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Traditional knowledge system in palung salt-making in Bali Island

Traditional knowledge system in palung salt-making in Bali Island This study presents the case of an original and traditional knowledge system of palung, which is used in salt- making in the coastal communities of Bali. The study emphasizes the practicalities of the system and its epistemology using anthropological and sociological methods. It is known that the traditional knowledge system of palung salt production has been preserved through the generations as a form of local wisdom. This traditional knowledge system emphasizes the use of local natural resources in accordance with the coastal ecosystems of Bali, where the cultivation of extracted soil (tanah sari), sand, bamboo, and coconut trees is carried out manually. This study has evidenced that the palung process successfully produces salt of excellent taste and quality. Based on laboratory tests conducted on palung salt samples, the results show that it does not contain any heavy metals and that it has good nutritional content. Because of its use of available natural resources, this traditional knowledge system is sustainable and environmentally friendly. Keywords: Traditional Knowledge, Salt-making , Palung, Coastal Community , Preservation, Local Technology Introduction Balinese palung salt is a product that is based on the In Indonesia, salt is generally produced by coastal commu- local ecosystem and the traditional knowledge of its nities. The common process of salt production is using coastal communities [5]. This technological process of traditional technology. However, these communities are salt production is unique and specific to Bali. It uses re- typically weak and vulnerable in a socioeconomic sense. newable, natural, and local resources, including soil, Therefore, identifying, analyzing, and developing the po- sand, bamboo, and coconut trees, in a seawater evapor- tential of coastal resources to improve the welfare of ation process. This means that the salt is hygienic, of coastal communities is necessary [1]. In 2011, the Indo- high quality, and tastes good. The results of laboratory nesian government implemented the Salt Empowerment tests showed that palung salt contains no arsenic (As), Business Program and introduced various institutional copper (Cu), or mercury (Hg), meaning that it is devoid and physical technologies [2–4]. In addition, regulations of harmful metals. Palung salt has good nutritional to protect and empower salt farmers and fishermen in value, with moisture (1.6 g), protein (0.1 g), minerals (98 coastal communities were implemented through Law No. g), energy (2 kcal), and potassium (196 mg). Thus, salt is 7 of 2016. With these programs and regulations, the trad- a desirable product that can penetrate numerous mar- itional aspects of salt production are protected, thus en- kets, including Japan, Korea, France, and the USA [5]. suring that high-quality salt is produced. However, it is As previously stated, the salt-making uses traditional not competitive in relation to current consumption and knowledge systems. With palung salt, the knowledge industrial needs. The process of salt production in Bali, system is amassed from the collective experiences of the where palung technology is used, differs significantly in coastal communities of Bali [6]. There is a wealth of comparison with other areas of Indonesia. traditional knowledge about the ecology of the area and its natural resources, and this knowledge can be used as an adaptation strategy to support efforts to improve the * Correspondence: mrgozan@gmail.com welfare of the area [7]. Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 2 of 7 The traditional knowledge system of palung salt- Over the centuries, it has brought numerous economic making has cemented itself in the culture of Balinese and sociocultural benefits to local communities [10]. coastal communities. The knowledge system is original, It is impossible for a technology system to be born with- owned, and developed by local communities. It is devel- out an existing knowledge system already being in place oped in the form of skills, techniques, and cultural prac- [14]. However, usually, the traditional knowledge system tices that allow communities to manage their natural that develops in society is not systematically or analytically resources [8]. This knowledge is an economic asset, as it formulated. Rather, it develops through a process of determines the livelihoods of the local people and be- extraction, where best practices are identified throughout longs to the community [9]. the historical development of the system. Local knowledge While the knowledge system of palung salt-making is and technology systems are closely related to the oppor- traditional, it is not stagnant. It is adaptable to changing tunities and challenges faced by the community con- environments as a result of ecological and economic cerned. A local community’s system of knowledge and changes [5]. For example, the eruption of Mount Agung technology can thus be viewed as a response to the oppor- in 2017 damaged the palung industry in Buleleng and Kar- tunities and challenges of the local environment. In this angasem. Likewise, the growth of the tourist industry in respect, the palung system is also related to local thinking; Bali in recent years has encouraged the commercialization the technological equipment used is based on local poten- of land in coastal regions. This has led to coastal land be- tial; and the distribution of palung products is based on ing repurposed and used as sites for resorts and hotels ra- local social and cultural networks. Salt is a form of income ther than for salt-making. In this context, many salt for local communities. farmers have moved to work in tourism, thus threatening Palung salt is an integral aspect of the Balinese sociocul- the preservation of palung methods. Thus, the current tural system. According to the Balinese people, salt is an situation poses a serious threat to the existence and sus- essential requirement of daily dishes. As well as this, when tainability of palung salt. At the same time, it cannot sup- the Balinese finish cooking their meals, they give offerings port local communities, who need diverse economic in the form of rice and salt. These offerings, given as a activities in order to survive. The local food system should token of gratitude to the spirits who have protected them, become along with the institutions and organizations that must be given before they eat their meal. The Balinese be- regulate it [10]. This phenomenon is somewhat different lieve that salt must be used to resist evil forces. from other regions of Indonesia. According to Blaikie, Palung salt technology cannot be separated from the traditional knowledge systems are vulnerable. This vulner- economic system of the local community. The discovery ability is due to rapid population growth, migration, and of local knowledge and technology is usually related to natural disasters. These adverse changes lead to cultural the economic needs of the community. This is in ac- divisions, land degradation, commercialization, and eco- cordance with the concept developed by Kaplan and nomic downturns [11]. Manner’s concept. This concept is entitled techno- This paper discusses how the traditional knowledge sys- economics and refers to the fact that technology is re- tem of palung salt-making is preserved in Bali, the threats lated to people’s livelihoods. Technology does not only it faces, and the ways in which it has had to adapt. This refer to the equipment used in productive activities but study used anthropological and sociological methods of also to the knowledge and