Abstract
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021, VOL. 13, NO. 2, 131–147 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2020.1828891 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Climate change vulnerability and resilience of urban poor in Khulna, Bangladesh: the role of asset-based community development approach Md. Zakir Hossain and Md. Mostafizur Rahman Urban and Rural Planning Discipline, Science, Engineering and Technology School, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 12 August 2019 This article explores how the asset-based community development approach has Accepted 21 September 2020 improved the living conditions of the urban slum communities and have also addressed the house level poverty through direct asset transfer that can have positive KEYWORDS co-benefits for community resilience to climate change. A broader and less restrictive Asset-based community design, which is qualitative in nature, has been adopted to produce arguments using development approach; the experiences of the members of Community Development Committees (CDCs) of climate change; slums of Khulna city. Considering the great flexibility nature of open-ended interview vulnerability; resilience; urban poor data, thematic analysis has been applied to identify and interpret the patterns (themes) related to the activities of CDCs. The findings of the aggregated thematic data show that while community-driven actions might not be taken with climate change adaptation specifically in mind, local community-based actions initiated by the CDCs of slums such as community-driven slum upgrading and collective savings schemes to reduce asset erosion directly contribute to broader resilience to climate change, by reducing exposure to climatic risk and also addressing internal drivers of vulnerability. The findings of capacity-decision-making matrix show that the CDC members do not possess equal capacity while managing the vulnerability through transferring the asset both at household and community level. 1. Introduction external threats or shocks and stresses to which people are subject and the internal characteristics of people Climate variability and change have appeared as (Haque et al. 2014; Hossain .2014). In comprehending extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, the vulnerabilities of climate variability and change of extreme temperatures, heavy rains, and storms in the poor urban communities, some characteristics such as cities of the global South. The scientific communities of the location and the living condition of the urban poor the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and access to the primary services can instantly affect argue that the main impacts of climate change and their exposure and sensitivity to the risks associated climate variability on urban areas are likely to increase with climate change and natural hazards (Baker 2012; in the next few decades (IPCC 2007). Bicknell et al. Hossain .2014; Hossain and Rahman 2018a). Other (2009) state the critical factors behind that increased determinants like tenure, employment, financial inse- vulnerability to climate variability and change of poor curity, and social networks can also influence their urban communities are the driving forces of urbanisa- sensitivity and the adaptive capacity as well as the tion, the weaknesses and incapacities of government, responsive capacity of urban poor directly linked with and the development and expansion of cities in high- their vulnerability. Nevertheless, poor urban commu- risk sites. The vulnerability of individuals, households nities employ a wide range of physical measures to and communities to climate variability and change mitigate or to avoid the impacts of the hazards denotes an outcome of the interaction between the (Wamsler 2007a &, 2007b; Jabeen et al. 2010; Moser CONTACT Md. Zakir Hossain zakir_urp9913@yahoo.com Urban and Rural Planning Discipline, Science, Engineering and Technology School, Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh © 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 132 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN et al. 2010; Moser and Stein .2011; Roy et al. 2013). Within the climate change literature, climate change Coupled with that, their non-hazard social, economic, vulnerability signifies as the degree to which systems and political measures can reduce the adverse effects (e.g. households, communities, and organisations) are of extreme events and climate variability. Therefore, susceptible to, and are unable to cope with the responding to climate variability involves building resi- adverse effects of climate change and climate lience of poor urban communities (Haque et al. 2014). extremes (IPCC 2014; Opiyo et al. 2014; Younus and Urban poor communities’ resilience indicates the Kabir 2018). Therefore, neither hazards and climate constant organisation, disorganisation, and reorganisa- risks can solely define, nor the inside properties of tion of assets that individuals and communities get the system can strictly explicate the climate change access to living in the urban slums and squatter settle- vulnerability (Romero Lankao and Qin 2011). Instead, ments (Kais and Islam 2016). The asset-based approach it must be looked at as an interaction of these factors supports the extremely poor households and groups and includes several dimensions: hazards, exposure through incorporating asset accumulation policy fra- and sensitivity, adaptive capacity and actual mework in the programmatic intervention. An asset- responses (IPCC 2001, 2007, 2014; Hahn et al. 2009; based approach is a community-driven approach that Romero Lankao and Tribbia 2009; Moser et al. 2010; includes the principle of identifying and mobilising Romero Lankao and Qin 2011; Opiyo et al. 2014; Majid individual and community ‘assets’, rather than focusing et al. 2019). This perspective suggests that the most on problems and needs or deficits (Blickem et al. 2018). vulnerable individuals, households, and groups living The vital issue of this approach entails how poor com- in an urban context hold the characteristics of the munities allocate their assets in response to risk with most extensive exposure to shocks and stresses due a given level of capitals (Siegel and Alwang 1999; Moser to climate change including climate variability and 2010). Although inadequate, scholarship on the role of extremes, the highest sensitivity to climatic shocks the asset-based approach in building the resilience of and stresses, and the least capacity to respond. urban poor communities is growing. In many countries, Concerning with the above context, the location of national federations of slum and shack dwellers now slums and squatter settlements (flood plains, marshy operate with the local government and aid organisa- areas, low-lying areas and river courses) combined tion through building a partnership and implement the with limited access to urban services, high population programmes linked with housing, improvement of growth, poor planning and quality of housing can slums concerning to service delivery and essential infra- expedite the vulnerability of communities living in structures that directly contribute their resilience to those settlements related to both gradual and sudden climate variability and change (Baker 2012; Usamah climatic events. et al. 2014; Hossain and Rahman 2018b). Moser’s (2010) ‘asset vulnerability framework’ is This paper inspects the role of asset-based approach a relevant framework to understand the