Abstract
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021, VOL. 13, NO. 2, 214–232 https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2020.1865971 ARTICLE A literature review on BIM for cities Distributed Renewable and Interactive Energy Systems F.H. Abanda, M Sibilla , P Garstecki and B.M. Anteneh Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 8 December 2020 The havoc caused by COVID-19 has further strengthen the case for greening cities Accepted 15 December 2020 and ensuring a quicker economic recovery much desired by various governments. To this end, the appetite for Distributed Renewable and Interactive Energy Systems KEYWORDS (DRIES) as a preferred option to retrofit cities has grown amongst policy makers. BIM; Distributed Renewable However, DRIE sources are complex and disparate presenting challenges integrating Energy Systems; into a unified system for urban retrofitting. Yet, integrating Building Information environmental impacts; Modelling (BIM) and DRIES provide possibilities of effective assessment. Research of retrofit; urban energy BIM applications at a city level is still very sketchy talk less in the domain of DRIES. This study investigates the opportunities and barriers of the application of BIM for the performance assessment of DRIES in the context of the transforming our environ- ments into lowcarbon cities. A systematic literature review and case study review were used to achieve the aim of this study. 1. Background identified retrofitting cities as one of the 7 key areas for relaunching economies as part of the wider global The COVID-19 pandemic has had a devastating recovery plans during and post COVID-19 (Gulati et al. impact on the economy of many countries. In 2020; UN-Habitat 2020). response to the growing spread of the virus globally, However, most studies have often focused on single many governments have implemented nation-wide buildings with little emphasis on cityscale projects lockdowns in late March 2020. The lockdowns are delivered using an integrated approach. Shen and beginning to be eased but the impact of the pan- Sun (2016) proved that integrated design approach demic on most economies is likely to remain deep can achieve significant system size reductions and and long-lasting. To stimulate their economies, many large initial cost savings as compared with the conven- countries are beginning to elaborate on post-COVID tionalseparated design. The initial costs of the air- recovery plans. Due to the severity of the crisis in conditioning, photovoltaic and wind turbine systems which COVID-19 has plunged the world, embracing can be reduced by 14.4%, 13.7% and 11.8%, respec- a green approach to relaunching the economies is tively (Shen and Sun 2016) if an integrated approach is becoming the least of priorities of many countries adopted in comparison to the conventional isolated (Schwarze 2020). This reluctance is in spite of the one. The integrated design also achieves improved reported benefits of rolling out green strategies as grid friendliness and equivalently good indoor thermal a main pillar of development for cities. Previous stu- comfort in comparison with the conventional- dies have revealed the immense benefits of retrofit - separated design. Emerging BIM can be used to deliver ting cities as a main driver for economic development integrated projects with other benefits such as achiev- as well as improving the environmental sustainability ing sustainability or green retrofitting requirements for of cities (Keivani et al. 2010). Other recent studies have cities. One such important sustainability requirements CONTACT F.H. Abanda fabanda@brookes.ac.uk Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article. © 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 215 is the achievement Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) energy infrastructures for a lowcarbon environment standard. Modelling cities for NZEB compliance and society (Baños et al. 2011). These infrastructures are requires understanding key concepts such as key sus- expected to be represented by small units directly con- tainability performance and measures for retrofitting nected with the place of consumption and assembled in cities. However, the lines between these concepts are a sequence of nodes in order to organise a micro-energy often blurred especially its applications in a cluster of network (Ackermann, Andersson, and Söder 2001). buildings at city level compared to isolated buildings. The system interactivity is the specific property that Furthermore, since the proclamation of the concept of must involve all components of the energy system Sustainable Development in the Brundtland report in (Bibri and Krogstie 2017) and enable the diffusion by 1987, it has been used as a buzzword directly or indir- computer devices and software. On the other hand, ectly in scientific literature and also as a way to booster the concept of smart-grid is a fundamental part of the chances of acquiring funding for research grants. As evolution of the energy systems (Soshinskaya et al. such the use of sustainability, sustainable develop- 2014) whose properties should be able to connect ment, green development has been used in such their flux to the local context specificity. a way that the proposed objectives usually falls short Many studies have considered the importance of of expected outcomes in many peer-reviewed litera- interactivity to optimise the integration of knowl- ture or research. This has implication on many concepts edge and information technologies (Dimeas and in the domain of retrofitting. Hence, this study will Hatziargyriou 2007; Siano 2014) to improve the qua- adopt a systematic literature review supported by lities of the environment (De Jong et al. 2015). case studies to explore the key concepts of retrofitting Several studies have focused on the regulation of cities with the ultimate goal of identifying the role of new forms of energy market (Catulli and Fryer BIM in modelling such concepts in facilitating the retro- 2012) while others on the users’ role in supply and fitting of cities through DRIES. demand management (Goulden et al. 2014). Recent To facilitate understanding the remainder of this studies have highlighted the potential impact of the paper is divided into 6 sections. Section 2 dwells on new generation of energy systems on the environ- DRIES. In section 3, NZEB in the context of District mental qualities of the urban patterns, in which each retrofitting is examined. Building