can be found based on web searching research. 5.1.1.2. Actors for whom the initiatives are tar- geted. Primarily UA projects are targeted to benefit the unemployed and retired, with undifferentiated gender participation, as mentioned by ten (10 out 5.1. Findings from key actor interviews of 12) key actors. However, another emerging social 5.1.1. Typology of UA actors group participating in UA is middle-income families The two main typologies of actors proposed here with children as referred by four out of twelve of the resulted from the discussion with and the differentia- key actors. Key actor 8 clarifies what has been said tion made by the interviewees: leaders, promoters or previously by commenting ‘either young people with champions of UA initiatives on the one hand and alternative interests such as permaculture as well as targeted population on the other. old people either unemployed and/or retired that need an occupation and food for self-consumption as an additional source of income’. 5.1.1.1. Actors who are leading UA initiatives. UA is perceived as a practice developed either as a response to public policy by municipalities or boroughs (juntas de 5.1.2. Types of location freguesias in Portuguese), sometimes in cooperation UA is mainly practiced on public land as reported with other organizations. It typically expresses itself as by eight (8 out of 12) key actors and to a lesser allotment gardens. With one exception, all key actors extent on institutional areas (NGOs, enterprises, were associated with UA, where the activity led by a schools). Three (3 out of 12) mentioned that UA form of public administration. In addition, seven out of is also being practiced on left-over land without twelve key actors linked UA with Non Governmental explicit owner. Key actor 1 stated that ‘UA is Organizations leaderships. Key actor 3’s comment fairly mainly done in places where there were informal illustrates these findings: ‘Who is leading the processes occupation as they were also public land in urban today are the city councils and boroughs, but everybody areas, e.g. Faro, Cascais, Funchal, Figueira da Foz, can use vacant land’.Keyactor1reinforces Keyactor3by Vila Nova de Gaia. Or embedded urban areas with- saying ‘when talking about prime drivers, they are mainly out building capacity, as Chelas in Lisbon’. the municipalities and social institutions because they Nevertheless, several key actors again differen- have access to land’. On the other hand, Key actor 2 tiated urban from peri-urban land as each of differentiates UA (within cities) from UPA (around cities) them refers to quite diverse realities. Namely, UA leadership: ‘UA projects are ruled by the local government, as an institutional practice with social perspective INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 177 such as self-consumption or recreation, and ‘peri- 5.1.5. Production destination/degree of market urban agriculture’ is more correlated with an eco- orientation nomic, market-oriented perspective. An important UA in Portugal primarily refers to food production finding is that according to some informants, UA for self-consumption, with potential harvest seems to be practiced essentially on public land exchanges between families at neighbourhood whereas UPA is on private one. level as mentioned by 11 (11 out of 12) key actors. Production, processing, and distribution for market-oriented distribution are absent from 5.1.3. Types of produce grown key actors’ testimony, despite some examples of All key-actors stated that vegetables, such as cab- food distribution and processing such as the ones bage, lettuce and tomato, are the dominant UA illustrated in Figures 5 and 6.Asencapsulatedby crop in Portugal.Aromaticherbs,flowers and key actor 8 ‘UA, due to its limited land access do small fruits are cultivated to a lesser extent. Key not go behind family savings (self-consumption)’. actor 1 reported that ‘the massive production of Only Key actor 5 offered a the diverging opinion vegetables is due to its direct contribution to family that ‘there is a profitable market going on through savings’. direct sales from producers to consumers as PROVE It should be highlighted here that in Portugal (2017) as well as direct sale of processed products, vegetables are part of the common day-to-day educational and touristic activities’. diet, for both poor and rich social classes. However, Key actor 11 gives a broader account as he identified a wider set of species, some of them 5.1.6. Scales of production and technology used introduced by Cape Verdean residents, include sev- All key actors agree that production is a family or eral types of beans, corn and sweet potato. All key individual activity. A total of eight (8 out of 12) actors agree that livestock was not a feasible interviewees reported that gardeners are use con- option, mostly due to the smell and noise distur- ventional and traditional means of production bance. However, livestock could be part of the without technological resources, even if the use equation in peri-urban areas, as stated by key of trendy biological practices is increasing. The actor 1. Finally, fruit trees seem a problematic idea that UA is a manual-based procedure is con- issue because their shadow that can disturb neigh- firmed by Key actor 7, a university professor and bouring plot. a practising urban gardener, who stated that ‘as it is practised today, (UA) is a one-person activity without technological resources and should be 5.1.4. Types of economic activities kept like this in the future’. The idea of UA products being sold and distrib- uted to markets seemed unfamiliar to the key actors, in spite of the initiatives that are shown 5.1.7. Social impact, environmental impact and in Figures 1, 2, 3,and 4. This could explain why economic impact four of them (4 out of 12) defined UA ‘economic The interviews strongly suggest that the domi- activity’ as savings resulting from self-production. nant focus of UA in Portugal is about social Despite this, and after reflection, a third of the issues,suchashow UA relatesdirectlywithcom- interviewees’ identified program PROVE as an munity activities, social inclusion and poverty example of a market-oriented national pro- alleviation (10 out of 12). Additionally, UA seems gramme (see Figure 4). Giving the lack of UA’s to bear a clear environmental dimension in the obvious economic activity, Key actor 10 stated country and links up with urban greening, land- that UA’s ability to put people together should scape management and reduction of ecological be measured as an economic return. Key actor 3 footprint in various cases according to 6 out of considered UA’seconomicvalueto besavings in 12 interviewees. These two perspectives can health policies, considering the benefits that UA occur at the same time, as is the case of Lisbon might bring to mental well-being and it’spromo- program ‘Parques Horticolas Municipais’.Key actor tion of physical activity to reduce obesity, a ram- 2 advocated that ‘UA should be included in the pant phenomenon largely ignored in the country. ecological city structure integrating water drainage 178 C. DELGADO Figure 1. Based in a popular neighborhood (Mouraria), this popular kitchen is staffed by unemployed local people, and uses local products as far as possible. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). Figure 2. All over the country there are open-air street fairs and food stores selling organic food. Agrobio is managing 13 of them. Figure shows The Organic open-air street fair in Campo Pequeno Lisbon, held every Saturday morning. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 179 Figure 3. ‘Ugly-fruit’, is a consumers’ cooperative. Its main aim is to reduce food waste. To do this it buys vegetables and fruits that do not meet the commercial acceptable standards and sells them in basket in well located places in cities such as Lisbon, Cascais or Porto. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). Figure 4. PROVE is a national program. Its aim is to promote new forms of short marketing producers and consumer’s circuits. Figure shows basket distribution in Lisbon. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). basins and prone environmental areas. In addition, On the other hand, UA’s economic impact was UA could serve as a natural flood regulator device’. mentioned by only three key-actors. 180 C. DELGADO Figure 5. Quinta do Conde’ is a community garden initiative located on public land made avaialbe by the local government in Sesimbra— Lisbon Metropolitan Area. The community gardens are integrated in a huge park with sport and leisure equipments near a low-income neighbourhood. The investment was partly financed by EDP foundation under its ‘Solidarity gardens’ program. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2016). Figure 6. Through a voluntary service the RE-Food program collects waste food from restaurant and other local food establishments and distributes to local population in need. There are more than 30 distribution points in Portugal. The space is given for free to the project by mainly the parishes. Figure shows one of the 11 RE-Food stores in Lisbon. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2016). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 181 5.2. Findings from web search relation to food processing and distribution, a special mention needs to be made on ‘social canteens’,a Table 3 shows the results from the web search. The social response for supplying food, supported by the number besides the key word is the average key word state and only accessible for poor families. As pre- occurrence score. A first glance confirms how the social vious mentioned, local urban farmers are supplying UA perspective is a pervasivePortugueseunderstanding some of them. Figure 1 to 6 are an attempt to of what UA is about (e.g. allotment gardens, social can- illustrate the diversity of practices that can be teens, social gardens, school gardens to name a few). In found on the web search. addition, there are significant references to urban food waste, or other stages of the food chain such as distribu- tion and also to non-food activities as the seed bank. 6. Discussion: the perception of UA Last accessed in May 2016, Total of 26 key words disconnected from the urban system The most referred key word is ‘Local food markets’ (378), the second being ‘allotment gardens’ (330) and Some insights can be drawn when cross-referencing the third ‘social canteens (300)’. On the other hand, the the results obtained from the interviews and those least referred ones are: ‘Urban agriculture education’ obtained from the web search: (8); ‘food baskets’ (17); ‘food chains’ (17); Urban hydro- ponics (46); and, urban entrepreneur gardens (50). (1) A first, and by far dominant, convergence It is noticeable that all the productive inputs, refers to allotment gardens with a social per- necessary to generate UA, occur more frequently spective such as social gardens, solidarity gar- than other activities as processing and distribution. dens, collective gardens or even school Nevertheless, key words as ‘Urban hydroponics’ or gardens. This implies a productive side with ‘Urban entrepreneur gardens’ are less frequent. On a social perspective (for self-consumption) is the distribution sector, local food markets and prevailing. This links with the next lesson. organic open-air food markets are widespread and (2) A second converging insight is that little much more frequent than allotment gardens. In importance is given to market-oriented Table 3. Comparative ocurrence of UA-related key words resulting from the web search. UA Education Local Food Markets Food Baskets Allotments gardens Food chains Social canteens Urban Hydroponic Urban Agriculture Entrepreneur gardens Food - waste 185 150 Urban Compost 176 8 Social gardens Urban beehives 50 54 174 Transition School gardens 109 &Permaculture Round economy Seeds Bank 169 130 Community gardens Food Bank Social Kitchen UPA Organic food markets Food marketing Popular kitchen Consumers Coop Solidarity gardens Author elaboration 2016 182 C. DELGADO approaches and entrepreneur’s gardens. This Portuguese UA situation does not matching suggests a weak economic perspective of several of the definitions (D2 and D3). Portuguese UA. (5) Lastly, the Portuguese UA concept seems quite (3) A third finding is that non-food activities such rooted in a social perspective (for self-con- as urban composting, pedagogical activities sumption for poverty mitigation or recreation), such as education, or technological resources even if a closer look shows an ecological per- as hydroponic (to mention some) are little spective. See CABANNES (2015) but also D1, considered on both sides. This implies that without considering its economic perspective UA holistic vision is weak and its connections as a potential source of income generation. with the urban system are still tenuous. In summary, key actors perceptions tend to frame UA’s Coming back to our first research question: How is productive objective to be entirely devoted to self- UA being conceptualized by relevant Portuguese consumption. Despite this, the PROVE program is a key actors on the field? The results from the inter- kind of an exception within the existing practice, and views indicate that UA is perceived as directly con- stands as an outstanding example of urban-rural lin- nected with urban allotment gardens initiatives, kages connecting peri-urban areas (producers) to mainly led by local governments, and located on urban areas (consumers) within a 50 km radius for public lands. The idea behind those initiatives is the purpose of generating income. Despite its impor- self-consumption and social welfare. Production tance and quite innovative dimension and scale, it is market-oriented, income generating UA is nearly hardly mentioned as part of the UA Portuguese con- absent. UA means primarily cultivating vegetables ceptualization, and this can be understood as market- and fruits and it does not accommodate non-food oriented practices appear not to be perceived as UA. products. The web search refers to a wide range of initia- Within the framework of international definitions, tives and practices from production (for self-con- what are the missing links and missing elements of sumption or supply), to processing, marketing and Portuguese UA, and what are, if any, specific aspects distribution. Looking at diverging issues, the web that are not embraced by existing definitions (second search indicates a significant frequency of social can- research question)? We should highlight some teens (food supply), social kitchens, local covered remarkable differences below: food markets and organic markets (supplied by urban farmers), whereas the interviews made much less references to these elements when referring to (1) A Portuguese distinction between UA and UA in Portugal. These activities, which are at least UPA, based on their location within or around partially supplied by UA farmers, show that cities. This is a particularity that does not Portuguese UA is also market-oriented and a viewed match with (D1, D2, and D3) and do not expli- as a source of income. But it is not integrated in a citly refer to the peri-urban territorial straightforward way into in the UA concept held by dimension. most of the key actors. (2) There is a huge emphasis on food production oriented for self-consumption, without signifi- Comparing perceived definitions on the one hand cant consideration by food processing and and what is happening in the field indicates a gap distributing. Again, this finding does not between UA what is perceived by key actors and the align with several UA definitions (D2 and D3). reality of how UA is practiced. Back to our assumption, (3) There is an absence of urban forestry, livestock the perception of the key actors refers to UA under its raising, or other non-food products. A rather productive side mostly raw food for self-consumption. different understanding from all the UA defini- On the other hand, UA practices in Portugal are much tions (D1, D2, D3, and D4). broader than production of vegetables and urban (4) UA is not regarded as a component of the gardening and much closer to international UA defini- urban food system. It does not consider urban tions cited before, i.e. even if not predominant food and peri-urban resources, such as food waste, production for distribution exist, as well as non-food non-food products or urban labor. Again, the activities, e.g. food bank, seeds-bank, etc. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 183 Going a step further, we advocate the need for 7. Concluding remarks and findings three key measures. First, there should be discus- implications sions about how Portuguese UA can contribute to Results are showing a significant gap between UA the Urban Food System. Second, efforts should be as understood by key actors, UA actual practices on initiated to integrate UA into urban planning, and the ground, and UA digital information displayed primarily into urban physical planning. Finally, on the web. This gap might contribute to explain- there should be efforts to better connect the pro- ing why it is so difficult to generate a collective ductive stage of UA, so far predominately raw food and multidisciplinary space to put together a hol- for self-consumption, with market-oriented istic strategy and a public policy that considers UA approaches, including processing, distribution and as part of the urban food system. Finally, in a marketing. Such a program could lead to genera- country where unemployment is a structural and tion of income. These measures would consolidate a conjectural problem, it seems important to con- a UA conceptual framework and set up the basis sider the hardly existing economic perspective in for a national policy; one that does not exist today. key actors UA understanding. Even in a contingent manner, our Portuguese Several reasons could explain the current national findings might contain some transferable lessons gap between perceived and practiced UA and would for other cities, regions and countries. A first need further exploration: 1) lack of connection to the insight refers to the very concept of UA with its international debates from an academic and profes- multiple disciplinary activity that makes it, by nat- sional perspectives; 2) limited exchanges of experi- ure, context dependent and in constant evolution. ences between Portuguese and international actors; This means that to enhance UA re-conceptualiza- 3) Portuguese academia, decision makers and society tionand adaptationtothe evolving urbancontext, are, generally speaking, not familiar with interdisci- actors