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Winner takes all: reconstructing the decapitation of a warrior in Bronze Age China from osteological evidence

Winner takes all: reconstructing the decapitation of a warrior in Bronze Age China from... Decapitation is an ancient practice in Asia with inadequate research. The present study reports on the osteological examination of a headless skeleton excavated from a high-status tomb in Chu State style dating back to the late Warring States Period (ca. 3th century BC) in Lu’an, Anhui, China. The individual is identified as a victim of decapitation with five peri-mortem sharp force cut marks on the posterior parts of the cervical vertebrae, and another one on the right second metacarpal. Microscopic observation of the kerfs, the historical records and archaeological evidence support the speculation that the individual could be a warrior of Chu State, who is decapitated after being wounded during the war against the Qin State. The hacking implement and the sequences of the cut marks are further discussed to reconstruct the process of execution. This multidisciplinary reconstruction is the first scientific osteological analysis of the decapitation on the human remains from the Chinese Bronze Age. Moreover, it will enrich our knowledge of the decapitation phenomenon in terms of war and execution in ancient China. . . . . Keywords Decapitation Peri-mortem cut mark Tomahawk Cervical vertebrae Warring States Period of China Introduction practice in order to destroy the soul; a consequence of armed confrontation to kill the foe; a form of trophy to dishonor the Decapitation, in other terms, beheading, is a pervasive world- dead; a form of sacrifice and a consequence of judicial execu- wide ancient practice which is implemented in different cul- tions (Philpott 1991;Carty 2015). In order to distinguish and tural contexts as a cultural phenomenon or social behavior identify the motivation behind the decapitation, it will be an (Aldhouse-Green 2006; Armit 2012; Chacon and Dye 2007; effective way to combine the osteological evidence with the Pearson 2005). Anthropological and historical records have archaeological and historical contexts in which they occur provided several social reasons that may have motivated the (Carty 2015). ante- or post-mortem head removal in different individual cir- The removal of heads is recognized as early as in the cumstances and cultural contexts (Carty and Gleeson 2013; Neolithic period (Simmons et al. 2007;Talalay 2007). In the Harman et al. 1981;Buckberry 2008; Borsje 2007; Boylston Levant of the northern Syria, the postmortem decapitation is et al. 2000; Buckberry and Hadley 2008). By severing the implemented using stone tools during the early Pre-Pottery head from the body, decapitation could be a ritual mortuary Neolithic period, roughly 12,000–10,500 BP as a ritual mor- tuary practice before the body was totally decomposed (Kanjou et al. 2015). In America, the case study of the earliest * Hui-Yuan Yeh mortuary ritualized decapitation could be dated back to cal. hyyeh@ntu.edu.sg 9100–9400 BP which is found in east-central Brazil (Strauss * Qun Zhang et al. 2015). And in Capsian of Algeria in North Africa, de- zhang.qun@ntu.edu.sg capitation is also observed dating to cal. 8000 BP, which is attributed to either utilitarian or ritual purposes (Haverkort and History College, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Ave, Lubell 1999). More recently, decapitation burials have been Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China identified more frequently from the Bronze Age to the early Anhui Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, 469 Cuiwei modern period in the Europe (Philpott 1991; Müldner et al. Road, Hefei 230601, Anhui, China 2011; Bush and Stirland 1991; Mckinley 1993; Anderson School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, 48 2001; Pitts et al. 2002; Carty 2015; Kozakaitė et al. 2018; Nanyang Ave, Singapore 639818, Singapore 219 Page 2 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Gardeła 2013;Ström 1942;Tucker 2012, 2015;Harman et al. transformative period as wars and conflicts between dif- 1981; Armit 2006; Tracy and Massey 2012), the Near East ferent principalities constantly occurred during this peri- (Dolce 2018), the America (Moser 1973;Lessa 2007;Chacon od of ancient Chinese history. The well-preserved head- and Dye 2007;Tung 2008;Conlee 2007;Valdez 2009;Proulx less skeleton in this tomb represents one of the most 1971, 1999, 1989;Browneetal. 1993; Verano 2001, 2003), complete and recognizable decapitation cases during that and the Asia (Krohn 1927; Hutton 1928;Gohain 1977; period in China. Although there are abundant archaeo- Morimoto 1987; Morimoto and Hirata 1992;Tillema 1989; logical discoveries related to the ancient Chinese decap- Phelan 1994;Hoskins 1996; Needham 1976; Nagaoka and itation, however, due to the poor preservation and the Hirata 1992; Lee et al. 2017; Nagaoka et al. 2009)attributed insufficient awareness in the past, no scientific osteolog- to the interpersonal conflict, cult of the head, and headhunting ical analysis has ever been conducted regarding the re- rite. The portability and importance of a severed head makes it construction of ancient Chinese decapitation. The ar- an ideal trophy of war to display one’s status, power of heroism, chaeological excavation of M585 provides a valuable and prowess, harvests, rebirth, and military supremacy, and is opportunity to look into the phenomenon of ancient ex- considered as a military merit with an honor to be knighted and ecution in China. By analyzing the morphology and gifted (Ó Donnabháin 1995, 2011; Goldsworthy 1996;Carty direction of the cut marks on the skeleton, the aim of 2015; Ogburn 2007;Proulx 2001; Petersen and Crock 2007; the present study is to speculate the hacking implement Toyne 2011). Besides, decapitation is frequently employed dur- and to reconstruct the process of execution, which will ing the medieval and early modern period in Europe as a form contribute to our understanding of the cause of death, of judicial execution (Waldron 1996). the lethal implement, and the process of the decapita- Decapitation has been recorded in ancient Chinese histori- tion, and further enrich our knowledge of the decapita- cal documents for a long time. All types of decapitation have tion phenomenon in terms of war and execution in an- been identified in archeological discoveries (Qian 1994;Sun cient China. 