on this, BIM for component is likely to become a node of the network DRIES is covered in section 4. The method adopted (Caird and Hallett 2018; Sibilla and Kurul 2020). In this for this study is presented in section 5. In section 6, the regard, an active building (i.e. building as findings of this study are presented while section 7 a component of a distributed, renewable and inter- focuses on overall discussion of the manuscript. The active system) is emerging as a new concept. study concludes by a way of summary in section 8. However, few studies move towards radical innova- tive concept of active buildings. For example, Aurich et al. (2006) pointed out how interrelations between 2. Distributed Renewable and Interactive physical products and non-physical services need to Energy Systems (DRIES) be considered proactively. Similarly, Azcárate- Aguerre et al. (2018) analysed the use of tangible 2.1 Context products such as building technologies, with intan- Globally, and in particular in Europe, research on low gible maintenance and monitoring services. In detail, carbon transition is of central interest (European this study explored the application of Product- Commission 2011; European Commision 2014; Service Systems organization principles in the deliv- European Union 2018). Integration of knowledge ery of Façades-as-a-Service. Nevertheless, focusing and methodologies is one of the principal strategy on a single building or individual component, these that is expected to promote the future energy sys- studies neglected the infrastructural vision. These tems (Sovacool et al. 2015; Ernst, Fischer-Hotzel, and studies have contributed to widen the vision of Schumann 2017; Hewitt et al. 2017) and accelerate the a possible new energy infrastructure system and path towards zero-carbon solutions (Rogge and define several aspects of the DRIES characteristics; Johnstone 2017; Rogge and Reichardt 2016). however, the dimensional and localisation logics In recent years, the renewable energy sources have managed through DRIES demand further emerged as a valid alternative to develop innovative developments. 216 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. 2.2 Overview of Distributed Renewable & of applications has been based on a new generation Interactive Energy Systems of interactive energy management systems (Sibilla 2014). Table 2 shows an overview of a selection of In this section, an overview of the main technologies ten embryonic applications of DRIES across Europe. associated with DRIES-based applications and their These projects in Table 2 are outputs from the implications on the sustainable organisation of the Concerto Programme, which is a European Commission built environment is provided. Firstly, a summary initiative within the European Research Framework focused on the primary relationships between renew- Programme (FP6 and FP7). They show that optimising able technologies and local resources is given. Then, the entire community’s construction sector is more effi - how these technologies can be integrated in order to cient than the individual optimization of each building. organise a reliable alternative energy infrastructure is These case studies have played a pivotal role in affirming presented trough real case studies. Table 1 provides decentralized energy technology based on renewable the main features concerning the following technolo- systems and interactive management as a common gies: solar energy; wind energy; hydro and bio-energy. practice to achieve NZEB target. Specifically, they have This is not a complete list, but it includes the main planned strategies to operationalise the highest level of typologies of renewable energy systems, which can technology diversity. Such diversity should allow local produce significant impacts on the physical config - communities to increase both their resilience and energy uration of buildings and settlements. independence. In addition, the synchronization among Until recently, one of the most critical problems in these sustainable technologies can support decision- organising an energy network composed of multi makers in re-writing the rules for organizing the territory, renewable technologies has been related to the dif- promoting new job opportunities, industrial challenges, ferent cyclical time variations, which characterises environmental awareness and social participation. each of them. Currently, the interactivity of distribu- However, exploiting DRIES emerging properties as an ted systems is the property by which this deficiency innovative socio-technical apparatus to guide towards can be resolved. Consequently, an increasing number a low carbon society is an open issue. At the beginning of Table 1. Main features of renewable energy technologies in an urban or district context. Renewable Cyclical time Main Main area of technology variation parameters application Typology Comment PV Solar Hours Solar beam PV- stand alone Urban Performance is dependent of sunshine level and local Energy (direct irradiance. and weather conditions sunshine) Angle of rural Storage/back-up usually required due to fluctuating Day beam from PV- grid connected Mostly (diffuse vertical Urban sunshine) (Direct). Cloud cover Air Pollution (Diffuse). Wind Minute to Wind speed. Wind turbines – Mostly High fluctuating. Hours Height stand-alone – grid rural Site-specific technology (requires a suitable site) (windfarm) nacelle connected Variable power produced therefore storage/back up above Micro-turbines – Urban required. ground. stand-alone – grid and connected rural Bio-Energy Year Soil condition. Solid Mostly Vary many variation, connected to agriculture and (Solid Water. rural forestry Biomass Plant Liquid Urban and species. and Biogas) Wastes. rural Hydropower Seasons Reservoir Micro-Hydropower Mostly Very site-specific technology (requires a suitable site height. (5 kW −100 kW) rural relatively close to the location where the new power Water Mini-hydro is needed) volume (100 kW-1 MW) Droughts and changes in local water and land use flow. Small hydro can affect power output (1 MW-20 MW) Source, Adapted from: (UNDP 2000; Hussain et al. 2017). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 217 Table 2. Overview of embryonic DRIES applications. Achievements Technologies Energy Wind and Interactive Number of Geographical Saving % Energy PV Micro- Bio- Biogas Energy Inhabitants Area by production Solar wind Energy- Micro- (Waste Management Context involved (m2) Retrofit by FER Energy turbines Biomass Hydropower recycled) System Bracknell 52 000 27 500 30 40 X X X X (UK) Cerdanyola 10 000 3 400 000 55 33 X X X (SP) Falkkenberg 20 551 240 000 000 24.3 65 X X X X (SE) Grenoble 26 000 2 100 000 000 41 21 X X X X (FR) London 10 000 710 000 10 62 X X X X (UK) Lyon 4 000 53 000 40 60 X X X (FR) Ostfildern 10 000 1 500 000 30 80 X X X X (DE) Tudela 2 500 300 000 75 100 X X X (SP) Växjö 2 500 2 000 000 31 95 X X X (SE) Weiz 14 000 30 000 23.9 30 X X X Gleisdorf (AT) Source: Adapted from EU (2014) the new European Research Framework Programme (i.e. existing energy system is not clear. Third, as under- Horizon Europe), new advanced intelligent systems are lined by Walker (2008) the local energy initiatives now available. Thus, exchanging energy in situ is going to could often be inhibited by technical barriers such as play a key role in meeting the EU’s energy policy long- the lack of equipment, technical knowledge and term targets for 2050. In this scenario, DRIES can be expertise. A specific technical apparatus able to offered as a characterisation of the new paradigm of solve energy and environmental issues of DRIES has Positive Energy Districts (Shnapp et al, 2020). not been developed yet. Fourth, a substantial litera- ture considers the socio-cultural aspects of the energy future (Weimer-Jehle et al. 2016); but how to organise 2.3 Specific challenges faced by DRIES a DRIES at local level remains a challenge. Fifth, nowa- days the experiments at local level tend to relegate There are several socio-technical open issues, which the interactivity of the new energy systems to smart are related to the scenario based on small-scale infra- meter applications (i.e., to control supply and/or structures such as DRIES. demand-side of the energy production) First, it is clear the importance of the local dimen- (Maroufmashat et al. 2015) while the most important sion (Goldthau 2014) and the specificities of each implications of DRIES in re-configuring the environ- territory (Brandoni and Polonara 2012); notwithstand- mental and spatial qualities of settlements remain ing an operative framework at the local level remains confined to sectorial studies. unresolved. Second, as stated by several authors At the present one of the main obstacles to the (Rogers et al. 2008; Wirth 2014) when consumers advancement of DRIES in Low Carbon Transition is the have more control, tend to self-organise and co- absence of a systematic approach and the lack of operate to form community energy systems but, appropriate tools. Indeed, this study is based on the how the various roles of the actors (i.e. citizens, pro- assumption that the energy transition is not only an fessionals, intermediaries and institutions) are con- opportunity to reduce the energy impact of our nected in networks and how networks challenge the 218 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. settlements and create a new energy market, but it is According to article 2 of the EU Directive on the an opportunity to achieve the following objectives: energy performance of buildings adopted in 2020, a nearly zero-energy as ‘ . . . a building that has enhance the local geographical condition (e.g. a very high energy performance, as determined in access to solar) related to urban transformation accordance with Annex I. The nearly zero or very low processes; amount of energy required should be covered to to deliver a new generation of buildings, which a very significant extent by energy from renewable act as nodes of the future energy network; sources, including energy from renewable sources to elaborate an advanced procedure to manage produced on-site or nearby’. the environmental impact of this new form of As can be noted from these definitions, the con- infrastructure in the course of the time. cepts implies that the transformation should lead to high energy efficient buildings and the minute The starting point of this exploratory research is energy left should be provided from a renewable a preliminary procedure, which was developed in source or a combination sources. Thus, no wonder a prior study (Sibilla and Kurul 2020) where some the concept of near zero has received criticism DRIEs features were established in order to classify amongst members of the public. Recently Greta potential active, neutral and passive nodes of the Thunberg, one of the most popular teenage climate energy net respect to specific urban regions. change campaigner argued for the term to be ‘real’ Although this prior study introduced a large-scale zero not near zero (BBC 2020). Shnapp et al. (2020) investigation, contrasting approaches focused on sin- even goes further to request of ‘positive’ energy dis- gle buildings, some issues were neglected. tricts, to mean zero-net energy is not enough and that Firstly, the preliminary procedure did not consider buildings and districts should be able to produce the energy performance of the buildings’ envelop, focus- more energy than it can consume. ing only on their urban context condition related to the Transforming or improving any asset to achieve solar access. Secondly, neglecting the energy perfor- a certain desired level of performance, e.g., NZEB or mance of the buildings’ envelop, it also bypassed the ‘real’ zero, talk less of ‘positive’ energy requires an in- environmental impact and the cost/benefit analysis depth understanding of the different activities to be related to the process of transformation of buildings undertaken. Broadly speaking, in the literature deep from the current situation to passive and active node and conventional energy retrofit are the two most of the grid. Therefore, exploring the potential of BIM in common form of energy related improvement (Zhai mondelling performance data within the context of et al. 2011). Although there is no exact definition for a DRIES is a possible solution in order to fill this gap. a deep energy retrofit, it can be defined as a whole- The hypothesis is that such integration enables to man- building analysis and construction process that aims age the urban decision-making processes of DRIES orga- at achieving on-site energy use minimization in nization, which involve: the morphological rebalance of a building by 50% or more compared to the baseline buildings and urban spaces to improve exposure to energy use (calculated using utility bills analysis) mak- renewable energy resources; the definition of rules and ing use of existing technologies, materials and con- parameters of environmental regenerations strategies struction practices (Less et al. undated). Conventional integrated with the DRIES vision that can be implemen- energy retrofits focus on isolated system upgrades ted in the short, medium and long term; the scheduling (i.e. lighting and HVAC equipment). These retrofits of a set of urban and architectural design transforma- are generally simple and fast, but they often miss tions to reconcile the energy supply and demand char- opportunity for saving more energy cost-effectively acteristics of active, neutral and passive nodes. (Zhai et al. 2011). 