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Purpose Motifs are influenced beliefs and how individuals interact with architectural features. Additionally, decora- tions have been emphasized as a critical component of traditional architecture. The studying architecture in Dezful, which incorporates Xowun decorations and its historical context, motivates this study. The motifs are influenced by ideas derived from Dezful’s traditional society’s worldview. Therefore, in addition to documenting patterns, the study of these factors affecting the formation can be considered as research objectives. Methodology The present study is a method for studying patterns and name of Xowun decoration. In this method, the name and pattern of the designs are matched and the factors affecting them are explained. Finally, a conclusion is made based on logical inference and research findings. Results The research findings describe the hidden ideas within each of the decorative groups of Xowun decoration and represent a distinct architecture level within a valuable historical context. Furthermore, the research evidence includes a comparison of the naming and patterns associated with Xowun decoration. Conclusion The study’s findings indicated that society’s attitudes toward Xowun decorations influence the decora- tion names. Therefore, Xowun decoration can be classified into Geometric pattern, Animal-related pattern, Pattern related to plants and nature, Belief and religious model, pattern of combined geometries, Pattern influenced by con- struction technique. Additionally, most motifs in Xowun decorations are related to plant patterns (40.65%), while the lowest percentage is related to animal patterns (4.87%). Keywords Geometry, Name of Xowun decorations, Documentation, Historic house, Dezful and their elegant historical heritage paved the way for Introduction researching this field. Thus, this study examines Dezful’s Iranian architecture is influenced by the skills and expe - Xowun decorations, with the primary objective of study rience of traditional architects and has created a variety to document and the factors affecting the name of deco - of brick decorations in historic cities. Dezful is a signifi - rations. Numerous studies on the architecture of Iranian cant historical city in Iran that embodies the values of cities and their physical elements have been conducted, traditional society with its decorations. The Xowun dec - examining the issues of social ideas in architecture. orations are referred to by various names based on cul- Therefore, social components in architecture can be tural, religious, and functional considerations. Ignoring examined based on beliefs, human commonalities and these ornaments in Dezful’s contemporary architecture social needs, collective interests and rights (Molaei and Aysham 2019, p. 135). For this reason, the emphasis of *Correspondence: the present research is on religious and belief aspects Mohammad Didehban due to their significant impact on the creation and for - Mdidehban@jsu.ac.ir mation of Xowun patterns. The experts in this field have Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Jundi-Shapur University of Technology, Dezful, Iran presented cases that can serve as a starting point for studying process factors. This is a fundamental concept © The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 2 of 20 that is inextricably linked to the human–environment et al. 2020). In this research, an attempt is made to relationship. point out the factors affecting the formation of pat - Additionally, by examining the factors that influence terns. Besides that, documenting them and mentioning the body of architecture, it is possible to understand bet- the name of each of them in a category can be another ter society’s intellectual frameworks and ideas, which important issue (Fig. 1). serve as the foundation for establishing the identity and In general, brick decorations are used in the courtyard survival of significant ideas from the past (Mak and Pea - wall inside the house, outside wall and entrance, which cock 2011). The biological and social quality of historical can be seen and checked in Fig. 2. Also, extraction of dec- architecture can be improved (Atanda 2019), and it can orative patterns is obtained from the main motifs based be adapted to meet the social and cultural needs of mod- on Fig. 1 and categorized into different groups. ern humans (Catalani et al. 2018, p. 11–15; Fatourehchi Xowun decoration Architecture is one of the sciences that affects the envi - ronment of people. Therefore, it is possible to lay the groundwork for a complete understanding of the body of architecture through measures and thoughts that affect this environment. Therefore, one of the influential aspects of the architectural environment is decoration. "The motifs used in the decorations are drawn from vari - Chahar-Par-Moraba-Va- ous patterns, each of which represents influential con - Chahar-Tieh (Cross shaped cepts in society and people’s perspectives on the past" Gereh Gofl (Hossinzadeh Kohsari 2020, personal interview in 2020). (Lock knot) u Th s, the study of decorative patterns and the recog - nition of hidden concepts can be regarded as a form of intergenerational communication. Since the decorations are created with brick materi- Fig. 1 Xowun decoration in Sohrabi house in Dezful als, they are formed by using the soil available in the area XOWUN IN ENTERENCE XOWUN IN INTERIOR WALLS XOWUN IN EXTERIOR WALLS Fig. 2 The plan of Ghalambor house in Dezful S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 3 of 20 Categories of historic houses Examine the Xowun paerns on the entrance, as well as the interior and exterior walls. 4*4*8 Drawing paerns cm 4*9*8 cm 4*14*8 Presenng to cm First naming 4*4*19 specialists 4*4*8 cm cm Background brick Review based on Second 4*19*8 studies naming Relief brick cm Fig. 3 Xowun decoration in a pattern-like manner Review and Matching correcon names Data test for and baking raw clay (Sarafzadeh et al. 2020). So that in First Paern 2D matching names and the city of Dezful, the soil used in brick has two different matching paerns colors with very limited changes. The soil used in these bricks are divided into four types of Sufian soil, Imam Review and Second Reza Deimi soil, Shushtar soil and Shoor region soil, all correcon paern of which are considered within the internal borders of matching Dezful. The production of bricks with the help of soil has different properties and characteristics. "Sufian soil Final approval has more adhesion and red color, Imam Reza Deimi soil has good adhesion but has termites, Shushtar region soil Fig. 5 Methodology is sandy and the soil of the salty area has white powdery mildew on the bricks" (Nemanifar 2022, personal inter- view in 2022). In this case, you can see the decorations patterns have developed a strong connection with socie- and bricks used in the architecture of this city, derived ty’s thoughts in these motifs that can be examined. In this from different regional flowers, but with red and yellow regard, the role of decorative patterns by choosing peo- colors. ple in creating different designs of their houses has not Additionally, one of the most prevalent and widely used been ineffective and has led to the formation of a pattern elements in the architecture of Dezful houses is a type of influenced by their thought and life (sarrafzadeh et al brick decoration known as Xowun decoration. Numerous 3-Safeh-2-Sar-Shaq 2-Safeh-1-Sar-Shaq 3-Safeh-1-Sar-Shaq 2-Safeh-2-Sar- 2-Safeh-2-Sar-Shaq- Shaq-Type1 Type2 19 cm 5 cm 10 cm 11 cm 6 cm cm 14 cm 14 cm 9 cm 14 cm 19 cm 14 cm 4 cm 4 cm 19 cm 9 cm cm Qenas Banda Complete 3-Safeh 2-Safeh Brick k Fig. 4 Various sized bricks Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 4 of 20 Fig. 7 Areas of historical significance and the surveyed neighbourhood (Fig. 3) (Sarrafzadeh et al. 2020). Various motifs are used in Xowun decorations, and masters place them precisely with the required skill and expertise. Xowun decorations come in various styles and can be seen in the work of Dezful’s traditional architects. Additionally, the variety of designs results from the diverse thoughts and per- First Naming spectives of society’s members. Thus, paying attention to socially influenced patterns and their symbolism within a Zangiri (Chain) body of architecture can be viewed as communicating a society’s indigenous concepts. This concept transfer occurs between diverse human groups and incorporates past experiences. In other words, the patterns found in Xowun decoration motifs can be thought of as an architectural language that estab- lishes a context for communication between people from Zangiri Gol-E-Moraba (a various eras. (Chain) flower like square) On the other hand, the decorative patterns in contem- porary architecture are reduced and other facades and decorated bodies of different materials are less seen. For Second Naming this reason, the study of Xowun decoration ornaments Zangiri-Va-Gol-E-Moraba in brick materials is a ground for re-reading and reviv- (Chain and a flower like ing these ornaments in Xowun decoration motifs, which need to emerge with new perspectives. Therefore, these Fig. 6 Naming decorations in a sample (Case study of Zargar house motifs can be used in abstract and simpler methods in in Dezful) the interior and exterior of contemporary houses. Geometry in Xowun decorations 2022) which can sometimes be attributed to occupation, Geometry was reintroduced to the sciences of math- religion and other factors, related. "Xowun is a term used ematics by the Arabs and Greeks and was accomplished by the city’s traditional architects in the Dezful dialect" by categorizing shapes and creating distinct groups. This (Moghadamnia Dezfuli Zand 2020, personal interview science has had a significant impact on architecture, cre - in 2020). The motifs appear forward (Seer) and back - ating