1998). During the Neolithic period, ritual skulls are found buried under the foundation of the houses and rampart or in the individual sacrifice pits in Banpo site, Wangchenggang Materials and methods site, Yinjiacheng site, and Shimao site in Shaanxi, Henan, Shandong provinces (Jin 2005;Chen et al. 2016). Besides, Tomb M585 (N 31° 76′ 92′′, E 116° 55′ 28′′) is located on the headless skeletons are also found in burials in Beishouling hummock in the central region of Bailuzhou in Lu’an City of site, Liuwan graveyard, Gamatai site, and Dahecun site in Anhui province (Fig. 1). It is an earthen pit tomb with a path Shaanxi, Qinghai, Henan provinces, which could be attributed leading to a grave. The structure of the tomb is designed as one to sacrifice, conflict, or headhunting rite (Jin 2005; Wang outhouse and one chamber with three layers of coffins, which 2015). During the Shang Dynasty in the Bronze Age, thou- are maintained in good condition. The outhouse is a square sands of skulls and headless skeletons of young males are chamber which surrounded the inner chamber; the inner found in the sacrifice pits or burials, which are located close chamber is a rectangular space containing the three layers of to the Kings’ tombs in the last capital of the dynasty (Jin 2005; coffins. The grave goods of the tombs are rich and diverse CASS 1977). Notably, the severed skulls are found in the consisting of bronze, pottery objects, and lacquer wares. bronze sacrificial vessels as grave goods (Sun 2015). Among them, some military implements such as one set of Meanwhile, from the Zhou Dynasty to Ming Dynasty, another lacquered armor, bronze sword, axe, and other types of weap- type of decapitation is implemented by the victors of the war. on are buried along with the burial of M585. The inner coffin The heads of their enemies are collected as trophies to con- is immersed with dark brown liquid, and the human remains struct a mound named “Jinguan” or the skulls are made into immersed in the liquid are found to be in black color distrib- cups to show military achievement and express contempt to uted haphazardly in the coffin, and the skull is not found the enemies (Zhou 2005;Zhu 2011;Shi 1996;Zhao 1996; inside. The skeleton is in good condition and about 90% of Zhao and Wang 2016; Shi and Song 1996). Even till recently, the skeleton is present for examination (Fig. 2). the headhunting rite is still preserved in some ethnic minorities The skeleton is laid out in anatomical position. The sex and as a sacrificial ritual in Southwest China in Yunnan province age of the individuals are determined based on skeletal re- (Li 1987;Wang 1994). mains utilizing pubic symphysis, cranium, and dental wear In 2011, a high-status tomb dating back to the (Périer 1949; Smith and Knight 1984; Brooks and Suchey Bronze Age is scientifically excavated in Lu’an, Anhui 1990; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The skeletal traumas are province, which is the last capital of the Chu State examined using various scientific techniques. Macroscopic called “Shou Chun” during the Late Warring States observation is focused on the anatomical location, shape, Period in China (Qin 2012). Warring States Period at and dimensions of the skeleton, and microscopic observation thelate phaseof ChineseBronzeAgeis acrucial is focused on the morphology and edges of the cut marks, Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 3 of 11 219 Fig. 1 The location of the archeological site attempting to detect the condition of healing, if any. The de- Results tails of the osteological cut marks on cervical vertebrae and metacarpal are observed and measured by using the high- The individual is identified as a male adult at the age of about resolution deep-field microscope (VHX-2000 series, 35 to 39 with clear evidence indicating the presence of implied Keyence, Japan). decapitation. Based on the macroscopic observation, the indi- vidual of the tomb M585 is headless with five obvious sharp Fig. 2 The tomb onsite and the human remains of the individual of M585 (phalanges were completely preserved but not laid out) 219 Page 4 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 force cut marks on the cervical vertebrae and another one on hand as a defensive wound. It is 5.13 mm in length and the right second metacarpal. These cuts on the vertebrae were 1.16 mm in width. The force is coming from distal and applied mainly located on the posterior parts of the axis, atlas, and the on the hand horizontally (Fig. 6). third cervical vertebra. Among the five cut marks, three of them were superficial in a nearly horizontal direction; the oth- er two were much deeper in a direction from right to left Discussion inferior-superiorly. The cut marks were neat with no tapho- nomic damage, periosteal reaction, or healing signs observed, The recognition of identity and decapitation indicating that they were received peri-mortem (Sauer 1998). According to the experimental studies of traumatic morphol- Decapitation usually results in characteristic damage to the ogy (Walker and Long 1977; Greenfield 1999), the micro- skeleton. Normally, as the execution of decapitation is imple- scopic profiles of the cut marks made by metal implements mented with the blow struck from back to front, it would tend to be steep and smooth in V-shaped cross-section with a produce traumatic lesions affecting the posterior parts of the distinct apex. Microscopic observation of the cut marks re- cervical vertebrae with cut marks. It can be confirmed by vealed the vertically straight kerf wall and combined “V” observing that one or more cervical vertebrae has been and “U”-shaped cross-section, indicating the presence of cut transected or left with cut marks, even sometimes with addi- marks left behind by large bladed implement in a hacking or tional damage to the mandible, the mastoid processes, or the chopping motion (Fig. 3). The precise measurements of each first rib (Waldron 1996). In the present case, five obvious peri- cut were listed in Table 1. mortem sharp force cut marks were observed on the posterior The cut marks on the vertebrae are characterized by straight parts of the axis, atlas, and the third cervical vertebra. Among and narrow kerf clustered on the atlas, axis, and the third the five cut marks, three of them were superficial in a nearly cervical vertebra. Cut one is a fairly shallow straight kerf lo- horizontal direction, and the other two were much deeper in a cated at the superior lamina beneath the right superior articular direction from right to left inferior-superiorly. Besides, a peri- facet on the third cervical vertebra; cut two is a slightly deeper mortem sharp force trauma is also observed on the metacarpal. straight kerf located at the superior lamina of axis on the right; The metacarpal is easily damaged in conflict, indicating that cut three is a long disconnected straight kerf through the an- this cut mark is received during the war as a defensive trauma terior surface of the vertebral foramen beneath the odontoid before the victim is captured. All these osteological evidence process on the axis, which left two deeper marks on the right demonstrate that this individual was decapitated soon after he and left ends and a relatively shallow mark in the middle. got injured during the war. These three kerfs are superficial in depth in a