3. NZEB in district retrofitting 4. BIM for DRIES The term net-zero energy building (NZEB) has so Recent interest in BIM and its applications has equally many synonyms. These include: nearly zero energy seen an avalanche of publications highlighting var- building (NZEB), zero-energy building (ZE), zero net ious definitions. Our previous works (Abanda et al. energy (ZNE) building, and net zero building (NZB). 2015) have critically appraised some of these INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 219 definitions, hence, these works will not be duplicated 4.2. Renewable energy systems in this study. However, it is important to highlight that For effective integration of renewable energy systems of the numerous definitions, that of the UK with BIM, they should be modelled in a BIM systems. Construction Industry Council (UK CIC) is more Once modelled, it can easily be embedded in building encompassing and defines BIM as . . . ‘an innovative models during design or out of the building as part of and collaborative way of working that is underpinned a stand-alone energy system. An example of the for- by digital technologies which support more efficient mer includes solar panels that can be designed an methods of designing, creating and maintaining the included in BIM object library and simply re-used built environment’. The UK CIC’s definitions is in align- during the design of a building. For the later, ment with the joint proposed definition of the UK a whole photovoltaic system can be modelled in construction industry by RIBA, Construction Project Information Committee (CPIC) and buildingSmart – a BIM software and erected in a yard to power leading authorities in the field. a nearby building. Encapsulated in the aforementioned definition are three main concepts: model, process and technology or 4.3. Grid energy system, electrical and thermal software. Bazjanac (2004) elaborated on this by defining energy network the model (often called a Building Information Model (BIM)) as an instance of a populated data model of build- For effective supply of services, an optimal network ings that contains multi-disciplinary data specific to needs to link the different elements of the commu- a particular building, which they describe unambigu- nity. The BIM systems provide the possibility to simu- ously. Furthermore, from a process perspective, the late the different networks. The networks consist of author views Building Information Modelling (BIM) as terminals (nodes) and arcs with links the former. a verb is to mean the act or process of creating Nodes could be buildings and photovoltaic systems. a Building Information Model (BIM-the-noun). The pro- On the other hand, an arc could be a cable linking the cess aspect is widely argued to be the underpinning principle of BIM (Lee et al. 2006; Eastman et al. 2011). stand-alone photovoltaic system and a building. Retrofitting a community to meet any sustainable perfor- mance standard such as NZEB requires a detailed under- 4.4. Data modelling standing of its individual constituents. Four main components should be considered when designing out The element should be enriched with data for different or retrofitting for NZEB compliance. applications. This is an important aspect of BIM. Depending on the use or applications of each element in the community. As argued by Eastman et al. (2011) 4.1. Buildings building components that are represented with intelli- gent digital representations and can be associated with Buildings are the main elements of communities or computable attributes and parametric. The components cities. They are many and consist of heterogeneous should include data that describe how they behave, structures, heating systems, occupancy behaviour, should be consistent and contain non-redundant data. etc. They therefore present two main challenges. First, it is a huge challenge modelling a large number of sub-components, then integrating to form a final 5. Research method model or system. Secondly, scalability becomes an issue as it becomes quite difficult to simulate As discussed in the background section the domain a significant number of buildings. Due to the com- of sustainability has received significant interest in plexity and scalability issues related to modelling recent years. This interest has led to the concept buildings at community level, researchers have pro- being used interchangeably and most of the times posed the use of simplified building models for simu- as buzzwords to achieve certain objectives. In fact, lation and optimization of district energy systems, as Károly (2011) argued the concept has been abused. they can significantly reduce the computation time Thus, not surprising most research databases have (Kim et al. 2014;). huge amount of literature about the concept of 220 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. sustainability. Therefore, a systematic literature literature, content analysis, and validation of stu- review offers an unbiased and logical approach to dies. This is captured in Figure 1. investigate studies in the area of DRIES. Given that most of the studies in the literature are mostly on 5.1. Sourcing the literature from web of science single buildings, an analysis of case study projects database at city level is undertaken to validate the outcome of the literature. Specifically, the 3 steps of the In this step, a systematic approach to identity the methods used are: identification of relevant different literature sources is conducted. The Web of Figure 1. Research design. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 221 Science database is adopted as it is one of the leading ) where their scientific landscape was explored and sources for research outputs. Given the crosscutting the results presented in section 6.1. nature of this research involving BIM, renewable energy, cities, distributed networks; it was impossible 5.2. Content analysis to choose a single search term that will lead to an output that will cover all these areas. Consequently, In research, content analysis can take on a list of terms were selected that cover various aspects a quantitative and/or qualitative approach, applied of the domain was developed and used in the search. either inductively or deductively depending on the This is presented in the first column of Table 3. specific research questions and research design (Elo When the search terms are introduced and con- and Kyngäs 2008). Due to the specialist and cross- ducted, the output are displayed in the second col- cutting nature of this research, a qualitative approach umn of Table 3. The search criteria is then restricted to was adopted. This qualitative approach involves inter- only journal articles which leads to a reduction from preting the manifest and latent content of the text, the initial output and then presented in column 3. facilitating, through rigorous analyses, an understand- Secondly, a broad-brush approach was used to ing of a phenomenon’s critical processes, motives and check the relevance of the articles. This led to the objectives, while deriving rich meanings and insights elimination of articles that had nothing to do with from the text (Duriau et al. 2007; Elo and Kyngäs BIM/CIM for district level retrofitting and the output 2008). The content analysis of the selected literature th presented 4 column of Table 3. Examples include led to the identification of data/information that can heat combustion systems in engine vehicles (Wu broadly be categorised into BIM application in DRIES, 2019) and heat storage system with various diameters benefits of BIM for DRIES, barriers to BIM applications of aluminium tubes (He et al. 2019) which have noth- in DRIES, performance indicators for DRIES and urban ing to do with cities. Lastly, duplicates were elimi- retrofitting options. nated and the final number of articles is presented in the last column of Table 3. In order to easily identify 5.3. Case study review the duplicates, the first 3 rows of Table 3 were ana- lysed together because they did not have anything The content of some exemplary projects were ana- related to information modelling and the last 5 rows lysed to establish the kind of performance indicators were analysis together as the had the word informa- used and retrofiring strategies adopted. The projects tion modelling in each of them. The analysis of this included the Scottish Retrofitting programme (http:// study is based on (450 + 502 = 952) articles stated in www.retrofitscotland.org/ ) and the European Union the last column of Table 3. These articles were Build Up retrofitting programmes (https://www.build- imported in VOSviewer (https://www.vosviewer.com/ up.eu/en/practices). The outcomes which include Table 3. Method search terms. st Search terms 1 Outcome Filtration st nd rd 1 2 3 ‘District energy*’ 403 237 213 502 ‘Urban energy*’ 1273 846 446 ‘Smart cities’ AND ‘Renewable*’ 241 105 60 ‘Information modelling’ AND ‘energy*’ 275 141 105 450 ‘City information ’ AND ‘energy*’ 8 5 5 ‘Building information ’ AND ‘energy*’ 859 473 324 “City information “ AND ‘retrofit*’ 1 1 1 “Building information “ AND ‘retrofit*’ 101 64 43 222 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. a list of indicators and urban retrofitting options were As can be seen from Figure 3, most of the publica- used to validate those from peer-reviewed articles tions are from the developed countries with the USA described in the preceding step. taking the lead. Published articles from developing countries especially from Africa are missing. 6. Findings and discussions 6.2. BIM applications in DRIES 6.1. Main sources and preliminary findings 6.2.1 Development and data extraction 6.1.1. ‘City information ’ AND ‘energy*’ versus Sporr et al. (2020) proposed an IFC-based BIM data ‘building information ’ AND ‘energy*’ method for the automated development of a general- The former yields 8 compared to 859 for the latter. purpose building energy provisioning and distribu- This is consistent with the literature that most infor- tion system. The approach can facilitate the extraction mation modelling research focus on single buildings of hydraulic structure of the energy system and derive with very few on clusters of buildings. a control strategy from it. 6.1.2. “City information “ AND ‘retrofit*’ versus 6.2.2. Design of components “building information “ AND ‘retrofit*’ A study by Piselli et al. (2020) developed an integrated Similar to the preceding finding, the search research HBIM Simulation Approach for Energy Retrofit of for the former yielded 1 compared to 101 for the Historical Buildings. The system was implemented on latter. It can also be concluded that 101 is at least 8 a case study of a Medieval Fortress in Italy. In the times less than 859 suggesting that most BIM/CIM study, architectural model of the case study building application research seldom focus of retrofitting. was developed in Revit– one of the leading BIM To gain a scientific landscape of the articles, the design authoring tool. Specifically the components filtered total of 952 was imported into VOSviewer and designed include column, pavilion roof, roof clay word clouds generated about the sources of the articles bent tiles and tiles, barrel vault; ancient wooden (Figure 2) and country of their publications (Figure 3). door, wooden frame with beams and joists for roof Figure 2 suggest most of the articles are published and floor. in appropriate journals with Energy and Buildings, Energy Policy, Automation in Construction and 6.2.3. Energy simulation Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews stand- Chen (2019) demonstrated procedural steps in the ing out. application of green BIM and analyzed restrictions Figure 2. Word cloud of publication sources. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 223 Figure 3. Word cloud of country of published articles. 