various patterns with characteristics such as simi- ward (Gorosneh) and are located throughout the house larity, repetition, diversity, and size variation (Kiani and S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 5 of 20 Table 1 The Xowun names in combined motifs (the name of the brick decoration is derived from architectural terms in the native language) Jum-Va-Chahar-Tieh Zangiri-Va-Gol-E-Moraba Gheliuni-Va-Gol-E-Sham Gheliuni Sadeh (Simple (Cup and 4 eyes (Chain and flower like (Hookah and a flower like hookah) in Adl house. shape) in Ghalambor square) in Kohinejad house. candle shape) in Toloei Far house. house. Sham-Va-Gol-Andaz (Bundles Sham-Va-Toffah (Candle Zangiri-Va-Gol-E-Moraba (Chain and a flower in the shape of a candle and a and cross shaped flower) in like square) in Zargar house. flower) in Chinisaz house. Alidad Ghasemi house. Dor-E-Xowun-E-Gereh Gofl (Lock knot around Xowun decoraƒon) in Tahmasebi house. Sham-Gol-E-Botol ( Bundles in t he s hape o f horizontal Sham-Gol-E-Moraba (Bundles in the shape of candles and a fl ower shaped l ike a beetle) in Chaeideh horizontal candles and a flower shaped like a square) house. in Mohseni house. Sham-Gol-E-Kho�e h-Va-Rasteh ( Horizontal and v erƒcal c andle Sham-Gol-Andaz ( Bundle i n shape of h orizontal and shape and flower in the center) in Chinisaz house. verƒcal candles and flower in center) in Chinisaz house. Sham-Gol-Andaz (Bundle in shape of horizontal candles and Sham-Gol-E-Kho�e h-Va-Rasteh ( Horizontal c andle flower) in Shayegan house. and flower) in Ghalambor house. The Shaygan House, Tolouifar House, Mahdavi House, Weiss Namdamal House and etc. Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 6 of 20 Table 2 The Xowun names in geometric motifs (the name of the brick decoration is derived from architectural terms in the native language) Chahar-Ali-Va-Gol-E- Lozi-Va-Chahar-Tieh Chahar-Par-Moraba-Va- Zangiri-Va-Gol-E-Moraba Moraba (4 A li a nd flower (Lozenge and 4 eyes) in Chahar-Tieh (Cross shaped (Chain a nd fl ower shaped like a square) in C harmaki Zargar house. and 4 eyes) in Asef house. like s quare) i n Kohinejad house. house. Chahar-Tieh-Va- Hasht- Chahar- Gol-E-Hasht-Zel- Gol-E-Moraba –Va-Zangiri (Flower shaped Chahar-Goleh (Gol) (4 e yes E (4 octagonal flowers)in like square and chain) in Zargar house. and an o ctagonal)in Alidad Sozangarhouse. Ghasemi house. Gol-E-Moraba-Va-Sham (Bundles in t he s hape o f candles Gol-E-Moraba (Flower shaped like square) in Yek Khalilo and a flower shaped like a square) in Mohseni house. house. Gol-E-Moraba-Sadeh Gol-E-Moraba (Flower Gol-E-Mosalas(Nim-Gol) (Flower shaped l ike a (Simple flower s haped like shaped l ike square)in triangle) in Nilsaz house. square) in Azarbad house. Nilsaz house. Khoeh-Rasteh-Va-Gol-E-Mosalas (Nim-Gol) (Horizontal a nd v erƒcal bricks and flower shaped like a triangle) in Golchin house. The Zargaran's house, Bozi bozorg house, da'ei house, and etc. S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 7 of 20 arranged to create various and elegant patterns of brick Xowun decorations based on the determined cuts in the façade and the type of motifs (Fig. 4). Decoration in New building Brick decorations in the past architecture have two aspects of beauty and function that have created a favora- ble environment for themselves by benefiting from these two approaches (Sarrafzadeh et al 2022). Therefore, their use in architecture can be considered in addition to cre- ating facades, due to solving problems and creating func- tionality in architecture. The use of decorative patterns Fig. 8 Sham-Gol-Andaz Xowun in Shayegan house. Source: MCHT in today’s architecture will be a basis for improving the of Dezful beauty and performance, which can be adapted to the architecture of this period by benefiting from the tech - nique of simplifying patterns to decorate different parts Amiriparyan 2016, p. 766). This phenomenon was suc - of the architecture and create functions for it. cessful in decorating Qajar houses in Dezful, resulting in a variety of geometric patterns. They are also known as Methodology Xowun decorations and are one of the most widely used In the present study, an attempt is made to match the brick decorations because they are constructed entirely names of Xowun decorations ornaments with their pat- or in part from whole bricks. terns and, in addition to documenting them, to point out Bricks of various sizes are available, including complete the factors influencing the naming of these ornaments. bricks (4 part), three heights (3 part), quartile (Charak—2 Accordingly, the research method (Fig. 5) is as follows. part), Bandak (1 part), Qenas (out of shape), 2-Safeh-1- Initially, its patterns are created in two dimensions Sar-Shaq (2 parts with a diagonal side), 2-Safeh-2-Sar- using the Rhino software, as the motifs can only be Shaq (2 parts with 2 diagonal sides), 3-Safeh-1-Sar-Shaq viewed in two dimensions. Following that, the drawn (3 parts with a diagonal side), 3-Safeh-2-Sar-Shaq (3 parts designs are presented to experts and traditional perform- with 2 diagonal sides), 4-Safeh-1-Sar-Shaq (4 parts with ers to initiate the process of naming. 