nearly horizontal The archaeological findings support the speculation that direction. Another two cut marks differ in angle to those su- the identity of the individual is a high-ranking warrior of the perficial ones and are in a direction from right to left inferior- Chu state (Qin 2012). The tomb is structured in high-status superiorly. Cut four is at an angle through the superior lamina configuration and the abundant grave goods indicating the of the third cervical vertebra and across the inferior part of the high social status of the individual. The historical records spinous process of axis, penetrating 0.65 mm into the vertebral <Xunzi·Etiquette> indicates that “Ten layers of coffins for body on the axis and removing the right superior articular the King, five layers of coffins for the marquis, triple layers facet, the uncinate process of the third cervical vertebra, and of coffins for the senior official, and double layers of coffins part of the spinous process and lamina of axis; cut five trun- for the general official.” As to the grave goods, the historic cated the odontoid process from the axis and most part of the records <Etiquette of Zhou> indicates that “Ding is a atlas, leaving the remaining the flat cut surface with trabecular privileged sacrificial vessel for the nobles to claim the identity, bone exposed (Figs. 4 and 5). Except for the above ones ob- nine Dings for the King, seven Dings for the marquis, five served on the cervical vertebrae, another cut mark is observed Dings for the senior official, and three or one Ding for the on the superior surface of the second metacarpal on the right general official.” The triple-layer coffins of M585 with four Table 1 Measurements of the cut Morphology Length Minimum width Maximum width Depth marks on the cervical vertebrae Cut 1 Linear 8.29 mm / / / Cut 2 Linear 7.93 mm 0.17 mm 0.76 mm / Cut 3 Linear 29.84 mm 0.05 mm 0.86 mm / Cut 4 Linear and plane / 0.69 mm 5.35 mm 0.65 mm Cut 5 Plane / / / / Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 5 of 11 219 Fig. 3 Microscopic observation of the cut marks on the axis by the high-resolution microscope Dings revealed the senior official identity of the individual. including armor, copper sword, and bronze daggers further Moreover, several valuable equipments and weapons support the speculation of the identity of warrior (Qin 2012). Fig. 4 Illustration of the five cut marks on the cervical vertebrae (A posterior view; B superior view; C illustrated in the anatomical model) 219 Page 6 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Fig. 5 Cut marks on the atlas, axis, and the third cervical vertebra The location of the tomb and the period also contribute to Changping city with four hundred thousand decapitations our recognition of the individual’s identity. Lu’an is located (Wu 2015). The remains of the war was identified in 1995 within the territory of the last capital of Chu State during the in Shanxi province, and one of the mass graves contained Late Warring States Period, when the Chu State is defeated by 130 skulls of male adult with traumas (Shi 1996). These his- the Qin State. The Qin State is a powerful principality with torical records and archaeological evidence demonstrate the strong military forces during that period. Among the princi- prevalence of decapitation during that period and the individ- palities during the Warring States Period, the military reward ual of M585 is extremely likely the victim during the war policy of Qin State is closely related to the decapitation which between the Chu State and the Qin State. encouraged the soldier to earn military merit and a promotion by decapitating more enemies (Fu 2008). According to the The speculated weapon used for the decapitation historical records, the Qin State implemented more than 1.7 million decapitations during the twenty-two wars against the Normally, decapitation leaves evidence of a cut mark on the Wei States, Zhao State, and Chu State between 364 and bone, indicating that a heavy implement is involved. The os- 234 BC (Fu 2008;Wang 1957). Among them, the war with teological evidence and the characteristics of cut marks pro- Zhao State occurred in 260 BC resulted in the fall of the vide direct clues for the speculation of the implement of Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 7 of 11 219 Fig. 6 Cut marks on the second metacarpal on the right hand execution. Through visual observation, the margins of the five WarringStatesPeriodcontributedtothe developmentof cut marks on the cervical vertebrae were relatively neat and weapon innovation and manufacturing technology. The sharp, with no bone breakdown at the edges and a very thin bronze sword, spear, halberd, axe, tomahawk, and dagger inner diameter, with the thinnest part being only 0.045 mm. It are common hand-held weapons used during the Zhou showed that the cutting edge of the implement used is sharp Dynasty. Among the popular hand-held weapons during that and is wielded in a high velocity. By observing the bronze period, the edge shape of the implement, which could have lance and sword excavated from the Warring States Period, caused the cut marks on the cervical vertebrae, is closest to the the cutting edge of the lance is too thick to produce a sharp edge shape of tomahawk. The shape of the tomahawk is in an force trauma with such a thin inner diameter; meanwhile, the axe shape with thin and arc-shaped edge which has been used sword is basically straight in cutting edge, which could not as either a weapon or implement of execution since the matched with the cut marks observed on the cervical verte- Neolithic period (Yang 2003). The stone tomahawk is found brae. Given the information, a simulated experiment is con- during the Neolithic Age, and the bronze tomahawk has first ducted by using cardboard to simulate the implement used for appeared during the Xia Dynasty and became a symbolic im- the execution. The third cut mark is a hack across the axis plement of kingship and military power during the Shang posterior-anteriorly which is deep on the left and right ends Dynasty and the Zhou Dynasty (Yang 2003;Qian 2009). and shallow in the middle. The right side is deeper than the left During the Warring States Period in China, the prevalence side, proving that the force applied on the right side is greater of tomahawk faded during the war due to its large size and than on the left side. The difference between the depths of the weight but was kept as a ceremonial implement during the cut mark is attributed to the edge shape of the implement. Two military operations and weapon of execution for the nobilities small pieces of rectangular and cambered cardboard with a (Yang 2003;Qian 2009). Besides, the early Chinese inscrip- thickness less than 0.02 mm were used to simulate the imple- tions carved on oracle bones and bronze vessels during the ment applied on the cut mark separately. The rectangular card- Shang