6.2.4 Operation maintenance and flexibility on the implementation of green BIM to the analysis of Energy management is a crucial issue that needs to be NZEB design. The main software used were Revit and Green Building Studio (GBS). The Autodesk Revit plat- maintained under different operating conditions throughout a project’s lifecycle (Al Ka’bi 2020). Such form relies on Autodesk’s cloud GBS to transmit infor- 24/7 self-reporting capabilities of BIM-based facility mation created or input on the Revit platform, including (1) building geometric information (config - management make energy monitoring very easy. Moreover, BIM also enables the flexibility to assess uration, shape, and orientation), (2) geographic and and reach to new energy targets during any type of weather data (geographic coordinates, environmental characteristics, temperature, humidity, path of the revisions specially those made on functionality of the built environment (Bortoluzzi et al. 2019). Hence, any sun, and wind rose, etc.), and (3) non-geometric attri- design changes either made on the BIM or energy butes and parameters (spatial categories, wall struc- tures, thermal conduction performance, active analysis tool can easily be entertained in a simple iterative manner. equipment options, operating plans, and parameter settings), in the gbXML format to GBS’ DOE-2 energy simulation engine in the cloud. Similarly, Abanda and 6.3 Benefits of BIM for DRIES Byers (2016) used Revit and GBS to investigate the impact of building orientation on energy consump- 6.3.1. Holistic view tion of buildings. The authors used a single case study Using BIM to simulate a city provides a possibility to have to implement their methodology. a bird view of all the system interacting together. Such 224 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. a bird view or holistic view can inform better decision- 6.4.3. Interoperability between software systems making. These impactful decisions bring high/optimal Issues with software interoperability in the BIM domain energy performances without compromising architec- has been widely reported in the literature (Abanda et al. tural and technical values of projects (Schlueter and 2015:2017). For urban information processing to effec - Geyer, 2018). Furthermore, significant amount of poten- tive, the systems for management such information tial cost and time reductions can be achieved Gao et al. must be interoperable. Although standards such as (2019). IFC, gbXML and CityGML can ease interoperability, most software are limited in reading and generating such files. Utkucu and Sözer (2020) identified certain 6.3.2. Real-time analysis losses of data when exporting geometric models from By using BIM, first, it avoids generating error-prone models a BIM environment to energy simulation platforms. For within energy analysis platforms (Andriamamonjy et al. this reason, such deficiencies require adding all missing 2019). All geometric information is prepared within the information manually to achieve the desired level of BIM environment and cleared off from any clashes between information need in the simulation output. Hence, it different disciplines. Second, it is also possible to integrate incurs unnecessary delays in the design process. On the systems together and conduct real-time analysis of their other hand, despite the successful transfer of essential performance. The improved integration/collaboration leads data from the BIM environment, there are cases on way for quick and better quality and precisions in design, some energy simulation platforms where material facility management and feasibility analysis of projects. types and properties are not retrieved/read (ibid). Such instances will also require a time-consuming rede- 6.3.3. Visualisation finition of these data on the energy analysis tool itself. As often said, a photo is worth 1000 words cannot be further from the truth about BIM for DRIES. Using BIM 6.4.4. Lack of standard components it is possible to visualise the different systems and BIM objects are a key to designing elements of any how connected with each other. artefact in an urban environment. While standard objects have been developed for buildings, most 6.4 Barriers of BIM for DRIES other components of the urban environment still have a limited number of the same. For example, 6.4.1. Complexity most BIM object library (e.g. BIMObject (https:// Each element in a city consist of other sub- www.bimobject.com/en/product)) have very few components that are further characterised by proper- photovoltaic system components. ties that defines its existence and behaviour. For example, Egan (1998) stated that a typical house con- 6.4.5. Performance indicators tains 40 000 components, compared to 3 000 parts for To achieve NZEB standard at an urban level, clear an average car. The properties of material (e.g., con- indicators that are measurable must be set. Some crete) that make up this components and their inter- sustainability factors are difficult to quantity; as such, action with each other further just shows how their indicators can at times be difficult to measure. In a functioning urban environment can be complex. addition, in some cases, data for some indicators have This complexity present challenges with information different units. For example, it is possible to have modelling and understanding of the functioning of embodied energy intensity being measure in MJ/Kg the urban environment. and in certain cases in MJ/m . This disparity is often due to product suppliers preferring one mode or the 6.4.2. Scalability other. The sheer size of an urban environment including its numerous components presents challenges to mak- ing alterations if it is to be improved to achieve 6.5 Performance indicators of DRIES a desired level in a computer software. Furthermore, the computer power may be limited in processing Designing out for NZEB compliance requires an in- data from a very complex urban model. depth understanding of the performance indicators INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 225 Table 4. Performance indicator DRIES. Performance indicators Sub-indicators Units Scale Sources Environmental Global Warming Potential (GWP) (Kg CO ) kg CO eq/ District Inayat et al. (2020), Nikodinoska et al. (2018) 2 2 m /year GWP investment kg CO eq/m IEA (2017) GWP reduction kg CO eq/m District Manjarres et al. (2019), Sozer et al (2019) Primary energy consumption MJ/a·m District Happle et al. (2020), Suclu et al. (2019), Bunning et al. (2018) Embodied energy of refurbishment scenarios MJ/m District Neroutsou and Ben (2016), Lydon et al. (2017) Embodied carbon kg CO eq/ District Zarrella et al. (2020), Pylsy et al. (2020) m /year Energy payback time Years District Manjarres et al. (2019) Economic Operational energy cost €/year, District Yang et al. (2020), Sozer et al (2019), Pylsy et al. $/KWh, (2020), Fanti et al. (2015) ($/KW and $/KWh) Investments €, €/m of District Zarrella et al. (2020) refurbished surface Life cycle cost €, €/m of District Happle et al. (2020), Neroutsou and Ben (2016), refurbished Bartolozzi et al. (2017) surface Return on investment % District Happle et al. (2020) Payback Period Years District Calise et al. (2020), Wu et al. (2020), Said and Arabkoohsar (2020), IEA (2017) Social Energy poverty measured as % of inhabitants % District IEA (2017) that use more than 10% of their incomes to pay energy bills Jobs creation District Becchio et al. (2018) Energy Energy demand kWh/m District Yang et al. (2020), Kalaychioglu and Yilmaz (2017), Happle et al. (2020), Wu et al. (2020), Mitchell and Natarajan (2020) Final energy consumption kWh/m District Henchoz et al. (2015), Yang et al. (2020), Bunning et al. (2018) Peak load and profile of electricity demand kW District Wang et al. (2020), Happle et al. (2020) Peak load and profile of thermal energy kW District Yang et al. (2020), Happle et al. (2020) demand Degree of energetic self-supply kWh/kWh District Wu et al. (2020) Net fossil energy consumed kWh/m IEA (2017) Total energy use per capita kWh/hab District IEA (2017) · year Total residential electrical energy use per kWh/ District IEA (2017) capita hab· year Energy demand covered by renewable % District Happle et al. (2020), Ramachandra (2009) sources Total residential natural gas energy use per kWh/ District IEA (2017) capita hab· year Total residential butane gas energy use per kWh/ District IEA (2017) capita hab· year Energy consumption of public buildings kWh/year·m District Happle et al. (2020) per year KWh/year Energy use from District Heating kWh/year·m , District Yang et al. (2020), Tran et al. (2019), Pylsy et al. KWh/year (2020), Happle et al. (2020) Energy use from Biomass kWh/year·m District Wu et al. (2020), Mendoza et al. (2018), Stephen et al. (2016) Energy use from PV kWh/year·m , District Tran et al. (2019), Happle et al. (2020), Boccalatte KWh/year et al. (2020), Moran et al. (2014) Energy use from Natural Gas kWh/year·m District Mendoza et al. (2018), Al-Obaldli et al. (2020), Yang et al. (2020) Energy use from Solar Thermal kWh/year·m District Yang et al. (2020), Happle et al. (2020), Boccalatte et al. (2020), Said et al. (2020) Energy use from Hydraulic kWh/year·m District Van Der Heijde et al. (2017), Oppelt et al. (2016), Ayele et al. (2018) Energy use from Geothermal kWh/year·m District Acheilas et al. (2020), Yang et al. (2020), Soltani et al. (2019), Bartolozzi et al. (2017) Energy use from Mini-Eolica kWh/year·m District (Continued) 226 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. Table 4. (Continued). Performance indicators Sub-indicators Units Scale Sources Comfort Local thermal comfort Level Moreno-Rangel et al. (2020), Udrea and Badescu (2020), Echarri-Iribarren et al. (2019), Figueiredo et al. (2016), Fanti et al. (2015) Local temperature deviation from set-point Δ ºC District Happle et al. (2020), Udrea and Badescu (2020), Echarri-Iribarren et al. (2019), Bunning et al. (2018) Percentage outside range %, Δ (COM0I) District Udrea and Badescu (2020), Echarri-Iribarren et al. xtime (2019) Indoor air quality District Becchio et al. (2018), Moreno-Rangel et al. (2020), Happle et al. (2020) Visual comfort Lux District IEA (2017) Urban Percentage of buildings compliant with % District Gatt et al. (2020), Zarrella et al. (2020), Marzinger EPBD standard and Osterreicher (2020), Kalaychioglu and Yilmaz (2017) Percentage of buildings compliant with % District Neroutsou and Ben (2016), Leardini and Manfredini EnerPhit standards (2015), Moran et al. (2014) Percentage of buildings compliant with % District Moreno-Rangel et al. (2020), Mitchell and Passivhaus standards Natarajan (2020), Finegan et al. (2020), Udrea and Badescu (2020) Percentage of buildings compliant with nZEB % District Boccalatte et al. (2020), van der Grijp et al. (2019), standards Mendoza et al. (2018), Becchio et al. (2018), Gatt et al. (2020), Amaral et al. (2018) Global kwh energy saved/euro invested kWh/y/€ District Happle et al. (2020), Zarrella et al. (2020), Wu et al. (2020), van der Grijp et al. (2019), Bunning et al. (2018) CO2 saved/euro invested Kg CO /y/€ District Zarrella et al. (2020), Pylsy et al. (2020), Wu et al. (2020), Becchio et al. (2018), Marzinger and Osterreicher (2020) (Table 4), the improvement measures (Table 5) and is even more stringent; it requires not just a NZEB but the elements required for the measures (Figure 4) a net positive energy building standard (Shnapp et al. Figure 4 shows the key elements that should be 2020). It is too hard to achieve his stringent require- considered when designing out for NZEB standard. ment at a building level talk less of at a city level. This Based on Table 5, most of the NZEB measures seldom is due to the complexity of structures that make cities dwell on passive principles. This is so despite the fact, and the vast amount of data that they generate passive design strategies are features innate to the each second. In this paper an effort was directed to form and design of a building that channelize avail- addressing some of the main concepts that should be able natural resources to ensure thermal comfort. In considered in modelling cities in BIM for DRIES which fact, sound passive design principles are the first step- include the main elements (section 4), the main per- ping-stone on the path to zero energy buildings as formance indicators (Table 4) and some retrofitting studies have shown how their applications can shar- measures (Table 5). While these main concepts can ply reduce energy use and only then use renewable already serve as the bases for computing and asses- energy systems to meet the residual energy needs. sing the sustainability performance of cities with the goal of achieving a net positive energy, a recent study by Sibilla and Kurul (2020) suggests it can even be 7. Discussions more complex and challenging if other parameters such as homogeneity of urban units and buildings This study explored how BIM can be used in model- are taken into account. Homogeneous Urban Units ling Distributed Renewable and Interactive Energy are urban areas with similar characteristics, e.g. Systems for improving the sustainability performance urban morphology while a homogeneous Building of cities. Achieving a NZEB standard is a minimum Group includes buildings with the same hourly energy requirement for a high performant city. A recent demand profile. The challenge associated with report by the European Commission recommendation INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 227 Table 5. Retrofit measures. Building element Measure Level Source Ground Interior insulation Single Streicher et