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An audit of performance nutrition services in English soccer academies: implications for optimising player development An audit of performance nutrition services in English soccer academies: implications for...
Carney, Daniel J.; Hannon, Marcus P.; Coleman, Nicholas M.; Murphy, Rebecca C.; Close, Graeme L.; Morton, James P.
2022-04-06 00:00:00
SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN FOOTBALL https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2022.2055785 ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION An audit of performance nutrition services in English soccer academies: implications for optimising player development a a b a a Daniel J. Carney , Marcus P. Hannon , Nicholas M. Coleman , Rebecca C. Murphy , Graeme L. Close and James P. Morton a b Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES), Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK; Everton Football Club, Finch Lane, Liverpool, UK ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Accepted 15 March 2022 To audit the current provision of performance nutrition services provided to male adolescent players within academies from the English soccer leagues. Practitioners from all 89 academies (status categorised as one-four KEYWORDS according to the Elite Player Performance Plan, EPPP) completed an online survey to audit: a) job role/ Performance nutritionist; professional accreditation status of persons delivering nutrition support, b) activities inherent to service association football; provision, c) topics of education, d) on-site food, fluid and supplement provision and e) nutritional related adolescents data collected for objective monitoring. More full-time accredited nutritionists are employed within category one (14/26) versus category two (0/18), three (1/41) and four (0/4). Respondents from category one clubs report more hours of monthly service delivery (62 ± 57 h) than category two (12 ± 9 h), three (14 ± 26 h) and four (12 ± 14 h), inclusive of one-to-one player support and stakeholder education programmes. Category one practitioners reported a greater prevalence of on-site food, fluid and supplement provision on training and match days. Across all categories, players from the professional development phase receive more frequent support than players from the youth development phase, despite the latter corresponding to the most rapid phase of growth and maturation. We report distinct differences in the extent of service provision provided between categories. Additionally, players from all categories receive nutrition support from non-specialist staff. Data demonstrate that performance nutrition appears an under-resourced component of academy sport science and medicine programmes in England, despite being an integral component of player development. Introduction experience the same energetic requirements to support both The purpose of a soccer academy is to develop players to developmental (i.e., growth and maturation) and performance- represent the first team, thereby reducing the financial strain related goals (i.e., fuelling the demands associated with training of having to buy players and/or potentially profiting from their and match play) (Hannon et al. 2021b). sale (Elferink-Gemser et al., 2012). To develop more high-quality In relation to training demands, we recently observed that home-grown players, the English Premier League (EPL), the academy soccer players (U12-U23), albeit from a single Premier Football Association (FA) and representatives from the League club (Hannon et al. 2021a), may experience similar abso- Football League, developed a strategic plan known as the lute physical loading patterns to that of adult players within ‘Elite Player Performance Plan’ (EPPP) (Premier League 2011). English Premier League (EPL) (Anderson et al. 2016; Brownlee According to the EPPP framework, clubs are audited and cate- et al. 2018; Hannon et al. 2021a). Importantly, these training gorised from category one (the best) to four, largely dependent demands come at a time when players require sufficient energy on the extent of support they provide to their players, taking to synthesize new tissues (Torun 2005) during rapid biological into consideration factors such as productivity rates, training growth and maturation (Malina et al. 2004). For example, we facilities, coaching, education, and welfare provisions. However, previously observed that the progressive increase in stature, despite the mandate from the EPPP for interdisciplinary specia- body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) that occurs in academy male lists in the sports science and medicine team, the employment players between the ages of 12–16 increases resting metabolic −1 of qualified staff with the specific remit of providing nutrition- rate (RMR) by ~400 kcal.day (Hannon et al. 2020). Furthermore, related services is only required on a part-time basis for cate- in using the doubly labelled water technique (Hannon et al. gory one status. In contrast, lead sport scientists, lead strength 2021b), we also reported that individual players across the acad- and conditioning coaches, and academy psychologists must be emy pathway (i.e., from U12 to U18) may present with an absolute −1 employed full time. Although clubs of category one status are total daily energy expenditure (i.e., 3000–5000 kcal.day ) that is required to (at least) employ a nutritionist on a part-time basis comparable to (or exceeds) our previous observations from adult (i.e., working <35 hours per week), those in categories 2–4 do players of the EPL (Anderson et al. 2017). In this way, academy not require any formalised nutrition service provision. This is soccer players present with a higher relative daily energy require- −1 despite the fact that players from all categories are likely to ment compared to their adult counterparts (i.e., 60–80 kcal.kg CONTACT James P. Morton j.p.morton@ljmu.ac.uk Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES), Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. 