linkage in building the resilience of poor urban communities in between vulnerability and resilience in the context Khulna, Bangladesh as how the communities utilise of climate change. This approach suggests that vul- their resources in practical ways to recover from the nerability carries an inextricable link with resilience, real and potential damage due to climate shocks and and assets can play a critical role in determining the stresses. It also aims to contribute to the climate relative resilience of individuals and households asso- change and resilience literature through an in-depth ciated with risks. The linkage between vulnerability and critical analysis of the role of asset-based approach and assets carries straightforward direction to both on removing barriers and creating opportunities to the external shocks and stresses and the internal support the social transformation to respond to the capacities to resist or withstand. The ‘asset vulnerabil- challenges of a geographically bounded community ity framework’ (Moser 2010) mainly focuses on three facing both gradual and sudden changes in climate. types of vulnerability such as ‘spatial’ and ‘physical’ vulnerability experienced by local populations as a result of the terrain, the ‘politico-legal’ vulnerability 2. An asset-based approach for relating to insecure tenure rights to housing and land understanding vulnerability and resilience and resulting in inadequate provision of vital physical Research related to climate change and disaster risk infrastructure, and the ‘social vulnerability’ of those revolves mostly either vulnerability or resilience. groups most at risk to the increasing intensity of INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 133 severe weather (Moser et al. 2010, p. 8). In conceiving conceptualising vulnerability, where vulnerability of the vulnerabilities, several characteristics, mostly connects resilience by capturing the extent to which associated with physical vulnerability, are directly individuals and communities can cope with the hazar- related to where and how the urban poor are living dous situation and can prepare themselves for adapt- and their access to essential services that increase ing to the future shocks and stresses (Adger et al. their exposure and sensitivity to the risks associated 2003; Birkmann 2007; Briguglio et al. 2009; Moser with climate change and natural hazards (Baker 2012). 2010). A notable example can be the ‘asset-based Scholars like Masterson et al. (2014) has considered community development’ approach that demon- physical, or structural vulnerability is a function of the strates the process of community development. location of the population and the built environment An ‘asset-based community development’ (ABCD) that is sensitive or susceptibility to damage to climate resembles to be a practical approach for assisting the extremes. On the other hand, social, economic politi- people to cope with and to adapt to gradual and cal, institutional, and governance factors can influ - sudden changes in climate (Blickem et al. 2018). ence the socio-political vulnerability that ultimately However, there exists a lack of empirical evidence to can make the households and communities least resi- support this approach. The ‘asset-based community lient to climate extremes (Guillard-Gonçalves and development’ approach is a theoretical framework Zêzer 2018; Younus and Kabir 2018). In the urban that facilitates a process for mobilising and building context, factors such as tenure, employment, financial assets, developing the skills and capacities of the insecurity, and social networks affect their sensitivity communities, citizens’ associations and local institu- and adaptive capacity and response capacity of urban tions that enable individuals, households and com- poor communities related to politico-legal and social munities to utilise opportunities for strengthening the vulnerability. resilience against climate change and climate ‘Resilience’ has become instrumental in measuring extremes (Fuimaono 2012; The Health Foundation to what extent the adaptation mediates vulnerability 2015; Blickem et al. 2018). It also values the capacity, reduction (Béné et al. 2012). It also illustrates the out- skills, knowledge, and connections among the indivi- come of ideal adaptation processes (Schipper 2004). duals and communities (Glasgow Centre for In this sense, resilience is considered a desirable fea- Population Health 2011; The Health Foundation ture in environmental management (Holling 2001), 2015). Considering the ABCD’s principles, this paper which contributes to reducing vulnerability (Cannon formulates the analytical framework that illustrates 2000). Furthermore, resilience symbolises the ability the role of the asset-based approach in building com- to deal with the impacts of adverse changes and munity resilience to climate change and climate shocks (Cutter et al. 2008). This ability includes fea- extremes (see Figure 1). However, it includes tures such as ‘buffering impacts’, ‘returning to the pre- a limited illustration of the impacts of the ‘asset- shock situation’ or ‘bouncing back’, ‘shock-absorbing’, based community development’ approach in terms ‘evolving and adapting’ or even ‘transforming’ (Berkes of building the absorptive, adaptive, and transforma- et al. 2003; Walker et al. 2004; Béné et al. 2012). This tive capacity of urban poor communities in the con- multiplicity of terms reflects the broadening of the text of climate change. The analytical framework concept into a more elaborated concept that classifies the influencing factors of vulnerability embraces the ability not merely to bounce back including physical (such as locational and spatial char- (absorptive capacity) but also to adapt (or adaptive acteristics), socio-economic (e.g. constrained liveli- capacity) and to transform (transformative capacity) hood diversification), and politico-legal (e.g. tenure (e.g. Nelson et al. 2007; Pelling 2011; Béné et al. 2012). insecurity) in the particular context of low-income As pointed out earlier, resilience and vulnerability are settlements of Khulna city, Bangladesh. antonymous, where vulnerability indicates an unde- Each of the three vulnerability domains is sirable situation that carries the potential to occur a collective expression of physical, socio-economic, damages. In contrast, resilience means the capacity and political factors experienced by the urban poor of a system to resist, to recover from disaster losses communities in a different context (such as public and to transform that system often associated with and private settlements) with differing consequences inequality and vulnerability. Some influential (Roy et al. 2013). However, the urban communities are researchers have brought ‘resilience’ thinking in not the passive victims of the adverse effects of 134 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN Figure 1. Analytical framework. climate-related hazards, as they have already initiated slum dwellers, a relevant but fundamental question a wide range of actions to respond to the hazards arises—does the asset-based community development mentioned above. The households or communities approach act as driving forces for building community may have contributing factors of vulnerability relating resilience by utilising the slum dwellers’ capacities and to geographical location, economic insecurity and lim- resources in the context of climate change? Even if it is ited financial reserves, tenure insecurity, and political ‘yes,’ this