1 diagonal side), and 4-Safeh-2-Sar-Shaq (4 parts with 2 diagonal sides) (Naeima 1996, p. 52). The pieces are Fig. 9 Different shapes of Xowun in Mohseni Entrance house. Source: MCHT of Dezful Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 8 of 20 Table 3 The Xowun names in plant and nature motifs (the name of the brick decoration is derived from architectural terms in the native language) Toffah and C hahar-Gol ( A Chahar-Ali-Va-Gol-E- Toffah and Gol-Andaz ( A Toffah ( Shaped l ike a flower shaped like cross and flower shaped l ike a cross Moraba ( 4 Ali and a cross) in A lidad flower) Alidad Ghasemi and 4 flower) in Daei house. flower in t he m iddle) i n Ghasemi house. house. Charmaki house. Chahar-Gol-Gosheh ( 4 Chahar-Tieh-Va- Hasht- Chahar-Gol-E-Bozorg ( 4 Chahar-Ali-Gol-Dar ( 4 Ali flower in t he c orner) i n Chahar-Goleh ( 4 eyes a nd big flowers) in Mirza with fl ower) i n Vasi Mirza Ebrahimi house. octagonal) i n Alidad Ebrahimi house. Namadmal house. Ghasemi house. Chahar- Gol-E-Hasht- Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Ye-Gol- Hasirba-Chahar-Gol-E- Gheliuni-Va-Gol-E-Sham Zel-E ( 4 flower shaped (Hookah a nd a flower E-Riz ( Horizontal and Pangerehe-Salibi (Linked like a n octagon) i n shaped l ike a candle) in ver„cal bricks with s mall texture and flower with Sozangar house. Toloei Far house. flower) in Firozi house. empty space) i n Kohinejad house. Gol-Andaz ( A kind o f Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Gol- Gol-Andaz ( A kind o f Gol-Andaz-Khoeh-Va- flower in c enter) in Rasteh ( A kind o f flower that Andaz ( A kind o f flower flower) in Firozi house. Firozi house. is a rranged horizontally a nd that i s arranged ver„cally) in K halaj Ghasab horizontally and ver„cayll) in Daei house. house. Gol-E-Takdaneh ( Single Gol-E-Moraba ( A flower Gol-E-Pagh (chamfered Khusheh-Angouri ( Bunch part flower) i n Mojahed shaped l ike a square) in flower) in Daei house. of grapes) in Firozi house. house. Nilsaz house. S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 9 of 20 Table 3 (continued) Gol-E-Chahar-Daneh- Gol-E-Moraba-Sadeh ( a Gol-E-Sadeh-Chaharpar Gol-E-Torang (The flower of (simple 4 c orner flower) Va-Dastak (4 part flower flower shaped l ike a bergamot) in Moezi house. in Firozi house. and I shaped square) i n Azarbad arrangement) in house. Mohseni house. Zangiri-Va-Gol-E- Hasht-E-Siri-Va-Ali ( Eight Chahar-Ali-Va-Gol-E- Mouj ( wave) in Alidad Moraba ( Chain a nd a corner w ith the name of Chaharpar ( 4 Ali and 4 Ghasemihouse. flower s haped like a Ali and Garlic-shaped corner fl ower) in square) in K ohinejad flowers a round it) in Bozi Kohinejad house. house. Bozorg house. Gol-E-Mosalas (Nim-Gol) (Flower shaped like a triangle) in Gol-E-Moraba –Va-Zangiri (A fl ower shaped l ike a Nilsaz house. square and chain) in Zargar house. Gol-E-Pangereh-Va-Gol-E-Chahar-Daneh (Flower with Gol-E-Pangereh-Va-Gol-E-Panj-Daneh (A flower shaped with empty cross space and 5 part flower) in Firozi house. empty space and 4 part flower) in Kohinejad house. Kho�eh-Va-Rasteh-Va-Gol-E-Mosalas ( Nim-Gol) ( Horizontal and verŠcal arrangement and a flower shaped l ike a triangle in the middle) in Golchin house. Hasirba�-D-Gol ( Linked t exture w ith 2 complete Chahar-Gol-E-Moraba ( 4 flowers s haped like a square) in Yek Khalilo house. and 2 semi flowers) in Yek Khalilo house. Gol-E-Chahar-Daneh-Va-Dastak ( 4 part fl ower Gol-E-Pangereh-Panj-Daneh ( A kind o f brick flower and I shaped arrangement) in Golchin house. with 5 parts) in Filbanzadeh house. Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 10 of 20 Table 3 (continued) Khurmahi-Va-Gol-E-Panjereh-Y-Miyani (The fish bone and Gol-E-Moraba-Va-Sham (Flowers s haped like an empty space in the center)in Kohinejad house. square and candle)in Mohseni house. Sham-Va-Toffah (Candle Sham-Va-Gol-Andaz Sham-Gol-E-Khoeh-Va-Rasteh (A fl ower i n center a nd and cross shaped fl ower) (Closed fl ower a nd 2 candle shaped that are arranged ver�cally and horizontally) in Alidad Ghasemi house. ver�cal candles)in Chinisaz house. Sham-Gol-E-Khoeh-Va-Rasteh (Flowers s haped Sham-Gol-E-Bbotol (Flowers s haped like c andle and like horizontal candles)in Ghalambor house. beetle) in Chaeideh house. Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Se-Gol Chahar-Tieh-Va-Chahar- Sham-Gol-Andaz (Bundle in s hape o f horizontal and (Ver�cal shapes with 3 Goleh (Gol) (4 eyes a nd 4 flowers) in Alidad Ghasemi ver�cal candles and flower in center) in Chinisazhouse. flowers)in Masoumi house. house. Sham-Gol-Andaz (Bundle in s hape of horizontal Zolf-E-Aroos-VA-Hasht-Par Zolf-E-Aroos (A pa‡ern candles and flower)in Shayegan house. (A pa‡ern taken from hair taken from hair c urling)in curling a nd 8 corners) in Masoumi house. Daei house. The Alidad Ghasemi's house, Aramesh (Firoozi), Chinisaz house, Golchin, Khalaj Qassab, Koohinejad, Masoumi house, Moezi house, Moezzi House, Mohseni House, Mojahedin House, Zargar House, etc. This is because there has been no coherent and specific method entails matching the decoration’s name to the study in this regard and the names of Dezful Xowun dec- existing geometry and serves as a test for re-examining orations have not been provided in writing and specific the decoration’s names. to this city. Therefore, their names can only be found in The focus of the research is on the factors influencing the memory of the traditional masters and specialists of social beliefs in the formation of decorative motifs, and this city. The next step, examines the initial names against the naming of all motifs has been avoided. But due to the by the library documents and, if necessary, corrects better expression of the topic, an example of decorations them. Then, their patterning is completed by matching according to Fig. 6 has been examined. In addition, this the obtained names to Xowun decoration motifs. this S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 11 of 20 Fig. 10 Toffah Xowun in Alidad ghasemi house. Source: MCHT of Fig. 11 Sar-Antary Xowun in Bozi Bozorg house. Source: MCHT of Dezful Dezful Table 4 The Xowun names in animal motifs (the name of the brick decoration is derived from architectural terms in the native language) Tieh-Gavi(A kind of decoraon that is shaped like the Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Jenaghi (Part Sar-Antary ( Meymoon) eyes of a cow) in Sozangar house. of t he body of a p igeon that i s (Shaped like a m onkey) arranged h orizontally and in Bozi Bozorg house. vercally w ith bricks) in B ozi Bozorg house. Khurmahi-Va-Gol-E-Panjereh-Y-Miyani ( The fish bone Sham-Gol-E-Botol (Flowers shaped like candle and and an empty space in the center) in Kohinejad house. beetle) in Chaeideh house. Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Sineh-Kaari (Part of the body of a pigeon that is arranged horizontally and vercally with bricks) in Golchin house. The Koohinejad House, Ashraf koochak, Bozi Bozorg house, Qalambor and etc. Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 12 of 20 Table 5 The Xowun names in religious and belief motifs (the name of the brick decoration is derived from architectural terms in the native language) Chahar-Par-Moraba-Va- Chahar-Ali-Va-Gol-E- Tieh-Gavi ( A kind o f decoraon that i s shaped l ike Chahar-Tieh (4 corner and 4 Moraba (4 Ali and flower the eyes of a cow) in Sozangar house. eyes) in Asef house. like a s quare) i n Charmaki house. Lozi-Va-Chahar-Tieh Chahar-Tieh (4 e yes) i n Chahar-Tieh-Va-Chahar- Chahar-Par-Va-Chahar- (Lozenge and 4 eyes) in Golchin house. Goleh ( 4 eyes a nd 4 Tieh ( 4 corner and 4 Zargar house. flowers) in Alidad Ghasemi eyes) in J afar K han house. Sohrabi house. Chahar-Ali-Va-Band-E- Jum-Va-Chahar-Tieh Chahar-Tieh-Va- Hasht- Chahar-Ali-Gol-Dar ( 4 Ali Chahar-Goleh (Gol) ( 4 eyes Roomy ( 4 Ali and the (Cup a nd 4 e yes shape) with fl owers) in K ohinejad and an o ctagon) in A lidad linear f orm around i t) i n in Ghalambor house. house. Ghasemi house. Moezi house. Chahar-Ali-Va-Gol-E- Ali Sadeh ( Ali in s imple Hasht-E-Siri-Va-Ali ( Eight Chaharpar ( 4 Ali and 4 shaped) in J afar K han corner w ith the name o f Ali corner fl ower) in Sohrabi house. and Garlic-shaped flowers Kohinejad house. around it) i n Bozi B ozorg house. The Koohinejad House, Qalambor House, Adasi House and etc. process provides a better understanding of the factors of social beliefs and cultural values in a society with a influencing the naming of ornaments. rich history are presented. Patterns and names asso- Then, by studying the social factors and beliefs that ciated with each role of Xowun decorations are also influence decorative designs, the historical values asso - documented. ciated with them are discussed. Finally, conclusions are The study’s platform is located in the north of Khuz - drawn based on logical inference and research find - estan Province (Dezful), an area rich in historical sig- ings, and the factors that contribute to the formation nificance. Furthermore, the reason for choosing it is to S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 13 of 20 Table 6 The Xowun names in the motifs derived from the implementation and construction technique (the name of the brick decoration is derived from architectural terms in the native language) Kho eh-Va-Rasteh-Sineh- Hasiri-Yek-DanehVa-Lozi Chap-Va-Rast ( Right and Chap-Va-Rast ( Right Ka ari ( Part o f the b ody of a (brick texture a nd le) ( Bumpy) in Alidad and le) i n Kohinejad pigeon that i s arranged lozenge form) in Chinisaz Ghasemi house. house. horizontally and ver�cally house. with bricks) in Golchin house. Kho eh-Va-Rasteh-Ye- Saye-Va-Roshan Hasiri-Chahar-Daneh Moalagh-Kho eh-Va- Goflband (Horizontal and (Shadow and light) in (Linked t exture w ith 4 Rasteh ( Ver�cal