2 D. J. CARNEY ET AL. −1 FFM versus 40–60 kcal.kg FFM) (Hannon et al. 2021b). Where designed questionnaire, we surveyed all 89 soccer clubs with an players do not consistently meet such daily energy requirements academy of category status (during the 2020–2021 season) in (Briggs et al. 2015; Naughton et al. 2016), they may present with accordance with the EPPP framework (Premier League 2011). It is chronically low energy availability (LEA, often defined as <30 hoped that our data may prompt critical reflection of service −1 −1 kcal·kg FFM ·day ) (Mountjoy et al. 2018), the result of which delivery in an area of sport science and medicine which is of could lead to negative symptoms associated with relative energy paramount importance to optimise player health, development, deficiency in sport (RED-S) syndrome. Such symptoms may pre- and performance. sent as reductions in skeletal bone accrual, increased risk of stress fractures, delayed sexual maturation, impaired growth and maturation of tissues and organs, and suppression of the immune Methods system (Loucks et al. 2011), all of which can be detrimental to Study design long-term player development. On this basis, there is a definitive need for clubs to Practitioners working with academy soccer players from the educate and support players and key stakeholders (e.g., English soccer leagues were invited to participate in this coaches and parents/guardians) on such fundamental prin- study. Data were collected during the 2020–2021 season, ciples of nutrition. However, notwithstanding differing with all 89 clubs with category status (categories 1–4) methods of dietary assessment, we have reported distinct responding to the survey (Figure 1). A 100% response rate differences in daily energy intake in cohorts of adolescent was achieved by contacting clubs and practitioners via email soccer players from two different category one academies and professional and personal networks. Respondents were (Naughton et al. 2016; Hannon et al. 2021b), a finding that categorised in to three different roles: 1) Accredited nutrition- may be due in part to differences in the extent of service ists (AN), holding either graduate or practitioner status with provision and education provided between clubs. Potential the UK Sport and Exercise Nutrition Register (SENr) or differences in service provision within and between cate- a relevant governing body (e.g., Association for Nutrition), 2) gory status could initially be underpinned by the nature of Sport Science and Medicine Staff (SSM), as comprised of sports practitioner employment (i.e., full versus part-time) and scientists, strength and conditioning coaches, physiothera- accreditation status (i.e., qualified versus non-qualified pists and sports therapists, 3) Interns and Volunteers (I/V), staff), the result of which can significantly affect the quality inclusive of individuals on internships, work placements or and extent of service provided. Although the EPPP has volunteers. Practitioners were provided a short anonymous specified that category one clubs should employ survey to complete, consisting of 30 multiple choice and free a professionally accredited sports nutritionist (or working text questions surrounding the nature of the nutrition service under a line manager who is), it is not currently known provided at the club. Consent was provided via a consent how clubs in England are currently delivering their nutri- statement upon submission of the survey. Each club was tion programme. provided a unique code known by the lead researcher only, With this in mind, we aimed to audit the performance nutrition to identify clubs for relevant feedback (where requested). The services currently provided to male adolescent soccer players study was approved by Liverpool John Moores University within academies from the English leagues. Using a specifically Ethics Committee (20/SPS/046, 10/11/20). Figure 1. Overview of category status and role of practitioners providing the nutrition support in each respective academy. SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN FOOTBALL 3 Table 1. Overview of nature of service provision. Data analysis Nature of Service Descriptive statistics (i.e., mean, SD and frequency analysis) were Provision Examples used to display responses to all questions within the survey, due to One-to-one player Individualised support to players comprising formal support (e.g., planned consultation) and informal (e.g., corri- the results being comprised of nominal and ordinal data. No data dor or canteen conversation). are reported for the FP and YDP in category four, as these phases Group education ● Group presentation or workshop delivered to are not part of clubs in this category. a squad/age-group. Parent education ● Support delivered to parents/guardians of the players, e.g., presentations, practical workshops and newsletters etc. Results Host-family Support delivered to individuals who provide board education and lodging to players, e.g., presentations, practical A respondent from all 89 soccer academies from the English workshops and newsletters. leagues completed the survey. Respondents were representative Player cooking Group sessions related to practical cooking and food of category one (n = 26, 29%), two (n = 18, 20%), three (n = 41, workshops hygiene skills. Staff education ● 46%) and four (n = 4, 5%) and included clubs from the Premier Support