research intends to explore the extent of the marginalisation along with the social network, trust benefits of the direct asset transfer activities/initiatives among groups and community members, and commu- in offering community resilience from a realistic per- nity involvement (Joakim et al. 2015). Therefore, the spective. As the designs for conducting either qualita- ‘asset-based community development’ approach tive or quantitative studies on the same topic vary entails the fair shift of social assets and the mobilisation considerably, this research undertakes a broader and of groups on a shared interest to organise an essential less restrictive design, which is qualitative, combining informal network by which poor households can access both empirical evidence and theoretical claims to pro- to their personal and community resources for building duce an argument (Schwandt 2007). The prime reason resilience. for adopting the qualitative research design is its greater credibility of understanding the process by which events and actions related with asset transfer 3. Research strategy: exploring the scenarios activities take place as well as analysing the ways that of vulnerability in slums slum dwellers experience, or think about themselves or Due to the dynamic nature of urban slums distin- an issue such as infrastructure development in slums guished by poor housing condition and living environ- (Bazeley 2013; Maxwell 2013). Within the qualitative ment (Tanni et al. 2014), limited health and sanitation research design, this study has adopted the case facilities (Murtaza 2000), and unstable financial study approach, because it has aided to develop an in- resources mostly arranged by informal negotiation depth understanding of the complexity and unique- (Sikder et al. 2015), the investigation of the ‘actual ness of asset-based community development reality’ represented by ‘what is going on’ with the asset- approach concerning community resilience from multi- based community development approach is undoubt- ple perspectives with the empirical investigation in two edly a complicated process. Moreover, to make sense of slums of Khulna city in a ‘real-life’ context (Flyberrg the combined effects of both external factors of vulner- 2006; Simons 2009). ability such as physical environment and internal fac- To establish an empirical connection with the tors of vulnerability such as the political orientation of research topic, two prominent slums of Khulna city, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 135 namely Rupsha Char slum located in Ward No. 22 and respondents to explore the ‘actual reality’ in such Railway Colony slum located in Ward No. 21 were a way that we are interested in (Kvale 1996; selected as cases. Rupsha Char slum is located on Silverman and Marvasti 2008). public land encompassing 32 households with 168 After the preliminary selection of the CDC mem- people, and the second site, Railway Colony slum is bers from the two slums of Khulna city, we have positioned on the properties of Bangladesh Railway prepared an interview schedule. Based on our experi- which is also the government property incorporating ence and theoretical understanding of asset-based 162 households with 634 people (Bangladesh Bureau community development approach, we have devel- of Statistics 2014). Evidence shows that being an oped some specific open-ended questions related to established settlement with (unauthorised) land own- the benefaction of asset transfer model on commu- ership, the two settlements mentioned above offer nity resilience. However, we have kept the interview diverse livelihood opportunities to the slum dwellers. process flexible as to ask further questions in response Besides, urban poor residents need to maintain more to what is counted as vital replies from the CDC robust and more extensive social networks for their members, and that has accelerated our understand- living that often enable them to seek benefits from ing of the context as well as the status of the issues the government and NGOs (Jahan et al. 2011). The related with asset transfer and building infrastructure decision to study two settlements was to ensure that in the slums (Rahman et al. 2018; Rahman and Zaman this research might capture the role of extensive 2018). During the data collection, we have used both social networks coupled with institutional structures notes taking and audio recording device to establish of urban poor in building resilience against climatic higher trustworthiness in data analysis, and conform- hazards. To make sense of the complex asset transfer ability in interpretation (Denzin and Lincoln 2005). In activities along with the actual performance and influ - contrast to quantitative research, data collection and ence of the Community Development Committee data analysis have been conducted concurrently, (CDC), we have selected 10 ± 2 CDC members from because we have recognised as many with other each slum. researchers that it is impracticable to separate data UNDP and Khulna City Corporation jointly initiated gathering and data analysis steps in qualitative the Urban Partnerships for Poverty Reduction Project inquiry (Miles and Huberman 1994; Gibbs 2002; (UPPRP) that provided the opportunity to create the Maxwell 2009; Saldana 2011). For storing and organis- community development committees (CDCs) for col- ing the collected information from CDC members of laborating with the local government and the formal the slums, we have extensively used NVivo, which is political system (UNDP 2016). While discussing how qualitative data storing and analysis software. Our urban poor households have become the members of eight-year professional working experience on using this informal network (CDCs), Rahman and Ley (2020) NVivo for conducting research projects related to describe that half of the households in the urban urban and rural development issues has positively slums of Khulna city became members of an informal guided us to use the qualitative data analysis software network (CDC) after having been asked by the project for storing textual documents about a coding system. staffs of the Local Partnership for Urban Poverty While analysing the interview data, at first, we have Reduction Project (LPUPAP) and the Urban translated the interviews from Bengali (original form) Partnerships for Poverty Reduction Project (UPPRP). to English followed by the ‘edited transcription’ In addition to this, other factors such as better com- approach where we have edited the grammar without munity services, financial support to build new changing the meaning to make sense of the data income-generating activities and social relationships (Taylor and Gibbs 2010; Globalme 2018). Also, the with other households influenced the urban poor translated and transcribed interviews have offered households’ membership in the CDCs. Around 25 more spontaneous ways to look for keywords while households formed the primary groups of CDCs pri- skimming and scanning the interview data (Kvale marily based on tenure security (people who gave 1996). After the scanning and skimming phases, we their assurance to live in the settlement for at least have adopted the following steps for data analysis the next five years). For this research, we have purpo- with NVivo: i) identifying the keywords/topics of sefully selected our respondents out of those primary each section of the interview (see Figure 2), ii) explore groups, because it has granted us to choose the the connection among the emerging themes/ 136 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN Figure 2. Example of several codes applied to data from an interview transcript. categories iii) understand the contexts and identify shown that there prevails limited level of diversity in the situations/topics of interest by linking the specific the activities of CDCs in both slums, and the aspects information. raised by the CDC members of both slums are similar Considering the flexibility nature of open-ended except the geographic location, and year of establish- interview data, we have used thematic analysis to iden- ment of slums. Therefore, a cross-case analysis has tify and interpret the patterns (themes) within data been performed; however, the analysed data are pre- (Bazeley 2013). During the thematic analysis, the fol- sented in aggregated form to illustrate the data in lowing ‘codes,’ which are short phrase that symbolically a meaningful structure. assign summative, salient, and essence-capturing attri- butes, have been explored (Saldana 2013) (see Table 1). 