and ver�cal bricks with l ozenge Firozi house. part) in Daei house. horizontal hanging) i n shaped) in Golchin house. Mojahed house. Kho eh-Va-Rasteh-Gol- Chahar-Gol-Gosheh ( 4 Chahar-Ali-Va-Band-E- Hasirba -Chahar-Gol-E- Andaz ( Linked texture flower i n the c orner) i n Roomy ( 4 Ali and the Pangerehe-Salibi ( Linked and fl ower) in Daei Mirza Ebrahimi house. linear f orm around i t) i n texture with 4 cross s haped house. Moezi house. flower) in Yek Khalilo house. Ali Sadeh (Ali i n simple Chahar-Gol-E-Bozorg (4 Gol-E-Moraba-Sadeh Gol-E-Sadeh-Chaharpar shaped) in J afar Khan big flowers) i n Mirza (Simple flower shaped like (Simple 4 p art flower) in Sohrabi house. Ebrahimi house. square) in Azarbad house. Firozi house. preserve valuable examples that are being destroyed due Poladian, Pirnazar, Masjid, and Shahroknodin were the to cultural and social beliefs values being neglected and neighborhoods where the houses were located (Fig. 7). ignored. Therefore, future generations must be aware of their, analyze and study these decorative designs, and lay Results the groundwork for their incorporation into contempo- The patterns of Xowun decoration in residential archi - rary architecture. tecture have been classified into geometric and nongeo - u Th s, the investigations in this study focused on the metric categories and named according to the influence houses listed on Iran’s national heritage list. Miandara, of various factors. architectural decorations have devel- Ghalae, Bazar, Lourian, Moqadasian, Siahpoushan, oped in response to the expertise and skill of traditional Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 14 of 20 Table 6 (continued) Hasir-Ra-Va-Bargasht (Linked reciproca on texture) in Golchinhouse. Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Ye- Gereh-E-Gofl (Linked texture l ock) in D aei Gole-Riz (Ver cal a nd horizontal b ricks w ith house. small flower) in F irozi house. Hasirba-D-Gol (Linked texture with 2 complete and 2 Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Se- Gol-Andaz-Khoeh-Va- semi flowers) in Yek Khalilo house. Gol (Ver cal shaped with Rasteh (Ver cal a nd 3 flowers) in M asoumi horizontal b ricks w ith house. lozenge flowers) in K halaj Ghasab house. Khoeh-Rasteh-Va-Gol-E-Mosalas (Nim-Gol) (Horizontal and ver cal b ricks and flower shaped l ike a triangle)in Golchin house. Khoeh-Va-Rasteh-Jenagi Gheliuni Sadeh (Simple (Part o f the body o f a hookah) in Adl house. pigeon that i s arranged horizontally a nd ver cally with b ricks) in B ozi Bozorg house. The Golchin, Moezzi house, Mujahid house, Ziaei, Tahmasebi house, Adl house and etc. masters, as well as the surrounding structures and social The examples of designs in this section can be seen beliefs factors, and have taken on a variety of forms (Ali- in the courtyard of Shaygan House (Fig. 8), the court- zadeh and Zarghami 2014, p. 61); (Janbazi 2015. 51). The yard of Tolouifar House, the outer courtyard and wall motifs are classified according to their geometry and of Mahdavi House, the courtyard of Weiss Namdamal similarity to known shapes. Thus, the decorations can be House, etc. The cup motif was created to illustrate classified into geometric, combined, plant, animal, and combined motifs using the geometry of two reversed religious motifs and those influenced by the construction cups adjacent to one another. Geometry was discovered technique. in artificial objects and was named for its resemblance to human structures. The hookah motif was created using geometry that resembles the hookah. The instru - The combined geometry ment was significant during the Qajar era and earned a In the combined geometry decoration group (Table 1), prominent place in Xowun decorations. the masters drew inspiration from the objects and The candle element was traditionally used in holy shapes around them as artificial elements and created places, as evidenced by Xowun decorations. As a result decorations such as chain margins, cups, hooks, and of its geometric resemblance, the flower-candle motif candles (Fig. 8). S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 15 of 20 frequently conveys the concept of holiness. The candle triangular geometry incorporate zigzag lines, which is a religious and ritual symbol that has been classified could be interpreted as a symbol of Choghaznabil and as such due to its geometric shape and name. This ele - Holy Mountain architecture (Chevalier & Berg 2006). ment represents life, and the candle tears represent the However, this has occasionally been interpreted as a wave plight of the poor and can be used in religious vows symbol (Keel 1997). (Safari & Daghighi 2016). The chain motif was inspired Geometric patterns in conjunction with motifs allude by the resemblance between its name and intertwined to concepts of law and order, as seen in Xowun decora- chains and the geometric shape of each ring. The sym - tions. Furthermore, it demonstrates society’s interest in bol of unity