delivered to club staff, e.g., presentations, practical workshops or individual educational League (n = 20, 22%), Championship (n = 22, 25%), League One support. (n = 24, 27%), League Two (n = 21, 24%) and National League Catering staff Support delivered to club catering staff, e.g., group (n = 2, 2%). Quantities and proportions (%) per category of practi- education presentations, practical workshops or individual educational support. tioners who delivered the nutritional support are displayed in Figure 1. Survey design Employment status and hours of support provided The survey was developed using Online Surveys (formerly An overview of practitioner employment status and hours Bristol Online Survey, BOS. JISC Ltd) and designed by the of support provided is presented in Figure 2. In category research team, all with practical experience of the professional one clubs, 64% of ANs were employed full time, whilst 0%, and academy soccer environment (authors DC and MH have 14%, and 0% of ANs were employed full time in categories provided nutrition support to academy and adult soccer 2–4, respectively. Across all categories, ANs provided more players for 4 and 5 years, respectively, whilst authors GLC hours of support per month than those SSM staff and I/Vs and JM have >10 years practitioner experience within profes- who were required to provide nutritional support. sional soccer). The purpose was to establish the scope of Additionally, practitioners reported delivering more hours current nutrition service provision for elite youth soccer of support per month to players from the PDP when players across different categories of academies in English compared to players from the YDP and FP (see Figure 2). soccer. The survey was comprised of eight sections: (a) practi- tioner information (i.e., name, club, category of academy, and job role), (b) professional information (i.e., accreditation status Nature of service provision and academic qualifications), (c) nature of service provision An overview of the varying nature of service provision is presented (i.e., one-to-one support, group education, parent education, in Figure 3. The proportion of practitioners providing one-to-one host-family education, cooking workshops, staff education, player support, staff education, group education and cooking and catering staff education; see Table 1 for an overview of workshops in category one clubs was greater than that of clubs what constitutes each of these activities), (d) topics of educa- from categories 2–4. Additionally, a greater proportion of clubs in tion provided (i.e., basics of macronutrients, basics of micro- each category provided these modes of support to the PDP when nutrients, eating for growth, fuelling for training, fuelling for compared to the YDP and FP. Both parent and host-family educa- games, hydration, recovery, and supplements), (e) extent of tion were provided by a greater proportion of practitioners work- on-site food and drink provision (i.e., breakfast, lunch, dinner, ing in category one clubs than categories 2–4. However, a great snacks, pre-match food, post-match food, fluids), (f) extent of proportion of category one, two and three clubs delivered parent on-site supplement provision and management and (g) objec- education to the FP and YDP, whilst the PDP was prioritised for tive monitoring of nutritional related data. To compare the host-family education. When compared to SSM staff and I/Vs, differences in nutritional provision between age-groups, the a greater proportion of AN’s delivered catering staff education under (U) 9-U11 age-groups were categorised as the across all categories. Foundation Phase (FP), U12-U16 as the Youth Development Phase (YDP) and U18-U23 as the Professional Development Phase (PDP), all in accordance with the EPPP framework Topics of education (Premier League 2011). A preliminary focus group was con- ducted by members of the research team, and nine qualified An overview of topics of education is presented in nutrition practitioners (currently working in both academy Figure 4. In category one clubs, a greater proportion of and senior professional soccer) before the survey was fina - practitioners delivered the topic ‘Basics of macronutrients’ lised. This focus group allowed for refinement of wording and to the YDP than the FP and PDP. In contrast, a greater focus of questioning to ensure clarity and suitability of proportion of practitioners delivered this topic to the PDP questions. in categories 2 and 3. Similar trends were reported for the 4 D. J. CARNEY ET AL. Figure 2. Comparison of (a) the employment status of the practitioners who provide the nutritional support at each respective academy, and (B) hours of nutrition provision provided per month to the foundation phase (FP), youth development phase (YDP) & professional development phase (PDP) by either an accredited nutritionist (AN), sport science and medicine staff (SSM), or an intern/volunteer (I/V). topic ‘Basics of micronutrients’, as a greater proportion of one clubs than categories 2–4, with a greater proportion of practitioners delivered this topic to the YDP than the FP clubs delivering these topics of education to the PDP when and PDP in category one clubs, whilst a larger proportion compared to the YDP and FP. delivered this topic to the PDP in categories 2 and 3. A greater proportion of practitioners delivered the topic Food and drink provision ‘Eating for growth’ in category one clubs, where a greater proportion of practitioners in categories 1 and 2 delivered this topic to the YDP when compared to the FP and PDP. An overview of on-site food and drink provision is pre- The topics of ‘Fuelling for games’, ‘Fuelling for training’, sented in Figure 5. Players in the PDP were provided ‘Hydration’, ‘Recovery’, and ‘Supplements’, were delivered with breakfast, lunch, dinner, snacks, pre-match food, post- by a larger proportion of practitioners working in category match food and fluids more frequently across all categories SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN FOOTBALL 5 Figure 3. Proportion (%) of clubs in each category who provide nutrition provision in the form of (A) one-to-one support, (B) group education, (C) parent education, (D) host-family education, (E) cooking workshops, and (F) staff education to the foundation phase (FP), youth development phase (YDP) and professional development phase (PDP), as well as the proportion (%) of practitioners per role who provide (G) catering staff education. than players from the YDP who, in turn, were also provided Supplement provision with these more frequently than the FP. Clubs of category An overview of supplement provision is presented in Table 2. one status provided these meals and fluids more fre- There was a greater supplement provision in category one quently to all phases when compared to category two clubs when compared to all other categories. In all categories, clubs, who also had a greater frequency of food and a greater proportion of clubs provided supplements to players drink provision than clubs from category three and four. in the PDP than the YDP, who were also provided more 6 D. J. CARNEY ET AL. Figure 4. Proportion (%) of clubs in each category who deliver each theme of education content to the foundation phase (FP), youth development phase (YDP) and professional development phase (PDP). supplements than the FP. The most common supplement pro- across all phases when compared to all other categories, where vided was carbohydrates (i.e., powder and gels), followed by once every 1–3 months was the most common frequency for this protein, electrolytes, vitamin D, and caffeine. method of monitoring. Across all categories, players within the PDP are monitored more frequently than the YDP, who are also assessed more frequently than the FP. Practitioners from category Objective monitoring of nutritional related data one clubs also partake in blood profiling more frequently across all An overview of nutritional related monitoring is presented in phases when compared to the other categories, with once every 6–12 months being the most common frequency. Bloods are Figure 6. Category one clubs monitor data related to anthropo- monitored more frequently in the PDP when compared to the metric (i.e., stature and body mass) profiling more frequently SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN FOOTBALL 7 Figure 5. A comparison between categories 1–4, of the proportion (%) of clubs who provide (A) Breakfast, (B) Lunch, (C) Dinner, (D) Snacks, (E) Pre-match food, (F) Post- match food and (G) water/fluids, and the frequency at which they do so for the Foundation Phase (FP), Youth Development Phase (YDP and the Professional Development Phase (PDP). FP and YDP, who are only monitored in category one clubs. Body Discussion composition (i.e., skinfolds and/or dual-energy X-ray absorptiome- The aim of the present study was to audit the performance try and DXA) is monitored more frequently in players from the PDP nutrition services currently provided to male adolescent soccer when compared to the FP and YDP across all categories, with once players within soccer academies from the English leagues. every 1–3 months being the most common frequency. Hydration Using a specifically designed questionnaire, we surveyed all status is also monitored more frequently in players from the PDP 89 academies with category status (during the 2020–2021 sea- when compared to the FP and YDP across all categories, although son), as determined in accordance with the EPPP framework. it is more common to never monitor hydration status across all Our data demonstrate distinct differences in the depth of phases in each category. 8 D. J. CARNEY ET AL. Table 2. Total number and percentage (%) of clubs who provide each form of supplement to the foundation phase (FP), youth development phase (YDP) and professional development phase (PDP) between categories 1–4. Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 FP YDP PDP FP YDP PDP FP YDP PDP FP YDP PDP Carbohydrates 1 (4%) 9 (35%) 25 (96%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 14 (88%) 0 (0%) 1 (3%) 16 (47%) n/a n/a 1 (33%) Protein 1 (4%) 4 (14%) 24 (92%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 14 (88%) 0 (0%) 2 (6%) 19 (56%) n/a n/a 1 (33%) Electrolytes 1 (4%) 7 (27%) 24 (92%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 12 (75%) 1 (3%) 1 (3%) 14 (41%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Vitamin D 1 (4%) 8 (31%) 21 (81%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 7 (44%) 1 (3%) 1 (3%) 19 (56%) n/a n/a 1 (33%) Caffeine 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 19 (73%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 7 (44%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (12%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Creatine 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 15 (58%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 11 (69%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (12%) n/a n/a 1 (33%) Collagen 0 (0%) 2 (8%) 15 (58%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (6%) n/a n/a 1 (33%) Multi-Vitamin 0 (0%) 1 (4%) 12 (46%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 5 (31%) 1 (3%) 1 (3%) 4 (12%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Probiotic 0 (0%) 1 (4%) 10 (38%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 2 (13%) 1 (3%) 1 (3%) 2 (6%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Nitrate 