value systems that are behind data collection via in-depth interviews, focus-group dis- these productive activities. As a system of traditional cussions, and after-fact observations [12]madebyobserv- knowledge and technology, palung salt technology is in- ing photographs related to the salt-making process in herently traditional. Thus, palung salt is part of the col- Buleleng. The in-depth interviews and focus-group discus- lective memory of Balinese communities—it is both a sions were conducted with salt farmers, traditional leaders, common property and a common heritage [15]. and actors in the salt and tourism sectors. The sample was There are numerous elements of local wisdom selected using the snowball sampling technique [13]. ingrained in the palung technique. First, there is the dominant role of human labor in palung production. Local wisdom in palung technology The various production processes are conducted manu- This section analyzes how palung technology as a form ally by locals. These processes begin with land prepar- of cultural heritage has existed for centuries as a unique ation and end with harvesting. The process of making element of local wisdom. The existence of this form of palung salt is closely related to the environment of the traditional technology dates to the pre-colonial period. local community. For example, in terms of making the Thus, the modes of palung salt-production are trad- salt (a process called petasikan), a certain type of soil itional and pre-capitalistic [5]. These characteristics re- must be cultivated and then compacted. This type of soil main to this day. As a traditional technological system, is found in hilly areas and contains salt from the sea. In palung salt is closely connected with the Balinese people. another process, saltwater that is taken from the sea is Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 3 of 7 processed into nyah (saltwater brine). This water must Thus, it is clear that there is a mutually dependent re- be taken directly from the sea by workers using a trad- lationship between the knowledge systems of Balinese itional container made of palm leaves (dipikul). communities and palung technology. There is a syner- After the petasikan soil is prepared, the salt farmers gistic relationship between traditional knowledge, tech- make nyah with the tanah sari. This soil is taken from nology systems, economic systems, and the natural mountainous areas near the coast. This soil is typically environment. This relationship has ensured that palung spread out to dry. The soil is also doused with seawater salt technology is able to sustain itself, as it involves a number of times to ensure it has a high salt content. A using equipment made from local materials. The use of plot of land is cultivated to prepare the tanah sari. Thus, these local materials does not damage the environment. there is a level of creativity in ensuring that the sea is in- tegrated with the land in accordance with the conditions Traditional knowledge systems in the salt-making process of the surrounding natural environment. Palung salt-making requires special processes and tech- Aspects of local wisdom can also be seen in the different niques that represent the significance of the traditional types of equipment used in the process of making the values of Balinese communities. This knowledge process palung salt. The use of raw materials from the surround- is important because it can be implemented as a nation- ing environment has made this technology sustainable. wide method of production and influences every policy to- This is evident in the tinjungan tool used—this is a device wards national salt production. It also relates to the used for filtering saltwater brine (air garam tua). The tin- manufacturing process, which can be separated into two jungan is made of bamboo and is traditionally woven and phases, namely, techne and phronesis [16]. These know- shaped into a cone. The tinjungan typically has a diameter ledge processes of salt-making are often in the form of of 275 cm with a height of about 75 cm (Fig. 1). The area shared knowledge, which is implicitly or tacitly owned by around the tinjungan is reinforced with a board that is several groups of people. This knowledge is practical in made from local wood, usually sengon wood. Meanwhile, salt production systems, as stated by Grenier [8], who em- the inside of the cone is filled with coconut fibers to filter phasizes that local Balinese people have a strong desire to the saltwater brine so that the soil containing the salt does utilize natural resources. Numerous traditional villages in not fall into the reservoir of saltwater. Bali are still based on agriculture and marine resources. In The brombong is another tool that is locally produced. these villages, knowledge regarding the utilization of nat- This tool is made from old palm trees and is roughly 2 ural resources tends to be co-opted by older generations. m long with a niche in the middle that holds the salt- However, knowledge transformation, which is shared by water brine. The brombong is positioned horizontally on the entire community, is subject to obstacles and chal- the ground so that it can be placed under the tinjungan. lenges in efforts to inherit said knowledge through oral Then, the saltwater brine is drained away. Another traditions. This leads the knowledge of processes and unique tool is the palung. This tool is made from old techniques to differ, depending on the community. coconut trees. While the brombong is used to hold salt- Knowledge transformation within salt-making re- water brine from the tinjungan, the palung is used to quires a fundamental change from the subsistence pro- evaporate the saltwater brine to obtain the palung salt. duction model to industrial orientation. By combining Fig. 1 Palung as the evaporation media to crystalize salt. The media uses old coconut trees and many traditional values are incorporated in the system Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 4 of 7 the traditional knowledge of salt farmers with modern quite close to the shoreline, is used to facilitate the technology (e.g., greenhouses), the salt industry will transportation of seawater to the drying table. Mean- continue to develop. As such, this section looks at the while, green areas are located near the pond consists of limitations of traditional technology in the process of nutrients and minerals. These green areas are overgrown krosok salt-making using the palung method; this with coconut trees and various plants that are believed method uses a low level of technological processing [5]. by local residents to improve the soil layer and supply The majority of salt-making systems in Bali use the groundwater. Maintaining the green areas around the solar evaporation method. In the production process, ponds is paramount to the quality of the salt and is re- there are some important steps that must be followed to ferred to as “green conservation.” maintain the salt’s quality and distinctiveness. Palung After the completion of the soil-management stage, salt has a slightly bitter taste compared to other salt the next step is to filter the seawater using the soil. To types. There are roughly seven processes that must be remove the saltwater brine, the leveled soil is doused carried out by salt farmers in order to produce salt. The with seawater. This also makes it difficult for grass and processes are complex and involve soil extraction and wild plants to grow in the ponds. This process is referred saltwater brine processing (tulud). Ponds are usually to as ngewayahi. It is usually conducted twice a day for owned by individuals, but some are owned by the state. four consecutive days. The soil is drained away after be- A