is desired in this motif, which is placed logic and mathematics, which play a role in the behavio- within the group of combined geometry. ral patterns of society. The pattern names are influenced The patterns in this collection of designs extend by similarities between predefined mathematical pat - bey1ond simple geometric volumes. Thus, patterns cre - terns (triangles, squares, circles, and others) and Xowun ated by combining several geometric shapes were com- decorations. bined, and new patterns were created. These patterns are similar to those found in the environment (artifi - The nature‑related geometries cial objects such as cups, hooks, chains, and candles) Natural properties and relevant motifs were used to and are influenced by their interactions. The impact of generate nature-related geometries. The effect of nature social behaviors can be observed on how these tools are is emphasized in this group, and the decorations are used and the social beliefs status of some of them. named accordingly (Table 3). Wave, flower, grape clus - ter, bride hair, garlic, and bergamot are among the mot The geometric shapes ifs. The geometric motifs were initially named according The examples of these designs can be found in the to their predefined shapes, and they were commonly entrance of Alidad Ghasemi’s house (Fig. 10), Aramesh referred to as square, octagon, and others (Table 2). These (Firoozi) courtyard, the outside body of Chinisaz house, motifs incorporate square, diamond, chalipa (cross), tri- Golchin courtyard, Khalaj Qassab courtyard, Koohine- angle, and circle geometry. Thus, the motifs can be ana - jad courtyard, Masoumi house entrance, Moezi house lyzed independently of the signs. entrance, the courtyard of Moezzi House, the entrance Examples of these designs can be seen at the entrance of Mohseni House, the entrance of Mojahedin House, of the Mohseni’s house (Fig. 9), the entrance of the Zarga- the entrance of Zargar House, etc. ran’s house, the yard of the Bozi bozorg house, the yard of The wave motif is reminiscent of the Xowun decorative the Da’ei house, and so on. forms with rounded water waves, an abstraction that has The square and the diamond are the most fundamental created the relevant motif. The flower Xowun decorations geometric shapes, representing the ground (earth) (Dall- are another example of natural motifs derived from the viella 1894). Due to the motif ’s association with the num- geometry of blooming flowers and created on small and ber four can be considered a strong motif (Golan 2003). large scales (Shahpasand Zadeh 2016). The grape cluster The circle is one of the most enigmatic geometric motifs, motif is inspired by nature and depicts an abstraction of serving as a symbol of humanity and a mirror image of small grapes suspended from branches. The bride’s hair is the universe. This motif has been significant in Iranian a natural motif inspired by the twist created in the bride’s architecture’s historical works and can be described hair. "The garlic motif is named for its resemblance to using terms such as perfection, homogeneity, and uni- the blooming garlic flower and has developed a relevant formity (Adkinson 2009). Another geometric motif is the pattern" (Nemanifar 2020, personal interview in 2020). cross geometric motif. In Iranian architecture, the most Another motif family, bergamot, demonstrates the form, frequently used motif symbolizes happiness, progress, which is named for its elongation and similar geometry growth, and fertility (Baring and Cashford 1991). A tri- and has resulted in bergamot-shaped motifs. angle is another geometric motif that can be observed This collection of Xowun decoration patterns reflects in both upward and downward directions. The upward- society’s sensitivity to nature and incorporating natural mode motif represents womanhood and fertility and is a motifs into the architecture. The nature’s influence and metaphor for the material world, water, and capitals. tendency in the naming and patterning of Xowun deco- The downward triangle represents man and power rations can be observed. (Roach 2008), a concept rooted in ancient Iranian thought. Additionally, this motif was used in Islamic architecture. In some cases, the decorations with Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 16 of 20 The geometry associated with animals Ali, and Bismillah (in the name of God) inscriptions can "The geometry associated with animals, which plays a be counted in this case. significant role in naming Xowun decorations, was devel - The examples of designs with religious patterns can oped to be similar to the forms found in nature" (Mogh- be seen in the courtyard of Koohinejad House (Fig. 12), adamnia Dezfuli Zand 2020, personal interview in 2020). the entrance of Qalambor House, the courtyard of Adasi u Th s, motifs such as the cow’s eye, the fishbone, the bee - House, etc. Also, religious and non-religious motifs can tle, the monkey head, and the pigeon breast