and Zhou Dynasty reveal the execution of decapitation board straight failed to fit the cut mark but the cambered one and the function of tomahawk as well (Li 2012;Rong 1985). did (Fig. 7). When the edge of the cambered cardboard The ancient Chinese character of chop call “Zhan (斩)” is touched the kerf floor of cut mark on the left and right ends, consist of a headless person with a tomahawk (Fig. 8). This the edge of the middle part just applied on the vertebral body evidence strongly supported the speculation that the toma- superficially. This explained that the cutting edge of the im- hawk is a possible implement for execution used for the de- plement which caused this cut mark is not straight but in a capitation in this case. cambered shape so as to form that characteristic of cut mark. In view of hacking implements being relatively Reconstruction of the process of decapitation understudied (Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001;Lewis 2008; McCardle and Stojanovski 2018), the speculation of imple- Generally, the blow of decapitation comes from the direction ment should be associated with records regarding the likely which depends on the dominant hand of the executioner or the weapon used during that period. The continual war during the direction that the victim is facing. The force of the blow and 219 Page 8 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Fig. 7 The simulated experiment of the possible implement (tomahawk) on the axis the weight of the implement create several kerfs to sever the rectus capitis anterior, which located at the right side of the muscles and ligaments, and then remove the head from the cervical vertebra, resulting in a deeper mark on the axis. body. However, the cut marks of decapitation provide limited Hence, the third chop resulted in the death of the individual, information regarding the timing and sequences of the head which cut through the vertebral foramen and damaged the removal. Although five cut marks on the atlas, axis, and third spinal cord. The first three chops were relatively straight, in- cervical vertebra indicated that the cuts were made with a dicating that the individual is in a position with his head narrow blade posterior-anteriorly, the sequences of the chops lowered when being executed, whereby the executioner is were still unclear. Generally, the removal of the head from the standing in a higher position than the victim to wield the body occurs along the mid-cervical region. In order to remove implement. The fourth and fifth cut marks were in a direction the head at this portion, it is necessary to cut through most of slightly from the right to the left inferior-superiorly. The cut the soft tissues on the neck, and then, tilt the head back as far marks on the inferior right is deeper than on the superior left, as possible to conduct the decapitation (Mckinley 1993). indicating that the vertebra on the right inferiorly is the loca- By observing and analyzing the cut marks on the cervical tion where the force first applied. The executioner is speculat- vertebrae, the process of decapitation could be reconstructed ed standing on the left side of the victim, wielding the imple- based on locations and directions of the cut marks. Based on ment with two hands. the location of the cut marks on the cervical vertebrae, the first The first three cut marks led to the separation of the mus- cut mark is formed at the third cervical vertebra, which result- cles, ligaments, and blood vessels at the neck and resulted in ed in the severing of the longus colli and attached ligaments. the individual’s death. Observing from the remaining parts of Furthermore, the executioner moved the implement forward the atlas and axis, only right transverse foramen and part of the to the axis and inflicted the second chop. This chop cut off the anterior arch of the atlas were remained; the transverse fora- men of the atlas is located superior to the transverse foramen of the axis on the left, indicating that the victim’s head is turned to the left when the fourth and fifth chop performed. To summarize, in the commissions of execution, the process of the decapitation started with the victim kneeling down, drooping his head, and exposing the neck. The executioner is standing on the left side of the victim and performed the decapitation by using the tomahawk (Fig. 9). Three chops led to the death of the individual, and another two chops were performed with the assistance of another executioner holding the victim’s head to the left. The last two chops were per- formed with greater strength to severe the head from the torso completely. It is worth noting that the location of the decapi- tation of this case is so high up on the neck, which is quite different from the other decapitation locating at a much lower location as C4-C6 (Harman et al. 1981; Bush and Stirland Fig. 8 The characters related to “chop” meaning in ancient Chinese 1991;Waldron 1996; Pitts et al. 2002; Strauss et al. 2015). inscription (top: oracle bone script; below: bronze script) Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 9 of 11 219 the sub-project of the Central Plains Civilization Exploration Project in Henan Province (Grant No. 24220078); the 57th batch of the China Postdoctoral Science Fund (Grant No. 2015 M572113); the open research project of the Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education of Cultural Heritage Research and Protection Technology of Northwestern University (Grant No. xbdx2019–5–18). Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adap- tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, pro- vide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were Fig. 9 The sketch of the scenario of decapitation made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's This could be related to the position of the victim and the Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by special implement being used. statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Conclusion Decapitation is a pervasive practice in ancient human societies References throughout history. Although abundant historical records and some possible related archeological discoveries on decapita- Aldhouse-Green M (2006) Dying for the Gods: human sacrifice in Iron tion have been recognized in Asia, especially in China, the Age and Roman Europe. Tempus, Stroud, pp 93–110 Anderson T (2001) Two decapitations from roman Towcester. Int J scientific osteological analysis of the ancient practice is far Osteoarchaeol 11:400–405 less adequate. 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Soc Sci 09:57–61 Toyne J (2011) Interpretations of pre-hispanic ritual violence at Tucume, Peru, from cut mark analysis. Lat Am Antiq 22:505–523 Tracy L, Massey J (eds) (2012) Heads will roll: decapitation in the Publisher’snote Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- Medieval and Early Modern Imagination. Brill, Leiden tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Springer Journals