salt farmer (penyekap) typically works on their own ing rinsed with the seawater. It is then flattened using a land (pajak) with their family. tulud and is left for roughly four days. Then, the soil is The first step in the process is preparing the pond, mixed so that the salt content rises. which is cleared of rubbish and dirt. The pond is leveled In one pajak, there are four plots of salt. The first plot with the help of a rake that is made of bamboo (pangk- must be smooth and loose. This smoothening is done rak). The land area that is used to process the tanah sari using the pangkrak. Salt farmers believe that the drier is 20.5 m. After the soil is leveled, the palung is prepared the soil, the higher the mineral content. The dry soil on a drying table. Farmers will determine whether the must be collected in a way that ensures the air can cir- palung is in a good or bad condition. If it is not of high culate. The soil is then raised into a mound and placed quality, it will be worked on with the help of a palung in a tinjungan. The tanah sari is left for around 4 days expert. Currently, it is difficult to find palung experts and is watered twice a day [19]. due to a lack of interest among younger generations in In the process of transporting seawater, the salt pursuing this skill. Salt farmers need approximately 50 farmers used a sene, which is made of thick plastic. The palung that will last for up to 30 years. After ensuring process of seawater collection also requires expert know- that all the equipment is suitable to use, the salt farmers ledge. The farmers usually wait for small waves to reach can begin the production process. the shore. They then fill the sene with water and carry Typically, salt farmers will begin each salt season by them on their shoulders. For generations, farmers have worshipping spirits in front of their houses and making believed that small waves contain the highest levels of offerings. Prayers are made and offerings are given by salt. Thus, they often wait for the right time (i.e., when one female family member in the mornings and eve- small waves hit the shore). The sene is used to transport nings. They pray for success in their salt-making and the seawater; which currently, it is made of plastic or wish for a prosperous life. For Balinese people, the exist- aluminum, but in the past, it was apparently made from ence of salt is significant, as almost every stage of the ntal leaves from the ntal tree, a type of palm tree that is Balinese life cycle is celebrated by offering up traditional becoming more scarce. food that is mixed with salt [17]. Thus, salt plays an im- Ntal leaves are also used as filters in the tinjungan.To portant role in Balinese life, thus meaning that it is manufacture the saltwater brine using the tinjungan,a viewed as a sacred thing. Salt is a natural resource from curtain-coating technique is used. The coating technique the sea and a natural resource from the mountains—this will be different in each petasikan (traditional village of is known as the nyegara-gunung concept. This concept salt farmers). In Les in Buleleng, for example, this coat- is related to the existence of holy places of worship in ing technique is conducted using three layers: the ntal the “center” and in the sea [18]. leaves form the base layer; sand, the tanah sari. In Teja- During the soil-management stage, the tanah sari is kula, the farmers place five layers inside the tinjungan, managed. This soil originates in hills and mountains. In and the layers consist of wood, tapis, sand, more tapis, some salt-producing centers that use palung technology, and the soil extract. The soil extract in the uppermost salt ponds are usually located near hilly areas or in layer is stepped on until it becomes solid, and then it is mountains. This clearly highlights the beliefs of the Bali- watered using seawater from the sene. The salt farmers nese people in relation to the aforementioned nyegara- can then obtain clean saltwater, which is stored in a gunung concept. The pond area, which can be found container called a brombong. Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 5 of 7 The next step involves placing the saltwater brine on a gender equality by allowing men and women to do the drying table using the palung. The saltwater brine is same work. then evaporated to obtain the salt granules. If tempera- tures are sufficiently high, the salt should crystallize The sustainability of palung salt: opportunities and quite quickly. August is typically the most suitable challenges month to harvest salt, as the hot weather means that the Local wisdom and production processes make the eco- volume of the harvest will double. nomic activity of salt production unique and distinct to The salt is then ready to be harvested when it is Bali. However, the palung salt industry does not meet carded using bamboo. It is drained into containers (sain- basic needs. It has the potential to be developed to in- gan) and must be placed at the top of the palung. The crease the economic standing of Balinese people, espe- saltwater will then drip into the palung. Figure 2 illus- cially the palung salt farmers. trates the entire process of salt-making using the palung Opportunities are widespread in this regard. Data from method. Statistics Indonesia of Bali Province (2018) show that Due to climate change, salt farmers in Bali now realize the price of traditional salt in Bali in 2018 was Rp 4750 that they are vulnerable to the weather [20]. During the per kilogram. The lowest price was between January and dry season (when salt is made), the weather can be un- July, at Rp 4000 per kilogram, while the highest was be- predictable. In Tejakula and Amed, this is a cause of tween September and December, at Rp 6000 per kilo- worry among salt farmers. However, farmers in Kusamba gram. In areas of salt production along the north coast and Klungkung cover the palung so that it is safe from of central Java, salt prices were around Rp 550 per kilo- rain. The weather affects the success of the production gram during the harvest and increased to Rp 1150 per process. If the water fails to evaporate, the production kilogram during the rainy season. Thus, it is clear that process must be repeated. the cost of traditional Balinese salt, which includes Family ties are important in the salt-making process, palung salt, is relatively higher than the price of salt as the working relationship is based on family. There is from other areas. no exploitative relationship in the salt business, as the In an attempt to increase the economic value of labor is divided among groups. In this context, men and palung salt, efforts have been made to produce artisan women enjoy the same level of involvement in the salt. This type of salt can only be found in Buleleng. Ar- process. Balinese societies tend to be patriarchal [21]. tisan salt is produced in Tejakula and is made of palung However, salt farmers have strengthened the issue of salt that is cleaned and mixed with mountain water, then Fig. 2 Salt-making process using palung technology, which has 8 steps: (1.) Preparing the pond by cleaning from the trash and dirt using pangkrak; (2.) Stepping on the top-coated layers of tinjungan to make seawater filtration using the extract soil (tanah sari). (3.) Transporting seawater manually using sene; (4.) Pouring the seawater into tinjungan, which contain the coating layers; (5.) Getting the clean salt water, which has been located in brombong; (6.) Putting the salt water into palung; (7.) Harvesting salt by scratching it using bamboo; (8.) Placing the harvested salt into containers (saingan) Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 6 of 7 evaporated in a greenhouse. This production process that their parents do (e.g., farming) quite undesirable. produces different types of salt. Artisan salt from Teja- Consequently, young people in Bali do not have the neces- kula is used in cooking and in the beauty industry. sary skills to cultivate the land. As an example of this, Gourmet salt is also produced using the same process as some local rice varieties are now rare or extinct [23]. artisan salt, but the raw materials differ in this regard. The impact of tourism is being felt on palung salt Gourmet salt produces porous pyramidal salt. Both arti- communities. Some villages that were known for their san salt and gourmet salt are produced for the global salt production have stopped producing it, as the salt market. However, they are also sold in the domestic farmers have changed jobs. The areas in which salt is market. In order to expand and strengthen the sale of produced are becoming smaller on a daily basis, as they gourmet salt in the domestic market, producers, with are being sold for tourism development. This land con- the help of the Indonesian government, cooperate with version has occurred in Tejakula (Buleleng), Kusamba the Indonesian Hotel and Restaurant Association. In this (Klungkung), and Amed (Karangasem) [19]. This reflects way, gourmet salt is distributed to hotels and restaurants the declining interest in producing palung salt. From throughout Indonesia [22]. this perspective, it can be said that the development of Tejakula artisan salt is sold to a wider market due to the tourism is endangering the palung salt industry. establishment of a business network and product This declining interest in maintaining the salt industry standardization. The business network was established is also reflected in government policies, which do not through mutual cooperation between salt cooperatives favor salt farmers. However, the government also im- and salt manufacturers. The cooperatives buy salt from ports salt. There is no synchronization of data between the members and sells it to the manufacturing companies. the relevant ministries; thus, the demand for salt versus As a result, the salt produced by the farmers, as coopera- the levels of traditional salt production are unclear. This tive members, can be absorbed, while the manufacturers lack of synchronization is always used as an excuse to can provide the raw materials. Product standardization is import salt. Uncontrollable levels of imported salt lead ensured through laboratory tests, product packaging, and to falling prices for traditional salt. This adversely affects labeling. Through these strategies, palung salt can pene- salt farmers [24]. trate the global market and reach countries such as Japan, Another challenge to the sustainability of the palung South Korea, and France [5]. salt industry is related to environmental changes in The development of the tourism industry, which is coastal areas. Beaches in Bali are prone to abrasion. Data expanding to areas where palung salt is produced, cre- collected by the Environment Agency of Bali Province ates a new opportunity for the improved economic wel- showed that of Bali’s 430 km of coastline, 187 km is suf- fare of palung salt farmers. Bali is the most preferred fering from abrasion, and 81.7 km of it is badly eroded. destination in Indonesia for tourists. Statistics Indonesia Beaches in southern Bali are some of the worst in this of Bali Province (2018) reported that in 2017, the num- regard and include Pengambengan beach in Jembrana, ber of foreign tourists who visited Bali reached 5,697, Candidasa beach in the Karangasem district, and 739. The tourists came from all over the world. Tourism Padanggalam beach in Denpasar [25, 26]. Sea dikes in has led to employment opportunities for Balinese people Tejakula have been built to protect the beaches, and the in travel agencies, hotels, restaurants, etc. In this context, palung salt farmers also benefit from these, as it allows the production process and traditional technology used them to keep producing salt. in palung salt can be turned into a tourist attraction. Foreign tourists are usually very interested in attractions Conclusion that document the culture, lifestyle, and traditional activ- The palung salt industry reflects the traditional know- ities of locals. Balinese palung salt will be attractive to ledge system of Balinese coastal communities. This sys- tourists, as traditional salt production that uses palung tem guarantees the sustainability of locals and coastal can only be found in Bali. The potential of palung salt ecosystems. Palung salt production has successfully pen- tourism is quite promising, as tourism along the north etrated the global market. However, the salt-making coast of Bali is dominated by natural attractions, espe- process is based on a knowledge system and traditional cially marine tourism. technology that faces threats in relation to coastal ero- Tourism in Bali is similar to a double-edged sword. It sion, tourism, generational change, and government pol- does lead to opportunities for locals to improve their qual- icies that are unhelpful to salt farmers. ity of life through increased earning opportunities. How- ever, it also allows locals to earn money easily, meaning Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the research funding from The Ministry that they become quite fond of “fast cash.” It is unsurpris- of Research, Technology, and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, ing that young people in Bali prefer to work in tourism, as through the national strategic grant scheme Penelitian Terapan (101-178/ the easy money they earn from tourism makes the work UN7.P4.3/PP/2019). Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 7 of 7 Authors’ contributions 7. Thornton TF, Scheer AM. Collaborative engagement of local and traditional YR formulated the research argumentation that is clearly stated in the knowledge and science in marine environments: A review. Ecol Soc. 2012; “Introduction” section and verified the theoretical and analytical method. 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Chemical tergerus-5-meter-wilayah-ini-paling-mengkhawatirkan Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia. Publisher’sNote Received: 14 December 2018 Accepted: 12 September 2019 Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. References 1. Rochwulaningsih Y. Salt production business potential in aceh as capital for the coastal communities welfare. J Marit Stud Natl Integr. 2018;2:23–30. https://doi.org/10.14710/JMSNI.V2I1.2882. 2. Arwiyah A, Zainuri M, Efendy M. Studi Kandungan NaCl di dalam Air Baku dan Garam yang Dihasilkan serta Produktivitas Lahan Garam Menggunakan Meja Garam yang Berbeda. J Kelaut Indones J Mar Sci Technol. 2015;8:1–9. https://doi.org/10.21107/jk.v8i1.804. 3. Susanto H, Rokhati N, Santosa GW. Development of traditional salt production process for improving product quantity and quality in Jepara District, Central Java, Indonesia. 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Traditional knowledge system in palung salt-making in Bali Island

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Springer Journals
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Copyright © The Author(s) 2019
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Social Sciences; Social Sciences, general
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Abstract