al. (2020) building Roof Exterior insulation Single Streicher et al. (2020) building The existing old pitched roof was removed and a new flat roof was installed with District IEA (2017) 35–40 cm of polystyrene. U-value: 0.10 W/m K. Ceiling Insulation Single Ahlrichs et al. (2020) building Wall Exterior insulation Single Streicher et al. (2020) building The basement walls were insulated with 260–290 mm insulation on the outside. District IEA (2017) Corridors The new lighting system in the building is established as a completely new LED District IEA (2017) lighting system in corridors and offices. Window Triple glazed Single Streicher et al. (2020), building Ahlrichs et al. (2020) Passive house Single Streicher et al. (2020), building Ahlrichs et al. (2020) An external shading device is installed and integrated in the facade module. This District IEA (2017) external shading device helps to reduce the solar gains and therefore to avoid overheating of the rooms in the warm periods of the year. New windows and daylight-controlled LED lighting in offices contribute to better District IEA (2017) daylight conditions. Photovoltaic Photovoltaic panels are installed on roof or on facades District IEA (2017) system Solar Solar thermal system with a collector surface are mounted on facades District IEA (2017) thermal system HVAC New ventilation System District IEA (2017) Figure 4. Design elements for NZEB (Adapted from Deng et al. (2014) and Table 5). 228 F. H. ABANDA ET AL. achieving NZEB or net positive standard can attain Notes on contributors unimaginable levels in cases where urban areas do F. Henry Abanda is a Reader in the School of the Built not have similar characteristics and buildings have Environment, Oxford Brookes University. His research interests different energy demand profile. Although BIM has are in the area of Semantic Web, BIM, and Big Data. He has worked on research projects funded by the Engineering & its own limitations, presently it is amongst the best Physical Sciences Research Council, the International Labour and contemporary paradigm that can be used for Organisation and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate exploring how to better integrate DRIES for aiding Change. He has designed, implemented and delivered BIM cities achieve its NZEB or net positive standard. related modules on the undergraduate and postgraduate pro- Using BIM for DRIES can also aid in helping profes- grammes in the School of the Built Environment. He is currently supervising a number of PhD students working on construction sionals design and/or retrofit cities to meet other project management, BIM, Big Data and the Semantic Web. sustainability goals especially if other emerging tech- Maurizio Sibilla is an architect and Senior Research Fellow in nologies can be considered and possibly integrated Sustainable Construction at the School of the Built Environment, with BIM. Oxford Brookes University. He arrived at Oxford Brookes having won the prestigious Marie Curie Fellowship. His work experience over the past years has focused on the construction of a bridge 8. Conclusions between technology and design culture, with a particular focus on environmental technologies where he has carried out rele- This study has revealed that DRIES is key to achieving vant academic and professional activities. Currently, he is lead- NZED standards. The concepts uncovered are the ing national and international research, among which, the applications of BIM for zero energy buildings, perfor- Oxford Brookes’ Research Excellence Award 2020-21 and InClimate funded by the European Commission. mance indicators, benefits and strategies to achieving NZED standard at district level. The challenges Peter Garstecki is a Senior Lecturer in Management Practice and towards achieving NZED standards were also dis- Law in the School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University. Peter is an experienced Architect who worked in a number of cussed. The findings can be grouped into 3 main well renowned architectural practices such as Wilkinson Eyre categories. Firstly, most information modelling and Foster + Partners where he currently works as an research focus on single buildings with very few on Associate. His main interest in architecture education and clusters of buildings. Secondly, studies about retro- research is in Management whether it is the analysis of the fitting at district level is not common compared to current methods of management and collaboration or the future ones, which are utilising technology such as BIM and those at single buildings. Thirdly, BIM/CIM application Artificial Intelligence. research seldom focus of retrofitting with far too Brouk Melaku Anteneh is a civil engineer who is working as an many on isolated buildings. Lastly, a major weakness assistant researcher in the School of the Built Environment at is that the indicators, measures, and technologies are Oxford Brookes University. After completing his Bachelors in many leading to challenges in making informed deci- Civil Engineering from Bahir Dar University, he worked as a sions about how they could be used in achieving project manager on various building construction projects. NZED standards in retrofitting projects. A key to over- Following his ambition to excel academically, he completed a Masters in Construction Technology and Management in coming this weakness is to develop a multi-criteria Mekelle University and Building Information Modelling and system that can aid in making effective decisions Management from Oxford Brookes University. His brilliance using the different concepts. and urge to succeed made him to work hard and earned a second place in the 2020’s UK National BIM competition. His current interests are in the areas of BIM, sustainable construction Acknowledgements and retrofitting and disaster management. This study was supported by the Oxford Brookes’ Research Excellence Award 2020-21. It is a part of a broader research which aims at exploring the extent to which BIM and Lifecycle ORCID assessment can be integrated for supporting the implementa- M Sibilla http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8125-2108 tion of Distributed Renewable and Interactive energy systems in Urban Environment. 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Journal
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development
– Taylor & Francis
Published: May 4, 2021
Keywords: BIM; Distributed Renewable Energy Systems; environmental impacts; retrofit; urban energy