andcities needtobeconnected through plinary approaches; 4) Agriculture is still rooted in its national and international networks to enrich rural origins, and not seeking new possibilities emer- ongoing debates with their own initiatives and ging in urban areas; and, 5) UA is context dependent. reflections. In lieu of such connections we fear Whichlessons can belearned from theresults that peer-to-peer exchanges will be weakened, obtained so far? First, it appears that UA as a thereby reducing the possibility of addressing com- public policy, or as public driven programs and mon UA challenges such as integrated system solu- projects, is not mirroring the whole spectrum of tions. On-going discussion about how UA could be UA potential perspectives namely, social, economic better connected with food systems and how food and ecological. In large part, Portuguese UA is systems could become a powerful part of urban perceived to exist primarily within a social welfare systems will lead to more sustainable cities. Those perspective and as a public answer to on-going connections are practically nonexistent in Portugal, economic crisis. This is an ambush that may jeo- at least explicitly. Sadly, the one existing effort pardize the continuity of on-going initiatives. introduced by PORTAU (2011–2014) to better con- Second, another key lesson is that UA in Portugal nect UA with Food Systems closed due to lack of refers largely to food production used exclusively financing and commitment, which made impossi- for self—consumption, reinforcing UA’ssocialper- bleforthevolunteerstafftokeepthe platform spective. It is a political shortfall that existing poli- alive. cies do not consider UA as an opportunity for job A second insight is that UA, as a concept, should creation and income generation. be better appropriated by all actors concerned; from What mightbedonelocally andonashort-term those in practice in the private and public sectors, as perspective? Foremost, we suggest steps be under- well as decision makers, academics, and others. This taken to raise awareness among the population, calls again for having actors and cities linked at local organizations, decision-makers, public and national level and with cities and countries through private sector. Such an effort should emphasize international platforms, to align concepts, strengthen the importance of policies around Food Systems advocacy efforts and support the achievement of in general and the potential contribution of UA national and international goals, agendas and public initiatives to the whole. policies. 184 C. DELGADO In summary the conceptual exploration of UA in Acknowledgments Portugal clearly shows the need to debate to clarify The author wants to thank the anonymous reviewers for feedback concepts and to create synergies among actors. Such on earlier version, which led to a significant improvement of the a change would bring support to an emergent sector manuscript. Our gratitude as well to Jim Reilly for editing this article. and would contribute to better connect it to the urban system, promoting job creation and local com- Disclosure statement petitiveness. This debate needs to be a collaborative planning process, including all the stakeholders, from No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. gardeners to political decision makers and economic sector, academics and planners. It needs to address Funding multiple issues, including urban planning, urban-rural linkages, job creations, and city marketing, among This work was supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia [SFRH/BPD/94286/2013]. others. Finally, it needs to put in perspective different policies, connecting the on-going social and ecologi- cal approaches, with the economic dimension that is ORCID still weak in Portugal. Cecília Delgado http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4211-0614 Notes References 1. 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Contrasting practices and perceptions of urban agriculture in Portugal

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Taylor & Francis
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© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
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1946-3146
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1946-3138
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10.1080/19463138.2018.1481069
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2018, VOL. 10, NO. 2, 170–185 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2018.1481069 ARTICLE Cecília Delgado CICS.NOVA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Social Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 7 July 2017 This paper presents a conceptual exploration of Urban Agriculture in Portugal. We Accepted 23 May 2018 argue that Portuguese Urban Agriculture primarily focuses on food production for self-consumption and that its links with the other components of urban as a system KEYWORDS are quite limited. Urban agriculture; To substantiate our argument several Urban Agriculture international definitions peri-urban agriculture; are presented and critically analysed along with: 1) interviews of relevant key actors; urban planning; urban food system; Portugal and, 2) a web search based on key words. We conclude that there is a need to clarify the very concept of Urban Agriculture among actors involved. This could be achieved through a national network able to raise a must needed debate about this promising sector. Political decision makers, civil society, and planners, among others should be involved in this collaborative process. Finally, the paper brings some reflections on what the Portuguese experience contributes to the broader debate and definitions of Urban Agriculture. Portuguese urban food system, both in theory and 1. Introduction practice. This paper presents a conceptual exploration of In this paper, we recognize the UA framework urban agriculture (UA) in Portugal. As used in this [D1], proposed by the Research Center for Urban paper, UA is conceived as a component of the Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) in 2006. urban system (RUAF 2006) and understood as a RUAF defines UA as: key piece of a complex, interrelated environmental, D1:“” the growing of plants and the raising of animals social, economic, political, spatial, and physical within and around cities. The most striking feature of system. urban agriculture, which distinguishes it from rural agri- The work presented in this paper is a part of a culture, is that it is integrated into the urban economic larger research—action project that merges UA, and ecological system: urban agriculture is embedded in – urban planning and local food public policies with and interacting with – the urban ecosystem. Such linkages include the use of urban residents as labourers, use of the intent to develop UA as part of a municipal urban typical urban resources (like organic waste as compost food system, based on a multi-stakeholder collabora- and urban wastewater for irrigation), direct links with tive governance approach. Defining how UA is linked urban consumers, direct impacts on urban ecology (posi- to food system, in order to ensure a common plat- tive and negative), being part of the urban food system, form, when discussing the topic among stakeholders competing for land with other urban functions, being influenced by urban policies and plans, etc. Urban agri- fuels the need to: 1) identify the scope and breadth culture is not a relic of the past that will fade away (urban of UA in the Portuguese context; 2) find a way for all agriculture increases when the city grows) nor brought to stakeholders to share a common understanding of the city by rural immigrants that will lose their rural habits the scope; and 3) make visible to stakeholders the over time” (RUAF 2006). Additional UA definitions will be numerous and diverse connections UA has to the added to the discussed later on. CONTACT Cecília Delgado cmndelgado@gmail.com CICS.NOVA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Social Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 171 We also recognize the regional food system defini- a relevant issue regarding the development of a UA tion proposed in the Milan Urban Pact (MUFPP local and national policies. Here, we argue that the 2015b) which states that a food system ‘gathers all Portuguese UA context is still focused uttermost on the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, food production for self-consumption, without taking infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that into account UA as part of the food system. This relate to the production, processing, distribution, pre- narrow focus reduces its stability through time, its paration and consumption of food, and the outputs of competitiveness and its capacity to contribute to the these activities, including socioeconomic and environ- development of sustainable city development. mental outcomes’. We use such definitions to com- Why does this matter? If findings corroborate our pare Portuguese UA to the larger recognized food argument, special emphasis needs to be given to UA system concepts and to demonstrate that UA is only conceptual clarification not only in Portugal but also in a component of this larger food system (Dubbeling other cities and countries dealing with similar issues. 