Winner takes all: reconstructing the decapitation of a warrior in Bronze Age China from osteological evidence

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Springer Journals
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Copyright © The Author(s) 2020
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1866-9557
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1866-9565
DOI
10.1007/s12520-020-01183-2
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Abstract

Decapitation is an ancient practice in Asia with inadequate research. The present study reports on the osteological examination of a headless skeleton excavated from a high-status tomb in Chu State style dating back to the late Warring States Period (ca. 3th century BC) in Lu’an, Anhui, China. The individual is identified as a victim of decapitation with five peri-mortem sharp force cut marks on the posterior parts of the cervical vertebrae, and another one on the right second metacarpal. Microscopic observation of the kerfs, the historical records and archaeological evidence support the speculation that the individual could be a warrior of Chu State, who is decapitated after being wounded during the war against the Qin State. The hacking implement and the sequences of the cut marks are further discussed to reconstruct the process of execution. This multidisciplinary reconstruction is the first scientific osteological analysis of the decapitation on the human remains from the Chinese Bronze Age. Moreover, it will enrich our knowledge of the decapitation phenomenon in terms of war and execution in ancient China. . . . . Keywords Decapitation Peri-mortem cut mark Tomahawk Cervical vertebrae Warring States Period of China Introduction practice in order to destroy the soul; a consequence of armed confrontation to kill the foe; a form of trophy to dishonor the Decapitation, in other terms, beheading, is a pervasive world- dead; a form of sacrifice and a consequence of judicial execu- wide ancient practice which is implemented in different cul- tions (Philpott 1991;Carty 2015). In order to distinguish and tural contexts as a cultural phenomenon or social behavior identify the motivation behind the decapitation, it will be an (Aldhouse-Green 2006; Armit 2012; Chacon and Dye 2007; effective way to combine the osteological evidence with the Pearson 2005). Anthropological and historical records have archaeological and historical contexts in which they occur provided several social reasons that may have motivated the (Carty 2015). ante- or post-mortem head removal in different individual cir- The removal of heads is recognized as early as in the cumstances and cultural contexts (Carty and Gleeson 2013; Neolithic period (Simmons et al. 2007;Talalay 2007). In the Harman et al. 1981;Buckberry 2008; Borsje 2007; Boylston Levant of the northern Syria, the postmortem decapitation is et al. 2000; Buckberry and Hadley 2008). By severing the implemented using stone tools during the early Pre-Pottery head from the body, decapitation could be a ritual mortuary Neolithic period, roughly 12,000–10,500 BP as a ritual mor- tuary practice before the body was totally decomposed (Kanjou et al. 2015). In America, the case study of the earliest * Hui-Yuan Yeh mortuary ritualized decapitation could be dated back to cal. hyyeh@ntu.edu.sg 9100–9400 BP which is found in east-central Brazil (Strauss * Qun Zhang et al. 2015). And in Capsian of Algeria in North Africa, de- zhang.qun@ntu.edu.sg capitation is also observed dating to cal. 8000 BP, which is attributed to either utilitarian or ritual purposes (Haverkort and History College, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Ave, Lubell 1999). More recently, decapitation burials have been Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China identified more frequently from the Bronze Age to the early Anhui Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, 469 Cuiwei modern period in the Europe (Philpott 1991; Müldner et al. Road, Hefei 230601, Anhui, China 2011; Bush and Stirland 1991; Mckinley 1993; Anderson School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, 48 2001; Pitts et al. 2002; Carty 2015; Kozakaitė et al. 2018; Nanyang Ave, Singapore 639818, Singapore 219 Page 2 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Gardeła 2013;Ström 1942;Tucker 2012, 2015;Harman et al. transformative period as wars and conflicts between dif- 1981; Armit 2006; Tracy and Massey 2012), the Near East ferent principalities constantly occurred during this peri- (Dolce 2018), the America (Moser 1973;Lessa 2007;Chacon od of ancient Chinese history. The well-preserved head- and Dye 2007;Tung 2008;Conlee 2007;Valdez 2009;Proulx less skeleton in this tomb represents one of the most 1971, 1999, 1989;Browneetal. 1993; Verano 2001, 2003), complete and recognizable decapitation cases during that and the Asia (Krohn 1927; Hutton 1928;Gohain 1977; period in China. Although there are abundant archaeo- Morimoto 1987; Morimoto and Hirata 1992;Tillema 1989; logical discoveries related to the ancient Chinese decap- Phelan 1994;Hoskins 1996; Needham 1976; Nagaoka and itation, however, due to the poor preservation and the Hirata 1992; Lee et al. 2017; Nagaoka et al. 2009)attributed insufficient awareness in the past, no scientific osteolog- to the interpersonal conflict, cult of the head, and headhunting ical analysis has ever been conducted regarding the re- rite. The portability and importance of a severed head makes it construction of ancient Chinese decapitation. The ar- an ideal trophy of war to display one’s status, power of heroism, chaeological excavation of M585 provides a valuable and prowess, harvests, rebirth, and military supremacy, and is opportunity to look into the phenomenon of ancient ex- considered as a military merit with an honor to be knighted and ecution in China. By analyzing the morphology and gifted (Ó Donnabháin 1995, 2011; Goldsworthy 1996;Carty direction of the cut marks on the skeleton, the aim of 2015; Ogburn 2007;Proulx 2001; Petersen and Crock 2007; the present study is to speculate the hacking implement Toyne 2011). Besides, decapitation is frequently employed dur- and to reconstruct the process of execution, which will ing the medieval and early modern period in Europe as a form contribute to our understanding of the cause of death, of judicial execution (Waldron 1996). the lethal implement, and the process of the decapita- Decapitation has been recorded in ancient Chinese histori- tion, and further enrich our knowledge of the decapita- cal documents for a long time. All types of decapitation have tion phenomenon in terms of war and execution in an- been identified in archeological discoveries (Qian 1994;Sun cient China. 