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (15%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 0 (0%) 1 (3%) 2 (6%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Beta-Alanine 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (12%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (6%) 0 (0%) 1 (3%) 2 (6%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Fish Oil 1 (4%) 2 (8%) 2 (8%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) n/a n/a 0 (0%) Figure 6. A comparison between categories 1–4, of the proportion (%) of clubs who monitor (a) anthropometrics, (b) body composition, (c) bloods and (d) hydration, and the frequency at which they do so for the foundation phase (FP), youth development phase (YDP) and the professional development phase (PDP). service provision provided across categories, likely under- Practitioners also reported providing more specialist support pinned by the greater prevalence of employment of full-time to players from the PDP phase (e.g., one-to-one support, cook- professionally accredited staff within higher category acade- ing workshops, food and supplement provision) when com- mies. As such, practitioners from category one clubs reported pared to players from the younger phases. The reduced more total hours of service delivery per month, inclusive of prevalence of support within the YDP is suggested as an area both individualised and stakeholder education programmes. of improvement, considering that this is the time when players SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN FOOTBALL 9 typically undergo their most rapid phase of growth and development, as evident both within and between categories. Such data may be underpinned by the increased prevalence of maturation. When compared with other sub-disciplines of support provided by accredited staff (as alluded to previously), sport science, our data demonstrate that performance nutrition suggesting that qualified and specialist staff may be more aware is an under-resourced component of academy sport science of how to tailor the necessary education to different phases of and medicine programmes from English soccer clubs, despite development. being an integral component of long-term player In relation to on-site food and fluid provision, practitioners development. from category one clubs reported a higher prevalence of provision The greater proportion of accredited nutritionists work- when compared to the remaining categories. Additionally, players ing at category one academies (i.e., 85%, albeit only 64% within the PDP also receive a greater frequency of food provision are full time) is in accordance with the requirements of the across all mealtimes when compared to the YDP and FP. Although EPPP (Premier League 2011). To obtain category one sta- we acknowledge that the pattern of meal provision is, of course, tus, clubs must (at least) employ a part-time nutritionist, likely influenced by training schedule (i.e., players from differing with the individual being appropriately accredited (e.g., via phases of development and category status likely train at different a professional body, such as the UK Sport and Exercise times of the day), the enhanced provision at category one level is Nutrition Register) or work under the direct management most likely related to the significantly greater budgets that are and supervision of an individual listed on the register available to practitioners working within those environments (Premier League 2011). It is noteworthy, however, that (unfortunately, disclosure of annual nutrition budgets was not 15% of category one (n = 3) clubs do not employ an collected within this study). Indeed, this is supported by the accredited nutritionist to deliver their nutritional pro- observation that distinct differences in food provision are still gramme. On the basis that 64% of the accredited nutri- apparent on match day, as evident for food provided before and tionists working in category one clubs are employed on after games. In such scenarios, the need to sufficiently educate key a full-time basis, it is unsurprising that practitioners stakeholders (e.g., parents) on practical food strategies at home, reported providing a greater number of total monthly such as cooking, shopping and batch cooking skills, to promote hours service delivery when compared to categories 2–4. both fuelling and recovery becomes readily apparent. Nonetheless, a considerable amount of service delivery In a similar manner to food provision, practitioners reported across categories 1–3 remains delivered by sports science a greater prevalence of supplement provision to players from and medicine staff as well as students on internships and the PDP, a finding that was evident across all categories. Across work placements (this was especially prevalent in category all categories, the four most common supplements provided three clubs) (see Figures 1 and 2). included carbohydrate and protein-based products, electro- In considering the phase of player development, practitioners lytes and vitamin D. Such data demonstrate a provision of reported a greater extent and range of services provided to ‘evidence based supplements’ in accordance with fundamental players from the PDP when compared to younger players (see principles of nutrition such as fuelling, recovery and hydration. Figure 2b). This was the case for provision of specific activities (i.e., Interestingly, vitamin D was the fourth most prevalent supple- one-to-one player support and cooking workshops) as well as on- ment provided. Although this has sound rationale (i.e., given its site provision of main meals and sports supplements. Additionally, role in bone development and the lack of sunlight exposure in PDP players also receive more targeted