This study presents the case of an original and traditional knowledge system of palung, which is used in salt- making in the coastal communities of Bali. The study emphasizes the practicalities of the system and its epistemology using anthropological and sociological methods. It is known that the traditional knowledge system of palung salt production has been preserved through the generations as a form of local wisdom. This traditional knowledge system emphasizes the use of local natural resources in accordance with the coastal ecosystems of Bali, where the cultivation of extracted soil (tanah sari), sand, bamboo, and coconut trees is carried out manually. This study has evidenced that the palung process successfully produces salt of excellent taste and quality. Based on laboratory tests conducted on palung salt samples, the results show that it does not contain any heavy metals and that it has good nutritional content. Because of its use of available natural resources, this traditional knowledge system is sustainable and environmentally friendly. Keywords: Traditional Knowledge, Salt-making , Palung, Coastal Community , Preservation, Local Technology Introduction Balinese palung salt is a product that is based on the In Indonesia, salt is generally produced by coastal commu- local ecosystem and the traditional knowledge of its nities. The common process of salt production is using coastal communities [5]. This technological process of traditional technology. However, these communities are salt production is unique and specific to Bali. It uses re- typically weak and vulnerable in a socioeconomic sense. newable, natural, and local resources, including soil, Therefore, identifying, analyzing, and developing the po- sand, bamboo, and coconut trees, in a seawater evapor- tential of coastal resources to improve the welfare of ation process. This means that the salt is hygienic, of coastal communities is necessary [1]. In 2011, the Indo- high quality, and tastes good. The results of laboratory nesian government implemented the Salt Empowerment tests showed that palung salt contains no arsenic (As), Business Program and introduced various institutional copper (Cu), or mercury (Hg), meaning that it is devoid and physical technologies [2–4]. In addition, regulations of harmful metals. Palung salt has good nutritional to protect and empower salt farmers and fishermen in value, with moisture (1.6 g), protein (0.1 g), minerals (98 coastal communities were implemented through Law No. g), energy (2 kcal), and potassium (196 mg). Thus, salt is 7 of 2016. With these programs and regulations, the trad- a desirable product that can penetrate numerous mar- itional aspects of salt production are protected, thus en- kets, including Japan, Korea, France, and the USA [5]. suring that high-quality salt is produced. However, it is As previously stated, the salt-making uses traditional not competitive in relation to current consumption and knowledge systems. With palung salt, the knowledge industrial needs. The process of salt production in Bali, system is amassed from the collective experiences of the where palung technology is used, differs significantly in coastal communities of Bali [6]. There is a wealth of comparison with other areas of Indonesia. traditional knowledge about the ecology of the area and its natural resources, and this knowledge can be used as an adaptation strategy to support efforts to improve the * Correspondence: mrgozan@gmail.com welfare of the area [7]. Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 2 of 7 The traditional knowledge system of palung salt- Over the centuries, it has brought numerous economic making has cemented itself in the culture of Balinese and sociocultural benefits to local communities [10]. coastal communities. The knowledge system is original, It is impossible for a technology system to be born with- owned, and developed by local communities. It is devel- out an existing knowledge system already being in place oped in the form of skills, techniques, and cultural prac- [14]. However, usually, the traditional knowledge system tices that allow communities to manage their natural that develops in society is not systematically or analytically resources [8]. This knowledge is an economic asset, as it formulated. Rather, it develops through a process of determines the livelihoods of the local people and be- extraction, where best practices are identified throughout longs to the community [9]. the historical development of the system. Local knowledge While the knowledge system of palung salt-making is and technology systems are closely related to the oppor- traditional, it is not stagnant. It is adaptable to changing tunities and challenges faced by the community con- environments as a result of ecological and economic cerned. A local community’s system of knowledge and changes [5]. For example, the eruption of Mount Agung technology can thus be viewed as a response to the oppor- in 2017 damaged the palung industry in Buleleng and Kar- tunities and challenges of the local environment. In this angasem. Likewise, the growth of the tourist industry in respect, the palung system is also related to local thinking; Bali in recent years has encouraged the commercialization the technological equipment used is based on local poten- of land in coastal regions. This has led to coastal land be- tial; and the distribution of palung products is based on ing repurposed and used as sites for resorts and hotels ra- local social and cultural networks. Salt is a form of income ther than for salt-making. In this context, many salt for local communities. farmers have moved to work in tourism, thus threatening Palung salt is an integral aspect of the Balinese sociocul- the preservation of palung methods. Thus, the current tural system. According to the Balinese people, salt is an situation poses a serious threat to the existence and sus- essential requirement of daily dishes. As well as this, when tainability of palung salt. At the same time, it cannot sup- the Balinese finish cooking their meals, they give offerings port local communities, who need diverse economic in the form of rice and salt. These offerings, given as a activities in order to survive. The local food system should token of gratitude to the spirits who have protected them, become along with the institutions and organizations that must be given before they eat their meal. The Balinese be- regulate it [10]. This phenomenon is somewhat different lieve that salt must be used to resist evil forces. from other regions of Indonesia. According to Blaikie, Palung salt technology cannot be separated from the traditional knowledge systems are vulnerable. This vulner- economic system of the local community. The discovery ability is due to rapid population growth, migration, and of local knowledge and technology is usually related to natural disasters. These adverse changes lead to cultural the economic needs of the community. This is in ac- divisions, land degradation, commercialization, and eco- cordance with the concept developed by Kaplan and nomic downturns [11]. Manner’s concept. This concept is entitled techno- This paper discusses how the traditional knowledge sys- economics and refers to the fact that technology is re- tem of palung salt-making is preserved in Bali, the threats lated to people’s livelihoods. Technology does not only it faces, and the ways in which it has had to adapt. This refer to the equipment used in productive activities but study used anthropological and sociological methods of also to the knowledge and value systems that are behind data collection via in-depth interviews, focus-group dis- these productive activities. As a system of traditional cussions, and after-fact observations [12]madebyobserv- knowledge and technology, palung salt technology is in- ing photographs related to the salt-making process in herently traditional. Thus, palung salt is part of the col- Buleleng. The in-depth interviews and focus-group discus- lective memory of Balinese communities—it is both a sions were conducted with salt farmers, traditional leaders, common property and a common heritage [15]. and actors in the salt and tourism sectors. The sample was There are numerous elements of local wisdom selected using the snowball sampling technique [13]. ingrained in the palung technique. First, there is the dominant role of human labor in palung production. Local wisdom in palung technology The various production processes are conducted manu- This section analyzes how palung technology as a form ally by locals. These processes begin with land prepar- of cultural heritage has existed for centuries as a unique ation and end with harvesting. The process of making element of local wisdom. The existence of this form of palung salt is closely related to the environment of the traditional technology dates to the pre-colonial period. local community. For example, in terms of making the Thus, the modes of palung salt-production are trad- salt (a process called petasikan), a certain type of soil itional and pre-capitalistic [5]. These characteristics re- must be cultivated and then compacted. This type of soil main to this day. As a traditional technological system, is found in hilly areas and contains salt from the sea. In palung salt is closely connected with the Balinese people. another process, saltwater that is taken from the sea is Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 3 of 7 processed into nyah (saltwater brine). This water must Thus, it is clear that there is a mutually dependent re- be taken directly from the sea by workers using a trad- lationship between the knowledge systems of Balinese itional container made of palm leaves (dipikul). communities and palung technology. There is a syner- After the petasikan soil is prepared, the salt farmers gistic relationship between traditional knowledge, tech- make nyah with the tanah sari. This soil is taken from nology systems, economic systems, and the natural mountainous areas near the coast. This soil is typically environment. This relationship has ensured that palung spread out to dry. The soil is also doused with seawater salt technology is able to sustain itself, as it involves a number of times to ensure it has a high salt content. A using equipment made from local materials. The use of plot of land is cultivated to prepare the tanah sari. Thus, these local materials does not damage the environment. there is a level of creativity in ensuring that the sea is in- tegrated with the land in accordance with the conditions Traditional knowledge systems in the salt-making process of the surrounding natural environment. Palung salt-making requires special processes and tech- Aspects of local wisdom can also be seen in the different niques that represent the significance of the traditional types of equipment used in the process of making the values of Balinese communities. This knowledge process palung salt. The use of raw materials from the surround- is important because it can be implemented as a nation- ing environment has made this technology sustainable. wide method of production and influences every policy to- This is evident in the tinjungan tool used—this is a device wards national salt production. It also relates to the used for filtering saltwater brine (air garam tua). The tin- manufacturing process, which can be separated into two jungan is made of bamboo and is traditionally woven and phases, namely, techne and phronesis [16]. These know- shaped into a cone. The tinjungan typically has a diameter ledge processes of salt-making are often in the form of of 275 cm with a height of about 75 cm (Fig. 1). The area shared knowledge, which is implicitly or tacitly owned by around the tinjungan is reinforced with a board that is several groups of people. This knowledge is practical in made from local wood, usually sengon wood. Meanwhile, salt production systems, as stated by Grenier [8], who em- the inside of the cone is filled with coconut fibers to filter phasizes that local Balinese people have a strong desire to the saltwater brine so that the soil containing the salt does utilize natural resources. Numerous traditional villages in not fall into the reservoir of saltwater. Bali are still based on agriculture and marine resources. In The brombong is another tool that is locally produced. these villages, knowledge regarding the utilization of nat- This tool is made from old palm trees and is roughly 2 ural resources tends to be co-opted by older generations. m long with a niche in the middle that holds the salt- However, knowledge transformation, which is shared by water brine. The brombong is positioned horizontally on the entire community, is subject to obstacles and chal- the ground so that it can be placed under the tinjungan. lenges in efforts to inherit said knowledge through oral Then, the saltwater brine is drained away. Another traditions. This leads the knowledge of processes and unique tool is the palung. This tool is made from old techniques to differ, depending on the community. coconut trees. While the brombong is used to hold salt- Knowledge transformation within salt-making re- water brine from the tinjungan, the palung is used to quires a fundamental change from the subsistence pro- evaporate the saltwater brine to obtain the palung salt. duction model to industrial orientation. By combining Fig. 1 Palung as the evaporation media to crystalize salt. The media uses old coconut trees and many traditional values are incorporated in the system Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 4 of 7 the traditional knowledge of salt farmers with modern quite close to the shoreline, is used to facilitate the technology (e.g., greenhouses), the salt industry will transportation of seawater to the drying table. Mean- continue to develop. As such, this section looks at the while, green areas are located near the pond consists of limitations of traditional technology in the process of nutrients and minerals. These green areas are overgrown krosok salt-making using the palung method; this with coconut trees and various plants that are believed method uses a low level of technological processing [5]. by local residents to improve the soil layer and supply The majority of salt-making systems in Bali use the groundwater. Maintaining the green areas around the solar evaporation method. In the production process, ponds is paramount to the quality of the salt and is re- there are some important steps that must be followed to ferred to as “green conservation.” maintain the salt’s quality and distinctiveness. Palung After the completion of the soil-management stage, salt has a slightly bitter taste compared to other salt the next step is to filter the seawater using the soil. To types. There are roughly seven processes that must be remove the saltwater brine, the leveled soil is doused carried out by salt farmers in order to produce salt. The with seawater. This also makes it difficult for grass and processes are complex and involve soil extraction and wild plants to grow in the ponds. This process is referred saltwater brine processing (tulud). Ponds are usually to as ngewayahi. It is usually conducted twice a day for owned by individuals, but some are owned by the state. four consecutive days. The soil is drained away after be- A salt farmer (penyekap) typically works on their own ing rinsed with the seawater. It is then flattened using a land (pajak) with their family. tulud and is left for roughly four days. Then, the soil is The first step in the process is preparing the pond, mixed so that the salt content rises. which is cleared of rubbish and dirt. The pond is leveled In one pajak, there are four plots of salt. The first plot with the help of a rake that is made of bamboo (pangk- must be smooth and loose. This smoothening is done rak). The land area that is used to process the tanah sari using the