1998). During the Neolithic period, ritual skulls are found buried under the foundation of the houses and rampart or in the individual sacrifice pits in Banpo site, Wangchenggang Materials and methods site, Yinjiacheng site, and Shimao site in Shaanxi, Henan, Shandong provinces (Jin 2005;Chen et al. 2016). Besides, Tomb M585 (N 31° 76′ 92′′, E 116° 55′ 28′′) is located on the headless skeletons are also found in burials in Beishouling hummock in the central region of Bailuzhou in Lu’an City of site, Liuwan graveyard, Gamatai site, and Dahecun site in Anhui province (Fig. 1). It is an earthen pit tomb with a path Shaanxi, Qinghai, Henan provinces, which could be attributed leading to a grave. The structure of the tomb is designed as one to sacrifice, conflict, or headhunting rite (Jin 2005; Wang outhouse and one chamber with three layers of coffins, which 2015). During the Shang Dynasty in the Bronze Age, thou- are maintained in good condition. The outhouse is a square sands of skulls and headless skeletons of young males are chamber which surrounded the inner chamber; the inner found in the sacrifice pits or burials, which are located close chamber is a rectangular space containing the three layers of to the Kings’ tombs in the last capital of the dynasty (Jin 2005; coffins. The grave goods of the tombs are rich and diverse CASS 1977). Notably, the severed skulls are found in the consisting of bronze, pottery objects, and lacquer wares. bronze sacrificial vessels as grave goods (Sun 2015). Among them, some military implements such as one set of Meanwhile, from the Zhou Dynasty to Ming Dynasty, another lacquered armor, bronze sword, axe, and other types of weap- type of decapitation is implemented by the victors of the war. on are buried along with the burial of M585. The inner coffin The heads of their enemies are collected as trophies to con- is immersed with dark brown liquid, and the human remains struct a mound named “Jinguan” or the skulls are made into immersed in the liquid are found to be in black color distrib- cups to show military achievement and express contempt to uted haphazardly in the coffin, and the skull is not found the enemies (Zhou 2005;Zhu 2011;Shi 1996;Zhao 1996; inside. The skeleton is in good condition and about 90% of Zhao and Wang 2016; Shi and Song 1996). Even till recently, the skeleton is present for examination (Fig. 2). the headhunting rite is still preserved in some ethnic minorities The skeleton is laid out in anatomical position. The sex and as a sacrificial ritual in Southwest China in Yunnan province age of the individuals are determined based on skeletal re- (Li 1987;Wang 1994). mains utilizing pubic symphysis, cranium, and dental wear In 2011, a high-status tomb dating back to the (Périer 1949; Smith and Knight 1984; Brooks and Suchey Bronze Age is scientifically excavated in Lu’an, Anhui 1990; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The skeletal traumas are province, which is the last capital of the Chu State examined using various scientific techniques. Macroscopic called “Shou Chun” during the Late Warring States observation is focused on the anatomical location, shape, Period in China (Qin 2012). Warring States Period at and dimensions of the skeleton, and microscopic observation thelate phaseof ChineseBronzeAgeis acrucial is focused on the morphology and edges of the cut marks, Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 3 of 11 219 Fig. 1 The location of the archeological site attempting to detect the condition of healing, if any. The de- Results tails of the osteological cut marks on cervical vertebrae and metacarpal are observed and measured by using the high- The individual is identified as a male adult at the age of about resolution deep-field microscope (VHX-2000 series, 35 to 39 with clear evidence indicating the presence of implied Keyence, Japan). decapitation. Based on the macroscopic observation, the indi- vidual of the tomb M585 is headless with five obvious sharp Fig. 2 The tomb onsite and the human remains of the individual of M585 (phalanges were completely preserved but not laid out) 219 Page 4 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 force cut marks on the cervical vertebrae and another one on hand as a defensive wound. It is 5.13 mm in length and the right second metacarpal. These cuts on the vertebrae were 1.16 mm in width. The force is coming from distal and applied mainly located on the posterior parts of the axis, atlas, and the on the hand horizontally (Fig. 6). third cervical vertebra. Among the five cut marks, three of them were superficial in a nearly horizontal direction; the oth- er two were much deeper in a direction from right to left Discussion inferior-superiorly. The cut marks were neat with no tapho- nomic damage, periosteal reaction, or healing signs observed, The recognition of identity and decapitation indicating that they were received peri-mortem (Sauer 1998). According to the experimental studies of traumatic morphol- Decapitation usually results in characteristic damage to the ogy (Walker and Long 1977; Greenfield 1999), the micro- skeleton. Normally, as the execution of decapitation is imple- scopic profiles of the cut marks made by metal implements mented with the blow struck from back to front, it would tend to be steep and smooth in V-shaped cross-section with a produce traumatic lesions affecting the posterior parts of the distinct apex. Microscopic observation of the cut marks re- cervical vertebrae with cut marks. It can be confirmed by vealed the vertically straight kerf wall and combined “V” observing that one or more cervical vertebrae has been and “U”-shaped cross-section, indicating the presence of cut transected or left with cut marks, even sometimes with addi- marks left behind by large bladed implement in a hacking or tional damage to the mandible, the mastoid processes, or the chopping motion (Fig. 3). The precise measurements of each first rib (Waldron 1996). In the present case, five obvious peri- cut were listed in Table 1. mortem sharp force cut marks were observed on the posterior The cut marks on the vertebrae are characterized by straight parts of the axis, atlas, and the third cervical vertebra. Among and narrow kerf clustered on the atlas, axis, and the third the five cut marks, three of them were superficial in a nearly cervical vertebra. Cut one is a fairly shallow straight kerf lo- horizontal direction, and the other two were much deeper in a cated at the superior lamina beneath the right superior articular direction from right to left inferior-superiorly. Besides, a peri- facet on the third cervical vertebra; cut two is a slightly deeper mortem sharp force trauma is also observed on the metacarpal. straight kerf located at the superior lamina of axis on the right; The metacarpal is easily damaged in conflict, indicating that cut three is a long disconnected straight kerf through the an- this cut mark is received during the war as a defensive trauma terior surface of the vertebral foramen beneath the odontoid before the