4. Driving forces of vulnerability in slums of For the ease of data visualisation and presentation, Khulna city the 18-interview data (10 from Rupsha Char slum, and 8 from Railway Colony slum) are discussed in aggregated CDC members of both Rupsha Char slum and Railway form. Table 1 highlights that the coded information Colony slum have highlighted that the level of vulner- such as ‘community bonding,’ ‘support of CDC at ability among the CDC members living in slums is not household and community level,’ and ‘vulnerability is equal due to different socio-economic status and triggered by poor infrastructure’ are mentioned by uneven supportive background from the family mem- each CDC members (here shown as sources) in numer- bers and relatives residing either in the same slum or ous forms in multiple times (here shown as references) different places of Khulna city. CDC members have during the interviews. Though the codes imply pointed out five aspects of vulnerability such as physi- a specific aspect, there also exist interconnectedness cal, social, economic, environmental, and political that among the codes generated during the data analysis. can affect either the individual/household or the The cluster analysis has been conducted based on household and the community as a whole (see Table 2). the ‘word similarity’ of the source data. The cluster The aggregated result of driving forces of vulner- analysis highlights that there exist two large clusters ability from the thematic analysis shows that CDC based on ‘word similarity’ of the source data. members have mentioned (in 47 different occasions) However, in-depth analysis of the source data has their physical vulnerability related with the damage to infrastructure such as a house, road, drainage, tubewell, latrine and absence of electricity connec- tion as the highest contributing issue of vulnerabil- Table 1. Generated codes from interview data for thematic analysis. ity. Both social vulnerability and economic Name of the codes Sources References vulnerability act as the second-highest issue of the Access to CDC’s support 10 29 CDC as institution 16 42 vulnerability of the slum dwellers. Their social vulner- Community bonding 18 51 ability essentially indicates the network/communica- Effects of extreme weather on slum dwellers 12 32 tion aspects that can be further illustrated by the Support of CDC at household and 18 78 community level communication with other CDC members, the status Support of government, NGOs, and informal 13 30 of relations with neighbours, and the scope for sources receiving support from family members and CDC Vulnerability is triggered by poor 18 47 infrastructure members working in the slums. The exploration of Source: Authors 2019 (generated in NVivo) the economic vulnerability of slum dwellers is INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 137 Table 2. Drivers of vulnerability along with level of affectedness. Aspects of Issue mentioned Dimensions of the major issue pointed by CDC Issue vulnerability by CDC members members in understanding their vulnerability Level of affectedness Drivers of Physical Infrastructure House Individual vulnerability Road Individual + Community Drainage Individual + Community Tubewell Individual + Community Latrine Individual + Community Electricity Individual Social Network Communication with other CDC members Individual + Community Relationship with neighbours Individual + Community Support from both family and CDC members Individual + Community Economic Employment Informality Individual Access to microfinance Individual Eviction threat Individual + Community Savings and health vulnerability Individual Environmental Seasonality Hot temperature in summer Individual Cold temperature in winter Individual Fire hazard Individual + Community Rainfall and hailstorm Individual + Community Cyclone with heavy wind Individual + Community Political Information/ Access to information Individual Decision Activities of community leaders and elected public Individual + Community making representative, mainly the ward commissioner Political orientation Individual Source: Authors (compiled from the interviews with CDC members) 2019 a puzzling segment because of their informal eco- restore the damaged houses for safe living and tube- nomic engagement and recurrent eviction threats wells for pure drinking water. while performing the street-side vending, which In investigating the political vulnerability, the often causes irregular earnings. On top, when the respondents pointed out that being actively engaged local government initiates the citywide eviction pro- with politics carries less priority to them. The reason is grammes concerning with informal business that that majority of them do not have many resources and sometimes last months after months, the slum dwell- time to spend to get a political affiliation or a dominant ers ultimately become helpless. Their limited savings political orientation that can benefit them sooner or can only support them for a short time resulting later. However, only a limited number of slum dwellers ultimately economically vulnerability due to the fail- who are also poor had become actively engaged in ure of the immediate re-establishment of their busi- politics because of their extreme interests and casual ness. Consequently, in many cases, the economic involvement in their economic activity. Some CDC vulnerability can also increase social vulnerability members have indicated that dedicated political con- because the slum dwellers need to heavily depend nection with local public representatives brings quicker on their neighbours for economic assistance during access to public resources to them in comparison to those crisis moments. those who do not have that. In one side, political con- nection with the leaders from the current ruling party The environmental vulnerability in the slums acts can offer straightforward access to public resources. a critical one since the climate variability reflected However, the CDC members appear to be worried through seasonal issues such as temperature, rainfall, about the consequences of their active engagement and wind-flow can influence both physical vulnerabil- with the current political party, in particular, whenever ities associated with damaged of infrastructure, and there will be a political change. The interview with Esha economic vulnerability linked with inconsistency in Khatun (2018) (pseudonym), CDC member of Rupsha income. The respondents have highlighted that envir- Char slum, also