education on topics, such the UK), we did not collect any information of the typical dose as fuelling for match play and training, recovery and sports sup- provided. As expected, more ‘specialist’ and ergogenic-related plements. The enhanced level of service provision provided to based supplements (i.e., caffeine, creatine, nitrate, and beta- PDP players is, of course, in accordance with the requirement to alanine) were apparently reserved for players from the PDP of support players as they potentially transition to first team football. category one and two clubs, perhaps a reflection of the knowl- However, the lower prevalence of support provided to YDP edge base of the qualified and accredited staffing base working players could be a targeted area for specific improvement, espe- at this level as well as the actual stage of player development. cially when considering that this is the time when academy players In accordance with the requirement to monitor growth and typically experience their most rapid period of growth and maturation status (Towlson et al. 2021), the most prevalent maturation. In accordance, we observed progressive increases in form of data collection that could be perceived as ‘nutrition TEE as players progress from the U12/13 age group (2859 ± 265 related’ was assessment of parameters for anthropometric pro- −1 −1 kcal·day , range: 2275–3903 kcal·day ) to U15 (3029 ± 262 file. The most prevalent frequency of assessment was once −1 −1 kcal·day , range: 2738–3726 kcal·day ) and to U18 status every 3 months, a pattern that was largely similar across all −1 −1 (3586 ± 487 kcal·day , range: 2542–5172 kcal·day ). categories and phases of player development (see Figure 6a). In Additionally, given that younger players may lead ‘busier’ lives contrast, practitioners reported that the assessment of body with schooling activities and lengthy travel to and from training, composition was most frequently performed on players from there is a clear need to provide specific education support on the the PDP (see Figure 6b), whereas younger players were rarely requirement to fuel correctly before (during school), during and assessed for body composition. Although the assessment of fat after training (i.e., when travelling home after training). In this mass has obvious ethical issues, it could be suggested that regard, it is noteworthy that players from the YDP of category a more frequent assessment of fat-free mass may permit the one clubs are reported to receive more education on ‘growth and development of more individualised athletic development and maturation’ when compared to the other phases of player nutrition programmes (Hannon et al. 2020), assuming that such 10 D. J. CARNEY ET AL. data collection is positioned and communicated correctly to delivery. Such research could also lead to the co-creation of players and stakeholders. Although sufficient hydration before, ‘best-practice’ service models and organisational, player and during and after exercise is an essential component of perfor- stakeholder behaviour change strategies that strive to cre- mance nutrition (Maughan and Shirreffs 2010), practitioners ate a positive nutrition environment that supports player reported limited objective assessment of hydration status (see development. Figure 6d). Whilst the decision to engage with such data collec- tion may be based on staff resourcing and cost-benefit analysis, Acknowledgements it could be suggested that a more frequent assessment of hydration status could assist with promoting optimal drinking The authors would like to thank all the practitioners and clubs for their time and support of this study. behaviours. As expected, there was a low prevalence of assess- ment for clinical blood profiles, perhaps due to the ethics issues with blood collection in an adolescent population. Disclosure statement From a practical perspective, our data suggest that the No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). employment of a full-time accredited nutritionist may help to promote long-term player development, as based on the premise that practitioners from category one clubs Funding reported a greater extent of service provision to players No funding is associated with this study. and stakeholders. These findings may also allow practi- tioners working in academy soccer to highlight areas in which their provision is currently lacking and thereby ORCID enhance their future delivery. Nonetheless, we acknowl- Graeme L. Close http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7210-9553 edge that we did not undertake any formal assessment James P. 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J Sports Sci. 30(15):1581–1591. doi:10.1080/ categories, as evidenced by total hours of service delivery, 02640414.2012.725854. one-to-one player support, stakeholder education pro- Hannon MP, Carney DJ, Floyd S, Parker LJF, McKeown J, Drust B, grammes and provision of foods and supplements. Such Unnithan VB, Close GL, Morton JP. 2020. Cross-sectional comparison of findings are likely underpinned by the greater prevalence body composition and resting metabolic rate in Premier League acad- of employment of full-time professionally accredited staff emy soccer players: implications for growth and maturation. J Sports Sci. 38(11–12):1326–1334. doi:10.1080/02640414.2020.1717286. within higher category academies as well as the higher Hannon MP, Coleman NM, Parker LJF, McKeown J, Unnithan VB, Close GL, budgets that are typically available within these environ- Drust B, Morton JP. 2021a. Seasonal training and match load and ments. 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Science and Medicine in Football
Taylor & Francis
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