victim is captured. All these osteological evidence process on the axis, which left two deeper marks on the right demonstrate that this individual was decapitated soon after he and left ends and a relatively shallow mark in the middle. got injured during the war. These three kerfs are superficial in depth in a nearly horizontal The archaeological findings support the speculation that direction. Another two cut marks differ in angle to those su- the identity of the individual is a high-ranking warrior of the perficial ones and are in a direction from right to left inferior- Chu state (Qin 2012). The tomb is structured in high-status superiorly. Cut four is at an angle through the superior lamina configuration and the abundant grave goods indicating the of the third cervical vertebra and across the inferior part of the high social status of the individual. The historical records spinous process of axis, penetrating 0.65 mm into the vertebral <Xunzi·Etiquette> indicates that “Ten layers of coffins for body on the axis and removing the right superior articular the King, five layers of coffins for the marquis, triple layers facet, the uncinate process of the third cervical vertebra, and of coffins for the senior official, and double layers of coffins part of the spinous process and lamina of axis; cut five trun- for the general official.” As to the grave goods, the historic cated the odontoid process from the axis and most part of the records <Etiquette of Zhou> indicates that “Ding is a atlas, leaving the remaining the flat cut surface with trabecular privileged sacrificial vessel for the nobles to claim the identity, bone exposed (Figs. 4 and 5). Except for the above ones ob- nine Dings for the King, seven Dings for the marquis, five served on the cervical vertebrae, another cut mark is observed Dings for the senior official, and three or one Ding for the on the superior surface of the second metacarpal on the right general official.” The triple-layer coffins of M585 with four Table 1 Measurements of the cut Morphology Length Minimum width Maximum width Depth marks on the cervical vertebrae Cut 1 Linear 8.29 mm / / / Cut 2 Linear 7.93 mm 0.17 mm 0.76 mm / Cut 3 Linear 29.84 mm 0.05 mm 0.86 mm / Cut 4 Linear and plane / 0.69 mm 5.35 mm 0.65 mm Cut 5 Plane / / / / Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 5 of 11 219 Fig. 3 Microscopic observation of the cut marks on the axis by the high-resolution microscope Dings revealed the senior official identity of the individual. including armor, copper sword, and bronze daggers further Moreover, several valuable equipments and weapons support the speculation of the identity of warrior (Qin 2012). Fig. 4 Illustration of the five cut marks on the cervical vertebrae (A posterior view; B superior view; C illustrated in the anatomical model) 219 Page 6 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Fig. 5 Cut marks on the atlas, axis, and the third cervical vertebra The location of the tomb and the period also contribute to Changping city with four hundred thousand decapitations our recognition of the individual’s identity. Lu’an is located (Wu 2015). The remains of the war was identified in 1995 within the territory of the last capital of Chu State during the in Shanxi province, and one of the mass graves contained Late Warring States Period, when the Chu State is defeated by 130 skulls of male adult with traumas (Shi 1996). These his- the Qin State. The Qin State is a powerful principality with torical records and archaeological evidence demonstrate the strong military forces during that period. Among the princi- prevalence of decapitation during that period and the individ- palities during the Warring States Period, the military reward ual of M585 is extremely likely the victim during the war policy of Qin State is closely related to the decapitation which between the Chu State and the Qin State. encouraged the soldier to earn military merit and a promotion by decapitating more enemies (Fu 2008). According to the The speculated weapon used for the decapitation historical records, the Qin State implemented more than 1.7 million decapitations during the twenty-two wars against the Normally, decapitation leaves evidence of a cut mark on the Wei States, Zhao State, and Chu State between 364 and bone, indicating that a heavy implement is involved. The os- 234 BC (Fu 2008;Wang 1957). Among them, the war with teological evidence and the characteristics of cut marks pro- Zhao State occurred in 260 BC resulted in the fall of the vide direct clues for the speculation of the implement of Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 7 of 11 219 Fig. 6 Cut marks on the second metacarpal on the right hand execution. Through visual observation, the margins of the five WarringStatesPeriodcontributedtothe developmentof cut marks on the cervical vertebrae were relatively neat and weapon innovation and manufacturing technology. The sharp, with no bone breakdown at the edges and a very thin bronze sword, spear, halberd, axe, tomahawk, and dagger inner diameter, with the thinnest part being only 0.045 mm. It are common hand-held weapons used during the Zhou showed that the cutting edge of the implement used is sharp Dynasty. Among the popular hand-held weapons during that and is wielded in a high velocity. By observing the bronze period, the edge shape of the implement, which could have lance and sword excavated from the Warring States Period, caused the cut marks on the cervical vertebrae, is closest to the the cutting edge of the lance is too thick to produce a sharp edge shape of tomahawk. The shape of the tomahawk is in an force trauma with such a thin inner diameter; meanwhile, the axe shape with thin and arc-shaped edge which has been used sword is basically straight in cutting edge, which could not as either a weapon or implement of execution since the matched with the cut marks observed on the cervical verte- Neolithic period (Yang 2003). The stone tomahawk is found brae. Given the information, a simulated experiment is con- during the Neolithic Age, and the bronze tomahawk has first ducted by using cardboard to simulate the implement used for appeared during the Xia Dynasty and became a symbolic im- the execution. The third cut mark is a hack across the axis plement of kingship and military power during the Shang posterior-anteriorly which is deep on the left and right ends Dynasty and the Zhou Dynasty (Yang 2003;Qian 2009). and shallow in the middle. The right side is deeper than the left During the Warring States Period in China, the prevalence side, proving that the force applied on the right side is greater of tomahawk faded during the war due to its large size and than on the left side. The difference between the depths of the weight but was kept as a ceremonial implement during the cut mark is attributed to the edge shape of the implement. Two military operations and weapon of execution for the