2013). Comparisons also assist to identify any missing Local municipal governments often initially come to links or elements. Food consumption is not consid- food and agriculture issues in terms of urban and ered as being part of UA. However, some UA prac- peri-UA, meaning horticulture and forestry (FAO, n.d.), tices in Portugal do relate to food consumption as in and lack UA-innovative projects as part of the urban various cases UA produces are for urban farmers’ self- food system, which are needed to have UA contribute consumption. It is crucial to stress here the very to a sustainable post-crisis approach (Delgado 2017). limited economical (e.g. market-oriented) and ecolo- The first contribution of this paper is to outline a gical perspectives (e.g. climate change mitigation) of national UA Portuguese profile based on the following UA in the country. research question: How is Portuguese UA being con- What do we know so far? A review of published ceptualized by relevant key actors in the field? The literature suggests that Portuguese UA primarily con- second contribution of this paper is to understand the sists of allotment gardens, mainly for self-consump- missing links between UA and the food systems at tion of produced food (Pinto 2007; Luiz and Jorge national level. This will be done through addressing 2011; Ramos 2011; Saraiva 2011; Abreu 2012; the following research questions: 1) within the frame- Cabannes and Raposo 2013; Cancela 2014; work of international definitions, what are the missing Gonçalves 2014; Sousa 2014). This insight is based links, and missing elements of Portuguese UA; and 2) on an assessment of: national academic literature what are, if any, specific aspects that are not embraced which included masters and PhD thesis; grey litera- by existing definitions? ture available from local governments; unpublished We argue that those two explorations are particu- reports and notes from Non Governmental larly important since UA is still a relatively new topic Organizations (NGOs) and activists, and newspapers both in the international context (Pothukuchi and articles and interviews. Kaufman 1999; Veenhuizen 2006; Morgan 2014; However, we also know that there are Portuguese Cabannes and Marocchino 2016) and in Portugal. UA initiatives that go far beyond a program of allot- Furthermore, UA is currently higher in the national ment gardens. For instance, there exist quite a few agenda, so key-stakeholders do play an advocacy well establish initiatives dealing with urban food role for the future of Portuguese UA, either being waste including Ugly Fruit (‘Fruta Feia in Portuguese’) connected or not with the whole food system. founded in 2013 (FRUTA FEIA CRL, 2017) and Re-Food, To do so, we argue that some ground work must founded in 2012 (Food 2017). Both of these programs be done. First, we need to clarify what relevant key- are active at a national scale. There also exist some actors perceive as UA. Second, we need to take a attempts to link up urban local food efforts with social broader look on what is going on by examining canteens, such as the Program for food sustainability critically current practices. Finally, we need to revisit in schools (‘Programa de Sustentabilidade na international definitions at the light of Portuguese Alimentação Escolar in Portuguese’) which is a munici- specificities. pal initiative in Torres Vedras, located near Lisbon This paper presents the findings from two methods (CMTV 2017), to mention one among many. applied to the research on the contrasting UA percep- However, we still do not know if those initiatives tions and practices in Portugal, namely: 1) nterviews of are part of the UA Portuguese key actors’ perception, a selection of relevant key actors; and, 2) web search 172 C. DELGADO of sites and videos based on key words. Before pre- Madeira Island region, started a formal process to senting the results in section five, some insights on the allocate gardens as part of its environmental policy. Portuguese UA background since 2000 are given in This project currently covers around 6 ha cultivated by section two. In the third section, we discuss UA defini- 900 urban gardeners. tions based on selected concepts from academia, A market-oriented initiative, PROVE, was launched practice and institutional empirical—or conventional by ADREPES in 2006. PROVE (2017) is a national uses. Fourth section comprises the methodology and programme that promotes new forms of short mar- the design research that includes key-actors inter- keting chains by linking up small scale producers in views and key words website research. Next sections peri-urban areas to urban consumers (Maciel 2016). summarize the findings obtained through the inter- Nowadays, the programme involves 132 producers views and the web search and subsequently discuss and 7000 consumers. Fresh local vegetables and fruit these findings. Concluding remarks and findings baskets are distributed through 118 distribution implications close of the present paper. points primarily in Lisbon and Porto Metropolitan Areas (Delgado 2017). The year 2011 brought a landmark when the 2. Some insights into the background of Seixal Municipality, located in the Lisbon Portuguese 21st century UA Metropolitan area, organized the First International At the beginning of the twenty-first century Portugal Congress on Urban and Peri-UA (Lança, 2011). This was predominantly a rural society (Ferraz 1975)and event was well attended with a significant national remained the same through the dictatorial period from and international audience. 1933 until 1974. Portugal’s non-participation in the Due to the large number of experiences popping Second World War might also explain why Portuguese up and the intensity of the international debate and UA initiatives started later than other European warring practices, a Portuguese Network on Urban and Peri- countries, which developed specific allotment gardens Urban Agriculture [PORTAU] was created in 2011 programmes as a response towar relatedfoodcrisis (Moreira and Malta, 2011) with a clear intention of (Delgado 2017). Only in the 1980´s did Portugal start a linking up grassroots organizations, public and pri- process of fast urban expansion and institute societal vate institutions, universities, municipalities and changes that encouraged UA initiatives. farmers involved in this growing phenomenon. In response to these urban and societal changes, Unfortunately, this network is currently dormant the first Portuguese institutional UA allotment gar- due to a lack of financial support to ensure a perma- dens initiative began in 2003 led by LIPOR (2017) ,a nent person in charge of its management. Financial municipal waste management enterprise based in resources to keep networking platforms active is an the Porto Metropolitan Area. As part of its environ- enormous challenge in Portugal and can be viewed mental awareness program, LIPOR began to educate as explaining some of the Portuguese’s gaps. the population about the importance of selective Also in 2011, Lisbon Municipality revamped its waste collection and home-based composting. This Green Plan, conceived as early as 1994 by a well- effort lead to an innovative process involving allot- known Portuguese landscape architect Gonçalo ment gardens, now located in 50 different areas and Robeiro Teles (Teles 1997). In the city master plan covering roughly six hectares of cultivated spaces (2011), the green zoning opened opportunities for an (Delgado 2015). ambitious program called ‘Parques Horticolas One year later in 2004, the Municipality of Coimbra Municipais,’ which included several allotment gardens. and the Coimbra University Faculty of Agronomy This program currently involves around 500 farmers in [ESAC] worked together to transform an informal 20 different locations (CML 2017). community garden; close to a low income neighbour- Finally, an economic crisis in Portugal brought hood facing social tensions, into 25 well-designed about a significant increase of allotment gardens serviced plots of 150 square meters each. As far as (Delgado 2015). According to the National Report to we know, this is the first formally designed allotment Habitat III (2016) by 2013 16 of a total of 18 Portuguese garden resulting from a collaborative process in districts enjoyed allotment gardens initiatives called Portugal. Shortly after, in 2005, the Funchal ‘hortas urbanas’, summing up to 27 ha divided into Municipality (CMF 2015), which is the capital of the 4079 cultivated plots. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 173 and wastewater, low degree of farmers organization, All those emerging processes, resulting primarily mainly perishable products, high degree of specialization, from the economic crisis that hit the country in to name few. (. . .) UA to a large extent complements rural 2007, were underpinned by different logics. The agriculture and increases the efficiency of national food first one was to improve the access to food for system. (Veenhuizen 2006) poor people. The second logic was more a political D4: UPA can be defined as the growing of plants and concern about how to legalize informal practices in the raising of animals within and around cities. Urban and public spaces that were no longer fitting the pre- peri-urban agriculture provides food products from differ- viously designed urban scenario, made obsolete by ent types of crops (grains, root crops, vegetables, mush- the economic crisis. The result was, and still is, an rooms, fruits), animals (poultry, rabbits, goats, sheep, cattle, enormous national impact on the food and UA pigs, guinea pigs, fish, etc.) as well as non-food products (e.g. aromatic and medicinal herbs, ornamental plants, tree agenda, which started in various cities and was products). UPA includes trees managed for producing fruit increasingly discussed in the political arena and and fuelwood, as well as tree systems integrated and man- academic circles. aged with crops (agroforestry) and small-scale aquaculture. (FAO, s.d) 3. Urban agriculture definitions: variations Even though all these definitions share various ele- among actors and time ments, at the same time they frame UA in their specific way. D2 and D3 are more specific because they include A first challenge to establish a precise Portuguese the larger urban system in the definition whereas D4 UA profile is to recognize that UA is context refers specifically to urban and peri-UA [UPA]. dependent and manifests itself in different ways. All four agree that UA is practiced within and While there are numerous existing definitions, we around cities and that it contributes both food and have chosen four UA definitions that were coined non-food products, such medical herbs and ornamen- by distinct actors, each providing important nuan- tal plants. There exists a clear attempt to describe UA ces to better delineate what this article relates to: as a process ‘from production to supply’ [D1, D2, and 1.) Definition 1 (D1) is practice-based and was D3], including marketing [D1]. Additionally, all of them already introduced previously in this paper; 2.) consider UA as an intensive and technological pro- Definition 2 (D2) is academic-based; Definition 3 cess, competing and taking advantage of other city (D3) is a bridging of joint venture-based practice resources, and as being part of the food system [D1, and academic; and lastly, Definition 4 (D4) comes D2, and D3]. Surprisingly, explicit reference of food from the intergovernmental sector, such as the production, processing and distribution, which are Food and Agriculture Organization of the United part of the urban system, is not part of FAO definition Nations. Box 1 summarizes the UA definitions [D4], at least in this official definition. In conclusion, we adopted by each of the referred actors. find some consensual ideas about UA as: (1) being located within and on the fringe of a city; (2) raising, 3.1. Box 1: definitions, variations among actors processing, and distributing food and non-food pro- ducts; (3) using urban and peri-urban resources and D2:‘UA is an activity located within (intraurban) or on supplying resources mainly to urban areas; and, (4) the fringe (periurban) of a town, a city or a metropolis, integrated into and being part of the urban system. which grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non-food products, (re-)using largely human As a complementary view to UA definitions, and material resources, products and services found in Cabannes (2015)andRUAF(2006) state that UA, and around that urban area, and in turn supplying according to each locale and specific situation, can human and material resources, products and services lar- have a quite different perspective or focus. UA can gely to that urban area.’ (Mougeot 2005) be viewed as ecological (environmental), where UA D3: “UA can be defined as the growing of plants and serves to provide urban greening, reduce the eco- raising animals for food and other uses within and around logical footprint, or enhance landscape manage- cities and towns, and related activities such as the produc- ment; biodiversity, environmental education and tion and delivery of inputs, and the processing and mar- recreation. It can be viewed as a social action to keting of products. (. . .) UA is generally characterized by alleviate poverty, increase food security and nutri- closeness to markets, high competition for land, limited space, use of urban resources such as organic solid wastes tion, or as a purely social activity to enhance 174 C. DELGADO community building. Finally, UA can be viewed as to identify missing areas of knowledge. We know that an economical or market oriented undertaking by biased findings can result when using snowball samples small-scale families or by larger scale entrepreneur- and websites research as the method is not conducive to ial enterprises; part of the food market chain. representative sampling. Still we assume that these two However, as Cabannes (2015) highlights in every methodsasfairlyefficient at providing the atomized single context, UA is a dynamic combination of complexity of the topic and the exploratory nature of these three basic perspectives that tend to evolve the research (Vásquez-Moreno and Córdova 2013). In the through time. following section we provide interviews with selected Cities that signed the Milan Urban Food Policy actors and the results of a web search for information Pact (MUFPP 2015a) have a critical role on think- about appropriate websites and available videos. ing what will be the contribution of the ongoing UA initiatives to the city food system. In Portugal, 4.1. Interviews of selected key-actors Funchal is the only municipality that has signed the Milan Pact, and it has initiated a large pro- The framework for the interviews was based on the gram of food production for self-consumption document ‘Urban Agriculture: What and why?’.Itfol- and recreational purposes (see section 2), so far lowed the definition proposed by RUAF (RUAF 2006) not connected with the Food System. However, due to its international relevance of the UA concept, its other Portuguese cities are expected to sign the foundation based on practical cases, and its convenient Milan Pact shortly. This means that times are multi-dimensional categories. The semi-structured ques- crucial to clarify concepts and it highlights the tionnaire covered several UA elements such as: a) typol- need to rethink UA Portuguese initiatives as part ogyofactorsinvolved; b)typesoflocation; c)typesof of the Food System. This is relevant as the Milan products grown: d) types of economic activities; e) pro- Urban Policy Pact (MUFPP 2015a) refers primarily duct destination/degree of market orientation; f) scales to a ‘food system’ andtofood-relatedpolicies of production and technology used; g) social impact, and food supply and distribution networks and environmental impact and economic impact. giveslessemphasisonUAasacore concept. At Interviews were carried out face to face except for thesametime, FAO(2017)ischangingits dis- one conducted using Skype due to key-actor agenda course and recognizing that the rapid growth of restriction. All the key-informants were informed of cities in the developing world is placing enor- the research purpose and author’s intention to use mous demands on urban food supply systems. the data in a scientific publication, and they agreed FAO remarkably advocates that agriculture pro- to participate without restrictions. vides fresh food, generates employment, recycles The first interview was carried out with the represen- urban wastes, creates greenbelts, and strengthens tative of the Portuguese Network of Urban and Peri-UA, cities’ resilience to climate change. In summary, based in Coimbra and the New University of Lisbon, there is a need to framed UA in Portugal, in order Department of Engineering and Environmental to clarify how much UA is, or should be asso- Sciences. One of the objectives of each interview was ciated, with the rest of the food system in com- to identify new relevant actors, so it included a closing ing times. question asking for three additional relevant persons worth interviewing. The methodology proved to be effi- cient, and the snowball process (Flyvbjerg 2006)kept 4. How to frame UA in a Portuguese context growing to the point of having a stable network of the Considering that UA is context dependent, and manifest same key actors. The set of interviewees covered a sig- itself in different ways (Vásquez-Moreno and Córdova nificant range of UA stakeholder, including those with 2013), the Portuguese UA context needs careful consid- national recognition, as well as those from the central eration. So far UA and food system analysis is very limited government, local government, academia, national net- in Portugal, and empirical data are scarce, as reported in works, associations, programs and foundations, and local our literature review. Therefore our exploratory metho- groups deeply involved on UA initiatives. The National dology needs to be an ongoing and interactive process. Association of Portuguese Municipalities, which represents The snowball method was an excellent way to start, as it local governments at national level, declined the invitation opened further avenues for more research and it helped explaining that ‘they had no competence on the matter’ INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 175 mirroring a strong handicap to the most need national and distribution as well as it various perspectives, debate on UA conceptualization. This list of interviewees is social, economic and ecological aspects. Since UA shown in Table 