pangkrak. Salt farmers believe that the drier is 20.5 m. After the soil is leveled, the palung is prepared the soil, the higher the mineral content. The dry soil on a drying table. Farmers will determine whether the must be collected in a way that ensures the air can cir- palung is in a good or bad condition. If it is not of high culate. The soil is then raised into a mound and placed quality, it will be worked on with the help of a palung in a tinjungan. The tanah sari is left for around 4 days expert. Currently, it is difficult to find palung experts and is watered twice a day [19]. due to a lack of interest among younger generations in In the process of transporting seawater, the salt pursuing this skill. Salt farmers need approximately 50 farmers used a sene, which is made of thick plastic. The palung that will last for up to 30 years. After ensuring process of seawater collection also requires expert know- that all the equipment is suitable to use, the salt farmers ledge. The farmers usually wait for small waves to reach can begin the production process. the shore. They then fill the sene with water and carry Typically, salt farmers will begin each salt season by them on their shoulders. For generations, farmers have worshipping spirits in front of their houses and making believed that small waves contain the highest levels of offerings. Prayers are made and offerings are given by salt. Thus, they often wait for the right time (i.e., when one female family member in the mornings and eve- small waves hit the shore). The sene is used to transport nings. They pray for success in their salt-making and the seawater; which currently, it is made of plastic or wish for a prosperous life. For Balinese people, the exist- aluminum, but in the past, it was apparently made from ence of salt is significant, as almost every stage of the ntal leaves from the ntal tree, a type of palm tree that is Balinese life cycle is celebrated by offering up traditional becoming more scarce. food that is mixed with salt [17]. Thus, salt plays an im- Ntal leaves are also used as filters in the tinjungan.To portant role in Balinese life, thus meaning that it is manufacture the saltwater brine using the tinjungan,a viewed as a sacred thing. Salt is a natural resource from curtain-coating technique is used. The coating technique the sea and a natural resource from the mountains—this will be different in each petasikan (traditional village of is known as the nyegara-gunung concept. This concept salt farmers). In Les in Buleleng, for example, this coat- is related to the existence of holy places of worship in ing technique is conducted using three layers: the ntal the “center” and in the sea [18]. leaves form the base layer; sand, the tanah sari. In Teja- During the soil-management stage, the tanah sari is kula, the farmers place five layers inside the tinjungan, managed. This soil originates in hills and mountains. In and the layers consist of wood, tapis, sand, more tapis, some salt-producing centers that use palung technology, and the soil extract. The soil extract in the uppermost salt ponds are usually located near hilly areas or in layer is stepped on until it becomes solid, and then it is mountains. This clearly highlights the beliefs of the Bali- watered using seawater from the sene. The salt farmers nese people in relation to the aforementioned nyegara- can then obtain clean saltwater, which is stored in a gunung concept. The pond area, which can be found container called a brombong. Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 5 of 7 The next step involves placing the saltwater brine on a gender equality by allowing men and women to do the drying table using the palung. The saltwater brine is same work. then evaporated to obtain the salt granules. If tempera- tures are sufficiently high, the salt should crystallize The sustainability of palung salt: opportunities and quite quickly. August is typically the most suitable challenges month to harvest salt, as the hot weather means that the Local wisdom and production processes make the eco- volume of the harvest will double. nomic activity of salt production unique and distinct to The salt is then ready to be harvested when it is Bali. However, the palung salt industry does not meet carded using bamboo. It is drained into containers (sain- basic needs. It has the potential to be developed to in- gan) and must be placed at the top of the palung. The crease the economic standing of Balinese people, espe- saltwater will then drip into the palung. Figure 2 illus- cially the palung salt farmers. trates the entire process of salt-making using the palung Opportunities are widespread in this regard. Data from method. Statistics Indonesia of Bali Province (2018) show that Due to climate change, salt farmers in Bali now realize the price of traditional salt in Bali in 2018 was Rp 4750 that they are vulnerable to the weather [20]. During the per kilogram. The lowest price was between January and dry season (when salt is made), the weather can be un- July, at Rp 4000 per kilogram, while the highest was be- predictable. In Tejakula and Amed, this is a cause of tween September and December, at Rp 6000 per kilo- worry among salt farmers. However, farmers in Kusamba gram. In areas of salt production along the north coast and Klungkung cover the palung so that it is safe from of central Java, salt prices were around Rp 550 per kilo- rain. The weather affects the success of the production gram during the harvest and increased to Rp 1150 per process. If the water fails to evaporate, the production kilogram during the rainy season. Thus, it is clear that process must be repeated. the cost of traditional Balinese salt, which includes Family ties are important in the salt-making process, palung salt, is relatively higher than the price of salt as the working relationship is based on family. There is from other areas. no exploitative relationship in the salt business, as the In an attempt to increase the economic value of labor is divided among groups. In this context, men and palung salt, efforts have been made to produce artisan women enjoy the same level of involvement in the salt. This type of salt can only be found in Buleleng. Ar- process. Balinese societies tend to be patriarchal [21]. tisan salt is produced in Tejakula and is made of palung However, salt farmers have strengthened the issue of salt that is cleaned and mixed with mountain water, then Fig. 2 Salt-making process using palung technology, which has 8 steps: (1.) Preparing the pond by cleaning from the trash and dirt using pangkrak; (2.) Stepping on the top-coated layers of tinjungan to make seawater filtration using the extract soil (tanah sari). (3.) Transporting seawater manually using sene; (4.) Pouring the seawater into tinjungan, which contain the coating layers; (5.) Getting the clean salt water, which has been located in brombong; (6.) Putting the salt water into palung; (7.) Harvesting salt by scratching it using bamboo; (8.) Placing the harvested salt into containers (saingan) Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 6 of 7 evaporated in a greenhouse. This production process that their parents do (e.g., farming) quite undesirable. produces different types of salt. Artisan salt from Teja- Consequently, young people in Bali do not have the neces- kula is used in cooking and in the beauty industry. sary skills to cultivate the land. As an example of this, Gourmet salt is also produced using the same process as some local rice varieties are now rare or extinct [23]. artisan salt, but the raw materials differ in this regard. The impact of tourism is being felt on palung salt Gourmet salt produces porous pyramidal salt. Both arti- communities. Some villages that were known for