reveals that: onmental vulnerability has become an alarming con- cern for them, as they do not have the stable “Sometimes we hear that the government authority is infrastructure and economic strength to immediately going to evict us from this slum and make new houses 138 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN for their living, but we do not know if it is true or not. informative, selective, and restrictive that contain Previously, on many occasions, the local political leaders links with the aspects of vulnerability as pointed out handled the situations. That is why we need to have in Table 2 (see Figure 3). These variations in access to a good connection with political leaders and ward coun- decision-making system and capacity of the individual cillors so that they will be interested in handling our CDC member act as driving forces of their vulnerabil- situation. Now, we are living here comfortably with our family members. But we do not know what will happen ity, primarily related to the asset transfer programmes and how to manage the situation when the opposition at the household level and infrastructure develop- political party will become in power.” ment at the community level. CDC members have recognised that politically In illustrating the political vulnerability, the majority of influenced arrangements are tricky to get access in CDC members have stated that it is easy to mobilise the decision-making process. Surprisingly, none of the them in the political demonstration because of the lack CDC members has accepted the presence of ‘restric- of formal education from schools and colleges and the tive’ dimension among them while developing the chances of getting both financial and non-financial capacity-accessibility matrix. However, the CDC mem- benefits. That political attachment has created a ‘new bers have stressed that the outside politicians and identity’ among the slum dwellers, and people with ward councillors usually ignore their opinions, in par- that identity are acting as the ‘gatekeepers and deci- ticular, when it lacks the political interest and benefits. sion-makers’ within the slum community. Whenever In contrast, the slum dwellers with a reliable con- a political change takes place, another ‘new identity’ nection with the political leaders/community leaders emerges with a set of the entirely new group of ‘gate- can gain access in the decision-making process of keepers and decision-makers’, and the new group transferring the physical, economic or both resources often restricts the previous group to get access in at the household level. In Figure 3, this status resem- slum development activities through their collective bles the ‘selective’ dimension because only a limited efforts. The political vulnerability caused by the politi- number of residents of the slums hold the capacity cal power shift frequently undermines the benefits of and access in the decision-making process. By using the asset-based approach and other development their ‘selective’ feature, the CDC members tend to initiatives. As a result, development initiatives and deliver resources to those slum dwellers with ‘special works preferably allocated in slum areas tend to needs’ where the selection of those particular house- move ‘outside of the slum areas.’ holds remains questionable. The following narratives of the CDC members explain the interconnectedness of ‘selective’ dimension of the capacity-accessibility 5. Reasoning the vulnerability: matrix with vulnerability: capacity-accessibility matrix “As soon as I arrived in Khulna, I became politically active. Considering the various types of vulnerability illu- I opened a small shop for selling home-made snakes and strated as above, the CDC members of both slums later extended it to sell fresh vegetables. For supporting have pointed out that there exists a trio relationship the opposition party, the local political leaders told me to among vulnerability, accessibility in the decision- remove my shop. Again, our ward commissioner is from making system, and capacity of the individual CDC the current ruling party. Many of my neighbours can discuss their problems with him, but in my case, he member. More importantly, the respondents have does not have time to consider my issue.” (Rokeya specified that not all the CDC members possess Khatun (pseudonym) 2018) equal capacity while managing their vulnerability both at household and community level. Two-third And, of the participants have responded that being a part of the CDC, they hold multiple roles in decision mak- “Our relatives often help us if we have to arrange any ing for the community or transferring assets to the social events. I also try to help my relatives within my capacity. I am not interested in politics, and we do not go individual household. Their roles can be further asso- to any political meetings. So, we do not get any ‘special ciated with specific capacities and levels of access in help’ from our ward councillor and local political leaders. the decision-making process. While analysing the vul- We are used to getting only that help that everyone gets nerability, the capacity-accessibility matrix classifies but obviously with several requests.” (Narayan Roy (pseu- four different dimensions such as participative, donym) 2018) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 139 Figure 3. Reasoning the vulnerability with capacity-accessibility matrix. Respondents from both slums have specified that restoration phenomena contain beyond the house- they can comfortably make decisions and implement hold level interests, the access of the CDC members the initiatives if it involves a social issue. It is also to the decision-making system becomes challenging relatively easy for them to participate in social events (see Figure 3). A majority of the CDC members have such as marriage, picnic, and cultural programmes pointed out their limited access in the decision- mainly organised by the CDC members of the slums. making process after the incidence of three significant Depending on the types of community events, they fire hazards in Rupsha Char slum in last twelve years sometimes bring their family members to contribute and waterlogging in Railway Colony slum in last four to collective activities, mostly related to helping each years. It turns out that environmental issues are pretty other’s works. This situation indicates ‘participative’ much similar to a political issue. The only difference is dimension reflected through participation in social that the slum dwellers can get access to information events and affairs (see Figure 3). While exploring the by using their capacity of being CDC members of the ‘participative’ aspect, the respondents have empha- slums. Therefore, the situation indicates the ‘informa- sised that the practical usage of the capacity depends tive’ dimension of the capacity-accessibility matrix. on the ‘enabling environment’ characterised by com- The following reactions of the CDC members can fort and supportive environment where they can further illuminate the above context: make a neutral decision. The following quote demon- “In case of extreme situations like fire hazards, and cyclones, strates the importance of the ‘enabling environment’ we get help from the government and non-government and its association with vulnerability: organisations. In those events, CDC members become very active. Look at my neighbours! Everyone is poor here. Who “I think the problem is the way we perform community will help us? We try our best to help each