1. includes, but is not limited to, food production either The interviews were conducted between October for self-consumption or local distribution (Mougeot and December 2015. Each interview was fully tran- 2005; RUAF 2006; Veenhuizen 2006; FAO, n.d.) key scribed. Then the responses were coded by hand. words as social canteens, several of them (e.g. Torres The results highlighted converging and diverging Vedras municipality) supplied by urban farmers, were points of views on specific themes. included on the web search. In addition, the set of key words shown in Table 2 is also based on our own knowledge as well as on 4.2. Key words web search the words used by our interviewees. The set is com- posed of 26 key words that somehow delineate the Our second set of results was obtained by conducting a outer limit of UA as far as the web information is web search. The idea was to measure the gap between concerned (see Table 2). the key actors’ perception and the information available A deeper examination was made to the ten first on the web sites referred here as ‘practices’. Although key words to check subject relevance. Table 2 also virtual reality does not mirror per se, we argue that a shows how different terms and words can fit to potential gap can raise significant questions to inform describe UA practices according to the various inter- theUAconceptualdebateinPortugal. national definitions. Each Portuguese key word was introduced between quotation marks. In order to exclude prac- tices from other Portuguese speaking counties, the 5. Urban agriculture in Portugal: from word ‘Portugal’ was added. A first search using production for self-consumption to a broad ‘Urban Agriculture’ and ‘Urban and Peri-urban social dynamic Agriculture’ gave results essentially limited to allot- ment gardens. The search was then broadened to This section presents the findings from the key actors key words related to food production, processing, interviews. By coding the results, we were able to Table 1. List of Key actors, brief presentation. Interview Stakeholder Group Description: Key-Actor 1 National Network PORTAU—REDE de Agricultura Urbana e Peri-Urbana Site: Disabled Key-Actor 2 National Professional APAP—Associação Portuguesa de Arquitetos Paisagistas Association Site: http://apap.pt Key-Actor 3 National Association AGROBIO—Associação Portuguesa de Agricultura Biológica Site: http://www.agrobio.pt/en/index.php Key-Actor 4 National Association APH—Associação Portuguesa de Horticultura Site: http://www.aphorticultura.pt Key-Actor 5 National Program PROVE—Direção Nacional PROVE—ADREPES Site: http://www.prove.com.pt/www/english.T9.php Key-Actor 6 National Foundation Fundação EDP—Inovação Social Site:http://gulbenkian.pt/projecto/hortas-solidarias/ Key-Actor 7 Academia Department of Sciences and Environmental Engineering—UN Lisbon Site: http://vivertelheiras.pt/parceiros/parque-horticola-de-telheiras/ Key-actor 8 Community initiative from a AVAAL—Associação para a Valorização Ambiental da Alta de Lisboa local NGO Site: https://avaal.org Key-Actor 9 Local government Câmara Municipal de Lisboa Site: http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/viver/ambiente/parques-horticolas-municipais Key-Actor 10 Community Initiative from a Horta do Mundo local group http://hortadomundo.blogspot.pt Key-Actor 11 Local government Câmara Municipal de Sesimbra https://www.facebook.com/groups/970609516348766/ Key-Actor 12 Central Government Direção Regional de Agricultura e Pescas de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo Site: http://www.draplvt.mamaot.pt/DRAPLVT/Informacao-Institucional/missao-atri buicoes/Pages/Missao-Atribuicoes.aspx Author elaboration 2016 176 C. DELGADO Table 2. Web search through key words [in Portuguese and English equivalents]. Others: Production Processing Distribution Eng. Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture Allotments gardens Popular Kitchen Consumers Cooperatives PT Agricultura Urbana e Peri-Urbana Hortas Urbanas Cozinha popular Cooperativas de consumidores Eng. Urban Agriculture Social gardens Social kitchen Food Baskets PT Agricultura Urbana Hortas sociais Cozinha social Cabaz Eng. Transition and Permaculture Solidary Gardens Social canteen Food Chains PT Transição e permacultura Hortas solidárias Cantina social Circuitos curtos agro-alimentares Eng. Seeds Bank School gardens Round economy PT Banco de sementes Hortas escolares Economia Circular Eng. Urban Composting Entrepreneur Garden Local Food Markets (covered) PT Compostagem Urbana Horta empresarial Mercados locais Eng. UP education Community gardens Organic (open-air) food markets PT Formação Agricultura Urbana Hortas comunitárias Mercados biologicos Eng. Food marketing Urban beehives Food bank PT. Marketing alimentar Apicultura urbana Banco de alimentos Eng. Urban Hydroponics Food-Waste PT Hidroponia Urbana Desperdicio Alimentar Author elaboration 2016 provide qualitative results and quantitative insight however UPA is by private sector as well as local associa- into key actors perceptions. The last part of this ses- tions [or grassroots] driven’. sion is an attempt to illustrate the diversity of practices that can be found based on web searching research. 5.1.1.2. Actors for whom the initiatives are tar- geted. Primarily UA projects are targeted to benefit the unemployed and retired, with undifferentiated gender participation, as mentioned by ten (10 out 5.1. Findings from key actor interviews of 12) key actors. However, another emerging social 5.1.1. Typology of UA actors group participating in UA is middle-income families The two main typologies of actors proposed here with children as referred by four out of twelve of the resulted from the discussion with and the differentia- key actors. Key actor 8 clarifies what has been said tion made by the interviewees: leaders, promoters or previously by commenting ‘either young people with champions of UA initiatives on the one hand and alternative interests such as permaculture as well as targeted population on the other. old people either unemployed and/or retired that need an occupation and food for self-consumption as an additional source of income’. 5.1.1.1. Actors who are leading UA initiatives. UA is perceived as a practice developed either as a response to public policy by municipalities or boroughs (juntas de 5.1.2. Types of location freguesias in Portuguese), sometimes in cooperation UA is mainly practiced on public land as reported with other organizations. It typically expresses itself as by eight (8 out of 12) key actors and to a lesser allotment gardens. With one exception, all key actors extent on institutional areas (NGOs, enterprises, were associated with UA, where the activity led by a schools). Three (3 out of 12) mentioned that UA form of public administration. In addition, seven out of is also being practiced on left-over land without twelve key actors linked UA with Non Governmental explicit owner. Key actor 1 stated that ‘UA is Organizations leaderships. Key actor 3’s comment fairly mainly done in places where there were informal illustrates these findings: ‘Who is leading the processes occupation as they were also public land in urban today are the city councils and boroughs, but everybody areas, e.g. Faro, Cascais, Funchal, Figueira da Foz, can use vacant land’.Keyactor1reinforces Keyactor3by Vila Nova de Gaia. Or embedded urban areas with- saying ‘when talking about prime drivers, they are mainly out building capacity, as Chelas in Lisbon’. the municipalities and social institutions because they Nevertheless, several key actors again differen- have access to land’. On the other hand, Key actor 2 tiated urban from peri-urban land as each of differentiates UA (within cities) from UPA (around cities) them refers to quite diverse realities. Namely, UA leadership: ‘UA projects are ruled by the local government, as an institutional practice with social perspective INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 177 such as self-consumption or recreation, and ‘peri- 5.1.5. Production destination/degree of market urban agriculture’ is more correlated with an eco- orientation nomic, market-oriented perspective. An important UA in Portugal primarily refers to food production finding is that according to some informants, UA for self-consumption, with potential harvest seems to be practiced essentially on public land exchanges between families at neighbourhood whereas UPA is on private one. level as mentioned by 11 (11 out of 12) key actors. Production, processing, and distribution for market-oriented distribution are absent from 5.1.3. Types of produce grown key actors’ testimony, despite some examples of All key-actors stated that vegetables, such as cab- food distribution and processing such as the ones bage, lettuce and tomato, are the dominant UA illustrated in Figures 5 and 6.Asencapsulatedby crop in Portugal.Aromaticherbs,flowers and key actor 8 ‘UA, due to its limited land access do small fruits are cultivated to a lesser extent. Key not go behind family savings (self-consumption)’. actor 1 reported that ‘the massive production of Only Key actor 5 offered a the diverging opinion vegetables is due to its direct contribution to family that ‘there is a profitable market going on through savings’. direct sales from producers to consumers as PROVE It should be highlighted here that in