their san salt and gourmet salt are produced for the global salt production have stopped producing it, as the salt market. However, they are also sold in the domestic farmers have changed jobs. The areas in which salt is market. In order to expand and strengthen the sale of produced are becoming smaller on a daily basis, as they gourmet salt in the domestic market, producers, with are being sold for tourism development. This land con- the help of the Indonesian government, cooperate with version has occurred in Tejakula (Buleleng), Kusamba the Indonesian Hotel and Restaurant Association. In this (Klungkung), and Amed (Karangasem) [19]. This reflects way, gourmet salt is distributed to hotels and restaurants the declining interest in producing palung salt. From throughout Indonesia [22]. this perspective, it can be said that the development of Tejakula artisan salt is sold to a wider market due to the tourism is endangering the palung salt industry. establishment of a business network and product This declining interest in maintaining the salt industry standardization. The business network was established is also reflected in government policies, which do not through mutual cooperation between salt cooperatives favor salt farmers. However, the government also im- and salt manufacturers. The cooperatives buy salt from ports salt. There is no synchronization of data between the members and sells it to the manufacturing companies. the relevant ministries; thus, the demand for salt versus As a result, the salt produced by the farmers, as coopera- the levels of traditional salt production are unclear. This tive members, can be absorbed, while the manufacturers lack of synchronization is always used as an excuse to can provide the raw materials. Product standardization is import salt. Uncontrollable levels of imported salt lead ensured through laboratory tests, product packaging, and to falling prices for traditional salt. This adversely affects labeling. Through these strategies, palung salt can pene- salt farmers [24]. trate the global market and reach countries such as Japan, Another challenge to the sustainability of the palung South Korea, and France [5]. salt industry is related to environmental changes in The development of the tourism industry, which is coastal areas. Beaches in Bali are prone to abrasion. Data expanding to areas where palung salt is produced, cre- collected by the Environment Agency of Bali Province ates a new opportunity for the improved economic wel- showed that of Bali’s 430 km of coastline, 187 km is suf- fare of palung salt farmers. Bali is the most preferred fering from abrasion, and 81.7 km of it is badly eroded. destination in Indonesia for tourists. Statistics Indonesia Beaches in southern Bali are some of the worst in this of Bali Province (2018) reported that in 2017, the num- regard and include Pengambengan beach in Jembrana, ber of foreign tourists who visited Bali reached 5,697, Candidasa beach in the Karangasem district, and 739. The tourists came from all over the world. Tourism Padanggalam beach in Denpasar [25, 26]. Sea dikes in has led to employment opportunities for Balinese people Tejakula have been built to protect the beaches, and the in travel agencies, hotels, restaurants, etc. In this context, palung salt farmers also benefit from these, as it allows the production process and traditional technology used them to keep producing salt. in palung salt can be turned into a tourist attraction. Foreign tourists are usually very interested in attractions Conclusion that document the culture, lifestyle, and traditional activ- The palung salt industry reflects the traditional know- ities of locals. Balinese palung salt will be attractive to ledge system of Balinese coastal communities. This sys- tourists, as traditional salt production that uses palung tem guarantees the sustainability of locals and coastal can only be found in Bali. The potential of palung salt ecosystems. Palung salt production has successfully pen- tourism is quite promising, as tourism along the north etrated the global market. However, the salt-making coast of Bali is dominated by natural attractions, espe- process is based on a knowledge system and traditional cially marine tourism. technology that faces threats in relation to coastal ero- Tourism in Bali is similar to a double-edged sword. It sion, tourism, generational change, and government pol- does lead to opportunities for locals to improve their qual- icies that are unhelpful to salt farmers. ity of life through increased earning opportunities. How- ever, it also allows locals to earn money easily, meaning Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the research funding from The Ministry that they become quite fond of “fast cash.” It is unsurpris- of Research, Technology, and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, ing that young people in Bali prefer to work in tourism, as through the national strategic grant scheme Penelitian Terapan (101-178/ the easy money they earn from tourism makes the work UN7.P4.3/PP/2019). Rochwulaningsih et al. Journal of Ethnic Foods (2019) 6:10 Page 7 of 7 Authors’ contributions 7. Thornton TF, Scheer AM. Collaborative engagement of local and traditional YR formulated the research argumentation that is clearly stated in the knowledge and science in marine environments: A review. Ecol Soc. 2012; “Introduction” section and verified the theoretical and analytical method. She 17. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04714-170308. encouraged all authors to investigate specific traditional values in the 8. Grenier L. Working with indigenous knowledge: a guide for researchers- making of salt and supervised the findings of this work. She also coordinated Louise Grenier, International Development Research Centre (Canada)- the job descriptions among authors. STS performed the research findings of Google Books. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre; 1998. local wisdom aspects inside of the technology that used for the salt-making 9. Kaplan D, Manners RA. Culture theory. Illinois: Waveland Press; 2000. by palung system. He addressed and identified the traditional types of equip- 10. Pimbert M. Food sovereignty and autonomous local systems on JSTOR. RCC ment and materials that contribute to the salt-making then analyzed why it Perspect. 2015. valued by the salt farmers. MPU formulated the future analysis of salt produc- 11. Nugroho K, Carden F, Antlov H. Generating and managing revenue. Manag tion using palung technology. He classified and identified into two categor- World Herit Sites. 2009:95–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-7506-6546-9.50016-2. ies including challenges and opportunities of the future of palung 12. Sevilla JC. Pengantar Metode Pennelitian. Jakarta: UI Press; 1993. technology system. NNM analyzed the local knowledge in the process of the 13. Bogdan RC, Biklen SK. Qualitative research for education: an introduction to salt-making from the very beginning until the end. It performed in the third theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc; 1982. section and supported with the figure explain the whole process of salt- 14. Oluwatoyin K. Situating local knowledge within development agenda: some making. She also participated in the drafting of the final manuscript. SR per- reflections, vol. 2; 2018. p. 1–23. formed the land use data and contributed the image visualization of the 15. Rodriguez J, Fortier T. 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Journal

Journal of Ethnic Foods – Springer Journals

Published: Oct 16, 2019

Keywords: Traditional Knowledge; Salt-making ; Palung; Coastal Community ; Preservation; Local Technology

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