other during the activities. There is no importance of our opinion though everyday crisis and try to be happy with this environment. it is for us. In some meetings, we [as to express collec- Many things have changed over the years, but still, I do not tiveness] spoken our necessity but did not get anything. get close to any political leaders, as they do not care about I do not know, for whom the CDC works? Is it for us or to the poor. They only know how to use us.” (Joinab Begum satisfy the demand of certain people living in this slum? (pseudonym) 2018) Our CDC built the infrastructures where they felt it neces- sary. But I do not find the points of implementing their Again, activities. Here in this slum, we allow everyone to talk freely if it is not related to implementation procedure of “They [indicating to the political leaders and politically development works and the recipients of the benefits active CDC members] develop the system and all of us coming out those works.” (Md Abbas (pseudonym) 2018) have already accepted that. We have to live with that. Look at the condition of the services around us! Do you In terms of managing the environmental issues, as think we have the unity repair that tubewell? It is in very noted in Table 2, the slum dwellers have highlighted poor condition, but the CDC is not doing anything to that they can restore their houses destructed by both repair it. We have capacity but we do not have unity.” climatic and non-climatic hazards. However, if the (Md Nasir (pseudonym) 2018) 140 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN The above discussions reveal that there is a growing Figure 4 visibly establishes the cause-effect relation- need for the ‘enabling environment’ characterised by ship between climatic and non-climatic vulnerability an equal opportunity in the decision-making process that can be further exacerbated by the absence of including the trustworthy and compassionate rela- ‘enabling environment’ of the slum dwellers. Several tionship between the slum dwellers and the local incidences in both slums, the climatic issues charac- political leaders and ward councillors. Interpreting terised by extreme weather events such as rainfall, the capacity-accessibility matrix, it is quite evident cyclone, and high temperature in summer and low tem- that ‘restrictive’ dimension plays a crucial role in initi- perature in winter have accelerated the vulnerability ating and implementing development works in the caused by the non-climatic issue such as unemploy- slums of Khulna. Encouragingly, a progression of the ment, and lack of access to pure drinking water from ‘enabling environment’ associated with the ‘participa- community tubewell. The following narratives of the tive’ dimension can enhance the capacity and acces- CDC members exemplify the interconnectedness of cli- sibility in the decision-making system of the individual matic vulnerability and non-climatic vulnerability with CDC member. context-specific details: “If it rains than normal level, my house gets waterlogged. My husband and I cannot go outside for work. This 6. Conjoining the climatic and non-climatic situation stays about 3–5 days. During that time, we aspects of vulnerability have to borrow money from my relatives and neigh- bours. Without their help, it becomes difficult to main- In Bangladesh, climate change significantly impacts the tain my family and arrange the minimum food for my livelihood, health, food and water by lowering the capa- children.” (Biplob Mondol (pseudonym) 2018) city of the poor people to prepare, cope, and recover from both climatic and non-climatic shocks and stresses Again, (UNDP-UNEP 2014). During the interviews, a large num- ber of CDC members have claimed that both climatic “We cannot go out for work in the times of heavy rain and wind. See at the condition of our house; it cannot and non-climatic issues are equally responsible for their protect us from rain and wind. We are living with our vulnerability. The following figure depicts the intercon- children in such a condition. Our lives are full of risks nectedness between climatic vulnerability and non- because we are dependent on daily income. We cannot climatic vulnerability that undermines the community manage extreme situations because we do not have resilience-building process: savings. I do not know how to change our situation and Figure 4. Interrelation of climatic vulnerability and non-climatic vulnerability. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 141 what to do in the next rainy season.” (Akhtarul Islam of vulnerability mentioned in Table 2. Therefore, the (pseudonym) 2018) CDCs in the slums need to act based on shared inter- ests of the slum dwellers so that they can positively The reflections of the respondents imply that the slum address the climatic and non-climatic vulnerability by dwellers live with issues like unemployment, poor themselves. housing condition, and limited access to health and education facilities, and they are reasonably familiar with those uncertainties, mostly driven by the non- 7. Building resilience in slums: involvement climatic issues. On top, due to urbanisation, there is of CDC as an institution a rapid change in the global climate scenarios char- acterised by frequent incidence of natural disasters The formation of CDC has originated a platform for such as cyclone and flood, and Khulna city is experi- the slum dwellers to initiate community development encing those climatic disasters regularly (Department activities by themselves (UNDP 2016). However, the of Disaster Management 2014). Those natural disas- findings of the aggregated thematic data reveal that ters associated with climate change have destabilised the members of the CDC have started to act as the the non-climatic issues of slums, with what they have ‘development gatekeeper’ of the slums considering been already struggling. The new addition of the cli- their increasing capacity of decision-making related matic vulnerability issues reflected through extreme to resolving their problems by generating financial weather events has added further dimensions of vul- resources. While analysing the roles of CDCs, in parti- nerability that seem to be unacquainted to the resi- cular transferring the asset to the slum dwellers for dents living in both Rupsha Char slum and Railway building community resilience, the respondents of Colony slum. The responses of the CDC members both slums have reported that CDCs have successively further highlight the interdependency and interrela- delivered infrastructure and other community services tion of climatic vulnerability and non-climatic vulner- to meet the community needs as long as the UNDP ability, as noted below: and other development organisations have main- tained the support and monitoring process. Now, “In extreme weather condition, it is difficult for us to go the question arises whether CDCs have developed out for work. Heavy rain and hot temperature affect us their mechanism regarding the sustainable perfor- most because our house is not stable. Our kitchen and toilet are located outside the house; that’s why we face mance of community development activities for difficulties to go kitchen and toilet during the rainy building community resilience. The voices of the season. Even sometimes, we could see that water from CDC members of Rupsha Char slum and Railway the nearby Rupsha river gets in our houses, and that Colony slum indicate the aspects as mentioned above: situation gets worse with heavy rainfall. In such a situation, it