Portugal (2017) as well as direct sale of processed products, vegetables are part of the common day-to-day educational and touristic activities’. diet, for both poor and rich social classes. However, Key actor 11 gives a broader account as he identified a wider set of species, some of them 5.1.6. Scales of production and technology used introduced by Cape Verdean residents, include sev- All key actors agree that production is a family or eral types of beans, corn and sweet potato. All key individual activity. A total of eight (8 out of 12) actors agree that livestock was not a feasible interviewees reported that gardeners are use con- option, mostly due to the smell and noise distur- ventional and traditional means of production bance. However, livestock could be part of the without technological resources, even if the use equation in peri-urban areas, as stated by key of trendy biological practices is increasing. The actor 1. Finally, fruit trees seem a problematic idea that UA is a manual-based procedure is con- issue because their shadow that can disturb neigh- firmed by Key actor 7, a university professor and bouring plot. a practising urban gardener, who stated that ‘as it is practised today, (UA) is a one-person activity without technological resources and should be 5.1.4. Types of economic activities kept like this in the future’. The idea of UA products being sold and distrib- uted to markets seemed unfamiliar to the key actors, in spite of the initiatives that are shown 5.1.7. Social impact, environmental impact and in Figures 1, 2, 3,and 4. This could explain why economic impact four of them (4 out of 12) defined UA ‘economic The interviews strongly suggest that the domi- activity’ as savings resulting from self-production. nant focus of UA in Portugal is about social Despite this, and after reflection, a third of the issues,suchashow UA relatesdirectlywithcom- interviewees’ identified program PROVE as an munity activities, social inclusion and poverty example of a market-oriented national pro- alleviation (10 out of 12). Additionally, UA seems gramme (see Figure 4). Giving the lack of UA’s to bear a clear environmental dimension in the obvious economic activity, Key actor 10 stated country and links up with urban greening, land- that UA’s ability to put people together should scape management and reduction of ecological be measured as an economic return. Key actor 3 footprint in various cases according to 6 out of considered UA’seconomicvalueto besavings in 12 interviewees. These two perspectives can health policies, considering the benefits that UA occur at the same time, as is the case of Lisbon might bring to mental well-being and it’spromo- program ‘Parques Horticolas Municipais’.Key actor tion of physical activity to reduce obesity, a ram- 2 advocated that ‘UA should be included in the pant phenomenon largely ignored in the country. ecological city structure integrating water drainage 178 C. DELGADO Figure 1. Based in a popular neighborhood (Mouraria), this popular kitchen is staffed by unemployed local people, and uses local products as far as possible. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). Figure 2. All over the country there are open-air street fairs and food stores selling organic food. Agrobio is managing 13 of them. Figure shows The Organic open-air street fair in Campo Pequeno Lisbon, held every Saturday morning. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 179 Figure 3. ‘Ugly-fruit’, is a consumers’ cooperative. Its main aim is to reduce food waste. To do this it buys vegetables and fruits that do not meet the commercial acceptable standards and sells them in basket in well located places in cities such as Lisbon, Cascais or Porto. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). Figure 4. PROVE is a national program. Its aim is to promote new forms of short marketing producers and consumer’s circuits. Figure shows basket distribution in Lisbon. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2015). basins and prone environmental areas. In addition, On the other hand, UA’s economic impact was UA could serve as a natural flood regulator device’. mentioned by only three key-actors. 180 C. DELGADO Figure 5. Quinta do Conde’ is a community garden initiative located on public land made avaialbe by the local government in Sesimbra— Lisbon Metropolitan Area. The community gardens are integrated in a huge park with sport and leisure equipments near a low-income neighbourhood. The investment was partly financed by EDP foundation under its ‘Solidarity gardens’ program. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2016). Figure 6. Through a voluntary service the RE-Food program collects waste food from restaurant and other local food establishments and distributes to local population in need. There are more than 30 distribution points in Portugal. The space is given for free to the project by mainly the parishes. Figure shows one of the 11 RE-Food stores in Lisbon. Image Credits Delgado, C. (2016). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 181 5.2. Findings from web search relation to food processing and distribution, a special mention needs to be made on ‘social canteens’,a Table 3 shows the results from the web search. The social response for supplying food, supported by the number besides the key word is the average key word state and only accessible for poor families. As pre- occurrence score. A first glance confirms how the social vious mentioned, local urban farmers are supplying UA perspective is a pervasivePortugueseunderstanding some of them. Figure 1 to 6 are an attempt to of what UA is about (e.g. allotment gardens, social can- illustrate the diversity of practices that can be teens, social gardens, school gardens to name a few). In found on the web search. addition, there are significant references to urban food waste, or other stages of the food chain such as distribu- tion and also to non-food activities as the seed bank. 6. Discussion: the perception of UA Last accessed in May 2016, Total of 26 key words disconnected from the urban system The most referred key word is ‘Local food markets’ (378), the second being ‘allotment gardens’ (330) and Some insights can be drawn when cross-referencing the third ‘social canteens (300)’. On the other hand, the the results obtained from the interviews and those least referred ones are: ‘Urban agriculture education’ obtained from the web search: (8); ‘food baskets’ (17); ‘food chains’ (17); Urban hydro- ponics (46); and, urban entrepreneur gardens (50). (1) A first, and by far dominant, convergence It is noticeable that all the productive inputs, refers to allotment gardens with a social per- necessary to generate UA, occur more frequently spective such as social gardens, solidarity gar- than other activities as processing and distribution. dens, collective gardens or even school Nevertheless, key words as ‘Urban hydroponics’ or gardens. This implies a productive side with ‘Urban entrepreneur gardens’ are less frequent. On a social perspective (for self-consumption) is the distribution sector, local food markets and prevailing. This links with the next lesson. organic open-air food markets are widespread and (2) A second converging insight is that little much more frequent than allotment gardens. In importance is given to market-oriented Table 3. Comparative ocurrence of UA-related key words resulting from the web search. UA Education Local Food Markets Food Baskets Allotments gardens Food chains Social canteens Urban Hydroponic Urban Agriculture Entrepreneur gardens Food - waste 185 150 Urban Compost 176 8 Social gardens Urban beehives 50 54 174 Transition School gardens 109 &Permaculture Round economy Seeds Bank 169 130 Community gardens Food Bank Social Kitchen UPA Organic food markets Food marketing Popular kitchen Consumers Coop Solidarity gardens Author elaboration 2016 182 C. DELGADO approaches and entrepreneur’s gardens. This Portuguese UA situation does not matching suggests a weak economic perspective of several of the definitions (D2 and D3). Portuguese UA. (5) Lastly, the Portuguese UA concept seems quite (3) A third finding is that non-food activities such rooted in a social perspective (for self-con- as urban composting, pedagogical activities sumption for poverty mitigation or recreation), such as education, or technological resources even if a closer look shows an ecological per- as hydroponic (to mention some) are little spective. See CABANNES (2015) but also D1, considered on both sides. This implies that without considering its economic perspective UA holistic vision is weak and its connections as a potential source of income generation. with the urban system are still tenuous. In summary, key actors perceptions tend to frame UA’s Coming back to our first research question: How is productive objective to be entirely devoted to self- UA being conceptualized by relevant Portuguese consumption. Despite this, the PROVE program is a key actors on the field? The results from the inter- kind of an exception within the existing practice, and views indicate that UA is perceived as directly con- stands as an outstanding example of urban-rural lin- nected with urban allotment gardens initiatives, kages connecting peri-urban areas (producers) to mainly led by local governments, and located on urban areas (consumers) within a 