nobilities small pieces of rectangular and cambered cardboard with a (Yang 2003;Qian 2009). Besides, the early Chinese inscrip- thickness less than 0.02 mm were used to simulate the imple- tions carved on oracle bones and bronze vessels during the ment applied on the cut mark separately. The rectangular card- Shang and Zhou Dynasty reveal the execution of decapitation board straight failed to fit the cut mark but the cambered one and the function of tomahawk as well (Li 2012;Rong 1985). did (Fig. 7). When the edge of the cambered cardboard The ancient Chinese character of chop call “Zhan (斩)” is touched the kerf floor of cut mark on the left and right ends, consist of a headless person with a tomahawk (Fig. 8). This the edge of the middle part just applied on the vertebral body evidence strongly supported the speculation that the toma- superficially. This explained that the cutting edge of the im- hawk is a possible implement for execution used for the de- plement which caused this cut mark is not straight but in a capitation in this case. cambered shape so as to form that characteristic of cut mark. In view of hacking implements being relatively Reconstruction of the process of decapitation understudied (Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001;Lewis 2008; McCardle and Stojanovski 2018), the speculation of imple- Generally, the blow of decapitation comes from the direction ment should be associated with records regarding the likely which depends on the dominant hand of the executioner or the weapon used during that period. The continual war during the direction that the victim is facing. The force of the blow and 219 Page 8 of 11 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Fig. 7 The simulated experiment of the possible implement (tomahawk) on the axis the weight of the implement create several kerfs to sever the rectus capitis anterior, which located at the right side of the muscles and ligaments, and then remove the head from the cervical vertebra, resulting in a deeper mark on the axis. body. However, the cut marks of decapitation provide limited Hence, the third chop resulted in the death of the individual, information regarding the timing and sequences of the head which cut through the vertebral foramen and damaged the removal. Although five cut marks on the atlas, axis, and third spinal cord. The first three chops were relatively straight, in- cervical vertebra indicated that the cuts were made with a dicating that the individual is in a position with his head narrow blade posterior-anteriorly, the sequences of the chops lowered when being executed, whereby the executioner is were still unclear. Generally, the removal of the head from the standing in a higher position than the victim to wield the body occurs along the mid-cervical region. In order to remove implement. The fourth and fifth cut marks were in a direction the head at this portion, it is necessary to cut through most of slightly from the right to the left inferior-superiorly. The cut the soft tissues on the neck, and then, tilt the head back as far marks on the inferior right is deeper than on the superior left, as possible to conduct the decapitation (Mckinley 1993). indicating that the vertebra on the right inferiorly is the loca- By observing and analyzing the cut marks on the cervical tion where the force first applied. The executioner is speculat- vertebrae, the process of decapitation could be reconstructed ed standing on the left side of the victim, wielding the imple- based on locations and directions of the cut marks. Based on ment with two hands. the location of the cut marks on the cervical vertebrae, the first The first three cut marks led to the separation of the mus- cut mark is formed at the third cervical vertebra, which result- cles, ligaments, and blood vessels at the neck and resulted in ed in the severing of the longus colli and attached ligaments. the individual’s death. Observing from the remaining parts of Furthermore, the executioner moved the implement forward the atlas and axis, only right transverse foramen and part of the to the axis and inflicted the second chop. This chop cut off the anterior arch of the atlas were remained; the transverse fora- men of the atlas is located superior to the transverse foramen of the axis on the left, indicating that the victim’s head is turned to the left when the fourth and fifth chop performed. To summarize, in the commissions of execution, the process of the decapitation started with the victim kneeling down, drooping his head, and exposing the neck. The executioner is standing on the left side of the victim and performed the decapitation by using the tomahawk (Fig. 9). Three chops led to the death of the individual, and another two chops were performed with the assistance of another executioner holding the victim’s head to the left. The last two chops were per- formed with greater strength to severe the head from the torso completely. It is worth noting that the location of the decapi- tation of this case is so high up on the neck, which is quite different from the other decapitation locating at a much lower location as C4-C6 (Harman et al. 1981; Bush and Stirland Fig. 8 The characters related to “chop” meaning in ancient Chinese 1991;Waldron 1996; Pitts et al. 2002; Strauss et al. 2015). inscription (top: oracle bone script; below: bronze script) Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12:219 Page 9 of 11 219 the sub-project of the Central Plains Civilization Exploration Project in Henan Province (Grant No. 24220078); the 57th batch of the China Postdoctoral Science Fund (Grant No. 2015 M572113); the open research project of the Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education of Cultural Heritage Research and Protection Technology of Northwestern University (Grant No. xbdx2019–5–18). Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adap- tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, pro- vide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were Fig. 9 The sketch of the scenario of decapitation made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's This could be related to the position of the victim and the Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by special implement being used. statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Conclusion Decapitation is a pervasive practice in ancient human societies References throughout history. Although abundant historical records and some possible related archeological discoveries on decapita- Aldhouse-Green M (2006) Dying for the Gods: human sacrifice in Iron tion have been recognized in Asia, especially in China, the Age and Roman Europe. Tempus, Stroud, pp 93–110 Anderson T (2001) Two decapitations from roman Towcester. Int J scientific osteological analysis of the ancient practice is far Osteoarchaeol 11:400–405 less adequate. 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