becomes very difficult to manage the family “CDC has helped us through constructing roads and and business because I cannot open my tea stall. Also, we community toilets. But I think the management system find it very difficult to work outside for the whole day in of CDC has degraded over time. They are not working for extreme hot and cold temperature.” (Gita Rani (pseudo- the community as before. The active members of the nym) 2018) CDC do not come to us and observe our situation. They Again, make their decisions by themselves, sitting somewhere else not inside the slum.” (Nayeema Sheikh (pseudonym) “I think the weather is becoming extreme; I mean it’s 2018) getting hotter in summer and cooler in winter. We have not experienced such hot temperature like last year. It Again, was unbearable for my family. My younger son and daughter got sick and become dehydrated. In the end, “When a development project is implemented in the I had to take them to the local hospital. I do not know community, a group of people from the CDC come and what climate change is, but what I know that the weather evaluate the existing situation. They look at the current is getting rough day by day. I can see that something bad condition and then take initiatives either to construct it is waiting for us in future.” (Sumona Islam (pseudonym) or repair it. For example, if the roads need to be repaired, 2018) they repair the roads. They also build new infrastructure such as community tubewells, latrines, and drains where CDC members have specified their growing concerns it is needed. But truly speaking, all these activities are regarding the occurrence of extreme climatic events managed by councillors and our political leaders.” (Rajiya associated with climate change that affect the aspects Begum (pseudonym) 2018) 142 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN Commonly, issues like waterlogging, heavy rain, benefits in slums. For example, if it is a matter of inadequate drainage, improper sanitation, electrocu- economic issues such as providing financial benefits tion, and fire hazards are familiar phenomena in the to the community people, and protecting the eviction slums of Bangladesh (Ahmed 2016). The familiarity of concerning both settlement and employment, this events implies that the types of problems in slums in involves the highest engagement and the maximum Bangladesh look alike; however, the extent of the interest of the CDC members (see Figure 5). The fol- problems deviates from slum to slum across regions. lowing quote exemplifies the role of CDCs in addres- Considering the dynamics of the problems in Rupsha sing the economic issues in slums: Char slum and Railway Colony slum, CDCs have trans- “I only worked with CDC in constructing roads, drainage, ferred different categories of support for mobilising tubewells, and latrines. We increased the height of the the local resources and improving the infrastructure roads approximately to 8 ft. and prevented the water- and services to make the slum community resilient logging problem. Khulna City Corporation constructed the main roads, and we constructed all the small roads (see Table 3). inside the slum. I received money from that, and estab- The activities of CDCs in both slums as specified lished a handicrafts business. My children also got mone- above clearly integrate the characteristics of a resilient tary support for their education.” (Joinab Begum community such as build a knowledgeable, healthy (pseudonym) 2018) community; make the community organised; pro- In opposite, the environmental issues such as the mote social connectivity in the community; develop cleanliness issue around the households of the infrastructure and service facilities; create economic slums, and usage of the environment-friendly cooking opportunities; and lastly, make a supportive environ- technology bear the least engagement and the mini- ment to manage the natural assets of the community mum interest by the CDC members of slums (see residents (IFRC 2014). Figure 5). The lack of awareness connected with Again, the grid analysis incorporates the aspects of a low level of formal education, and also the limited engagement of CDC members, and their extent of economic capacity to maintain the relatively costly interests in CDCs activities. Moreover, the interview solutions can cause for that action. The following data reveal that the slum dwellers keep two types of quote relates to the aspect mentioned above in detail: engagement, namely passive engagement and active engagement while performing the activities of CDCs. “We all know what fire can do. Our entire slum was The extent of interests also comprises two scales, such destroyed by fire in 2005 and 2010. Both fires started in as minimum interest to maximum interest (see the kitchen. It happened due to our unconsciousness. We Figure 5). use wood for cooking which can be very dangerous in hot temperature. Like my neighbours, we lost every- Figure 5 portrays that the activities of CDCs as an thing. But still, the slum dwellers are cooking in the institution incorporate multidimensional problems of same way because we are living in a small space. We slums such as the eviction threat and informality in have accepted that, but we know we are living with employment (associated with the economic feature); risks.” (Gita Rani (pseudonym) 2018) early marriage and eve-teasing (connected with the And, social feature); lack of environmental cleanliness and awareness (connected with the environmental fea- “We live in slum because we are poor. We do not have ture); and, forced decision making to satisfy a small education like those living in buildings. That is the reason group of community residents (attached with the that we do not get jobs. I know we have to live here generation after generation if my children do not get political feature). education. I can feel the necessity of education though In theory, the well-established CDCs in slums of we are living in slum. Many problems happen around us, Khulna city seem to address the aspects of a resilient as we are illiterate.” (Md Joinal (pseudonym) 2018) community as noted above. However, the ultimate outcomes of the activities of CDCs are not like what In terms of managing social problems such as restrict- it seems from the beginning to end. The grid analysis ing eve-teasing issue for school going girls, protecting shows that the economic, social, environmental, and the early child marriage and second marriage issue, political features considerably differ due to the varia- and managing domestic and social violence, the CDC tion in both engagement and the interest of the CDC members have emphasised that they feel more inte- members in delivering the community and household grated while dealing with those social problems. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 143 Table 3. Asset-based response of CDC in building community resilience. Types of support Reflection of slum dwellers regarding the support of CDC from CDC Level of benefits as an institution Infrastructure By developing the community infrastructure, individual “When I moved in here fifteen years ago, the condition of development household also receive benefits the slum was not good. Roads, houses, latrines, drinking water were in a horrible condition. Now, the conditions have changed and become better than the previous days.” (Asiya Begum (pseudonym) 2018) Community By creating community savings, both individual household “CDC has created an opportunity for saving money. savings and community members become capable for their Members of CDCs can keep their money for a certain own financial decision-making time and can withdraw money whenever it needs. We deposit 50 to 100 taka (BDT) in our savings fund. We get a large portion of the money after a few years and use it for new investment or meet our demands.” (Kazi Jamal (pseudonym) 2018) Loan activity Individual household takes loan during the emergencies “In rainy season, sometimes my husband cannot go out for and crisis work. During those days, we take loans from CDCs to fulfil our necessities.” (Moti Molla (pseudonym) 2018) Support in Individual household gets community support in “I do not believe in politics. If I am in trouble, I can seek decision making managing problems help from our community leader. I have got training and building from CDC to improve my masonry working skills.” skills (Salam Sikder (pseudonym) 2018) Community Individual household develops connection with other “I am a housewife. As a part of the CDC, I actively do social bonding and individual household work. I am the cashier of this cluster. Whenever I visit social status my neighbours for the activities of CDC, everybody greets me.” (Salma Begum (pseudonym) 2018) Source: Authors (compiled from the interviews with CDC members) 2019 Figure 5. Grid analysis of the role of CDC members of slums. However, the interest level of the CDC members is not negotiate their activities. However, getting access to as robust as dealing with the economic aspects. that political decision-making system can be challen- Undeniably, political engagement offers better ging (see Figure 3). As a result, the slum dwellers do economic and social benefits to the slum community, not hold active engagement in the political subject. especially when the CDC members informally Also, the slum dwellers have stated that they keep 144 M. Z. HOSSAIN AND M. M. RAHMAN a safe distance from engaging in active politics suggested that through initiating inclusive decision- because they need to invest significant time for that. making process by equally engaging all the slum As the majority of the slum dwellers struggle to fulfil dwellers for the community development activities, the basic needs for them and their family members, the community bonding among slum dwellers can they do not have time to get actively engaged in be instigated for the betterment of the community politics. On top, everyone is concerned about the and individual family. consequences of the active engagement in politics, In conclusion, examining the narratives of the CDC in particular whenever the opposition party will members of Rupsha Char slum and Railway Colony become the ruling party and vice versa. As a result, slum, it is evident that asset-based community devel- CDC members’ active engagement in political affairs opment approach has upgraded the quality of living will threaten the outcomes of the ‘enabling environ- both at household and community and level. ment’ associated with building resilience in slums of However, both the informality in the decision- Khulna city. making process and the access to the CDCs’ support system have continually challenged the positive out- comes of the asset transfer programmes. 8. Pathways of resilience: from community Furthermore, the concerns related to the sustainabil- bonding to inclusive decision-making ity of the quality of living poses a critical question for This paper has admitted that slum dwellers utilise building community resilience in the slums of Khulna. their strong community bonding in dealing with Considering the reality, as narrated by the CDC mem- their social and economic matters. However, there bers, the ‘enabling environment’ which incorporates exists intense but hidden political disintegration the equal access to the decision support system among the CDC members both in Rupsha Char slum where the slum dwellers can execute their own deci- and Railway Colony slum that sometimes undermine sions to utilise their capacity and resources can oper- the communal initiatives and the helping intention of ate as a consistent tool for building community the slum dwellers. Again, considering the engage- resilience in slums of Khulna city. ment and interest relationship in performing the com- munity activities, there exist conflicts among the slum Disclosure statement dwellers such as the exclusion of particular slum dwellers from decision-making process; rough discus- No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. sions among slum dwellers followed by, in extreme cases, physical assault; tendency to avoid individual slum dwellers treating as problematic. These small but Notes on contributors weighty conflicts are weakening the community Md. Zakir Hossain is Professor of Urban & Rural Planning bonding resulting in the dominance of the decision- Discipline, Khulna University Bangladesh and Course making process by external actors such as political Coordinator for the Master of Urban and Rural Planning. He leaders, ward councillors, and local elites. The slum holds a MSc from the University of Antwerp and D.Phil from dwellers have emphasised that it is necessary to the Heriot Watt University. Before coming to academia, Zakir worked as a development practitioner concerned with the increase their social connectivity considering the urban health and governance in Bangladesh. He specialises in importance of community bonding to tackle those the grounded theory approach to study climate change, poverty external actors of decision-making. and resilience. Besides teaching at Khulna University, he is also Moreover, due to high dependency on the infor- implementing research projects which particularly address mal network in performing both social and economic coexistence between vulnerability and resilience, poverty, migration and asset based approach. He is also embarking on activities, the slum dwellers maintain strong commu- a new project concerning resilience building, with particular nity bonding to support their neighbours, particularly attention on vulnerability of the children in different climatic how they have demonstrated during the eviction of disaster zones of Bangladesh. His work has appeared in several the settlement of slums and the recovery process after peer-reviewed scholarly journals including Journal of Climate the fire hazards. The informality in the decision- Strategies and Management, Environment, Development and Sustainability, Sustainable Built Environment, and sustainability. making process can be further strengthening through promoting inclusive decision-making by promoting Md Mostafizur Rahman is an Associate Professor of Urban & the ‘enabling environment.’ The CDC members have Rural Planning Discipline, Khulna University Bangladesh. In INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 145 2018, Md Mostafizur Rahman published four international arti- Cutter SL, Barnes L, Berry M, Burton C, Evans E, Tate E, Webb J. 2008. cles stating the importance of interpretivism in social welfare A place-based model for understanding community resilience to research, dynamics of seasonal migration as development path- natural disasters. Glob Environ Change. 18(4):598–606. ways, and shifting understanding of food security. He has pro- Denzin NK, Lincoln YS. 2005. 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Journal
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development
– Taylor & Francis
Published: May 4, 2021
Keywords: Asset-based community development approach; climate change; vulnerability; resilience; urban poor