50 km radius for public lands. The idea behind those initiatives is the purpose of generating income. Despite its impor- self-consumption and social welfare. Production tance and quite innovative dimension and scale, it is market-oriented, income generating UA is nearly hardly mentioned as part of the UA Portuguese con- absent. UA means primarily cultivating vegetables ceptualization, and this can be understood as market- and fruits and it does not accommodate non-food oriented practices appear not to be perceived as UA. products. The web search refers to a wide range of initia- Within the framework of international definitions, tives and practices from production (for self-con- what are the missing links and missing elements of sumption or supply), to processing, marketing and Portuguese UA, and what are, if any, specific aspects distribution. Looking at diverging issues, the web that are not embraced by existing definitions (second search indicates a significant frequency of social can- research question)? We should highlight some teens (food supply), social kitchens, local covered remarkable differences below: food markets and organic markets (supplied by urban farmers), whereas the interviews made much less references to these elements when referring to (1) A Portuguese distinction between UA and UA in Portugal. These activities, which are at least UPA, based on their location within or around partially supplied by UA farmers, show that cities. This is a particularity that does not Portuguese UA is also market-oriented and a viewed match with (D1, D2, and D3) and do not expli- as a source of income. But it is not integrated in a citly refer to the peri-urban territorial straightforward way into in the UA concept held by dimension. most of the key actors. (2) There is a huge emphasis on food production oriented for self-consumption, without signifi- Comparing perceived definitions on the one hand cant consideration by food processing and and what is happening in the field indicates a gap distributing. Again, this finding does not between UA what is perceived by key actors and the align with several UA definitions (D2 and D3). reality of how UA is practiced. Back to our assumption, (3) There is an absence of urban forestry, livestock the perception of the key actors refers to UA under its raising, or other non-food products. A rather productive side mostly raw food for self-consumption. different understanding from all the UA defini- On the other hand, UA practices in Portugal are much tions (D1, D2, D3, and D4). broader than production of vegetables and urban (4) UA is not regarded as a component of the gardening and much closer to international UA defini- urban food system. It does not consider urban tions cited before, i.e. even if not predominant food and peri-urban resources, such as food waste, production for distribution exist, as well as non-food non-food products or urban labor. Again, the activities, e.g. food bank, seeds-bank, etc. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 183 Going a step further, we advocate the need for 7. Concluding remarks and findings three key measures. First, there should be discus- implications sions about how Portuguese UA can contribute to Results are showing a significant gap between UA the Urban Food System. Second, efforts should be as understood by key actors, UA actual practices on initiated to integrate UA into urban planning, and the ground, and UA digital information displayed primarily into urban physical planning. Finally, on the web. This gap might contribute to explain- there should be efforts to better connect the pro- ing why it is so difficult to generate a collective ductive stage of UA, so far predominately raw food and multidisciplinary space to put together a hol- for self-consumption, with market-oriented istic strategy and a public policy that considers UA approaches, including processing, distribution and as part of the urban food system. Finally, in a marketing. Such a program could lead to genera- country where unemployment is a structural and tion of income. These measures would consolidate a conjectural problem, it seems important to con- a UA conceptual framework and set up the basis sider the hardly existing economic perspective in for a national policy; one that does not exist today. key actors UA understanding. Even in a contingent manner, our Portuguese Several reasons could explain the current national findings might contain some transferable lessons gap between perceived and practiced UA and would for other cities, regions and countries. A first need further exploration: 1) lack of connection to the insight refers to the very concept of UA with its international debates from an academic and profes- multiple disciplinary activity that makes it, by nat- sional perspectives; 2) limited exchanges of experi- ure, context dependent and in constant evolution. ences between Portuguese and international actors; This means that to enhance UA re-conceptualiza- 3) Portuguese academia, decision makers and society tionand adaptationtothe evolving urbancontext, are, generally speaking, not familiar with interdisci- actors andcities needtobeconnected through plinary approaches; 4) Agriculture is still rooted in its national and international networks to enrich rural origins, and not seeking new possibilities emer- ongoing debates with their own initiatives and ging in urban areas; and, 5) UA is context dependent. reflections. In lieu of such connections we fear Whichlessons can belearned from theresults that peer-to-peer exchanges will be weakened, obtained so far? First, it appears that UA as a thereby reducing the possibility of addressing com- public policy, or as public driven programs and mon UA challenges such as integrated system solu- projects, is not mirroring the whole spectrum of tions. On-going discussion about how UA could be UA potential perspectives namely, social, economic better connected with food systems and how food and ecological. In large part, Portuguese UA is systems could become a powerful part of urban perceived to exist primarily within a social welfare systems will lead to more sustainable cities. Those perspective and as a public answer to on-going connections are practically nonexistent in Portugal, economic crisis. This is an ambush that may jeo- at least explicitly. Sadly, the one existing effort pardize the continuity of on-going initiatives. introduced by PORTAU (2011–2014) to better con- Second, another key lesson is that UA in Portugal nect UA with Food Systems closed due to lack of refers largely to food production used exclusively financing and commitment, which made impossi- for self—consumption, reinforcing UA’ssocialper- bleforthevolunteerstafftokeepthe platform spective. It is a political shortfall that existing poli- alive. cies do not consider UA as an opportunity for job A second insight is that UA, as a concept, should creation and income generation. be better appropriated by all actors concerned; from What mightbedonelocally andonashort-term those in practice in the private and public sectors, as perspective? Foremost, we suggest steps be under- well as decision makers, academics, and others. This taken to raise awareness among the population, calls again for having actors and cities linked at local organizations, decision-makers, public and national level and with cities and countries through private sector. Such an effort should emphasize international platforms, to align concepts, strengthen the importance of policies around Food Systems advocacy efforts and support the achievement of in general and the potential contribution of UA national and international goals, agendas and public initiatives to the whole. policies. 184 C. DELGADO In summary the conceptual exploration of UA in Acknowledgments Portugal clearly shows the need to debate to clarify The author wants to thank the anonymous reviewers for feedback concepts and to create synergies among actors. Such on earlier version, which led to a significant improvement of the a change would bring support to an emergent sector manuscript. Our gratitude as well to Jim Reilly for editing this article. and would contribute to better connect it to the urban system, promoting job creation and local com- Disclosure statement petitiveness. This debate needs to be a collaborative planning process, including all the stakeholders, from No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. gardeners to political decision makers and economic sector, academics and planners. It needs to address Funding multiple issues, including urban planning, urban-rural linkages, job creations, and city marketing, among This work was supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia [SFRH/BPD/94286/2013]. others. Finally, it needs to put in perspective different policies, connecting the on-going social and ecologi- cal approaches, with the economic dimension that is ORCID still weak in Portugal. Cecília Delgado http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4211-0614 Notes References 1. 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Journal

International Journal of Urban Sustainable DevelopmentTaylor & Francis

Published: May 4, 2018

Keywords: Urban agriculture; peri-urban agriculture; urban planning; urban food system; Portugal

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