can be used be examined in examples such as the entrance of Jafar as examples. Khan Sohrabi’s house, Qalambor courtyard, Nilsaz house The examples of these designs can be seen in the court - entrance, etc. yard of Koohinejad House, Ashraf koochak courtyard, The Bismillah motifs have been used in two distinct gardener courtyard, Bozi Bozorg house (Fig. 11) , Qalam- injunctive and combined configurations. Traditionally, the bor courtyard, etc. entire motif was devoted to religious decorations and divine The cow’s eye was created due to social beliefs con - names in injunctive motifs. Thus, this motif reflects the reli - siderations and is included in this category due to its gious quality and beliefs of the residents. However, a portion resemblance to the eyes of a cow. The fishbone is another of the decoration in combined motifs is reserved for religious animal motif derived from the skeleton of a fish. The patterns and is displayed in the form of an inscription or a motif, like the fishbone, has elongated proportions. part of the Xowun decorations. Specific motifs derive from The beetle motif was created due to the insect’s body’s non-religious beliefs. The cow’s eye is one of these motifs. similarity to the geometry of Xowun decorations, and it Historically, people regarded the cow as a valuable animal serves as a symbol of natural creatures in decorations. and believed that the cow’s eyes could act as a protective tal- "The monkey head is another animal motif that was cre - isman against natural disasters. Hence, the cow eye motif in ated due to the similarity between the geometry of the Xowun decorations represents protection and safety from Xowun decorations and the margins of the monkey’s disasters. face" (Hossinzadeh Kohsari 2020, personal interview in The patterns used in this category of Xowun decora - 2020). Table 4 summarizes these motifs. tions are derived from social beliefs, both religious and The naming of Xowun decoration patterns after ani - non-religious, and have similarly influenced the naming mals demonstrates the value placed on vitality and fresh- of ornaments. These patterns are utilized both directly ness by other living things and members of society who and indirectly and are symbolically represented. On the influence their thought processes. They were used as one hand, direct patterns with holy names were created, symbolic patterns in Xowun decoration ornaments and while in the group of indirect patterns, motifs were used given animal-like names. to convey a belief narrative through the decorative body. u Th s, formed thoughts and their consequences can be The religious and belief motifs viewed as symbolic motifs. Another factor influencing the Xowun decorations’ name is the motifs derived from religious and non-religious Motifs derived from the implementation and construction beliefs (Table 5). Decorative types such as Ali motifs, four technique Finally, the origin names deduced from implementation techniques are presented (Table 6). The origin of the name Xowun decorations in this group is based on their implementation method and their simplicity or difficulty. For instance, the motifs of vertical sleeping, suspended, simple flower, and simple Ali can be mentioned. These designs can be studied in the entrance of the por - celain house, the inner body of the Golchin courtyard, the entrance and courtyard of the Moezzi house, the entrance of the Mujahid house, the courtyard of Ziaei, the entrance of Tahmasebi house, the courtyard of Adl house and the Mirza Ebrahimi house (Fig. 13). The vertical sleeping motif was created by vertically arranging bricks. This motif is a technique for empha - sizing motifs and can be classified as part of this group Fig. 12 Chahar-Ali-Gol-Dar Xowun in Kohinejad house. Source: (Shahpasand Zadeh 2016). Another motif, hanging, MCHT of Dezful emphasizes the method of implementation, which is S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 17 of 20 Table 7 Xowun decorations and essential components Pattern/aspects Geometric pattern Pattern of combined Belief and religious Pattern related to plants Animalrelated pattern Pattern influenced by geometries model and nature construction technique Forms used in designs Geometric Geometric-non-geometric Geometric—non-geomet- Geometric-non-geometric Geometric-non-geo- Geometric and non-geo- ric—written metric metric The hidden concept in Discipline and Mathemat- Modernization of designs The religion and historical Naturalism in order to cre- Living organisms and Presenting methods and the motif ics and creating new patterns and cultural traditions ate vitality and freshness creating dynamics techniques of pattern design Rate of use of the motif 11.38% 11.38% 11.47% 40.65% 4.87% 20.34% Case study Xowun in Adl house Xowun in Kohi Nejad house Xowun in Nilsaz house Xowun in Bozi Bozorg Xowun in Bozi Bozorg Xowun in Azarbad house house house Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 18 of 20 Table 8 The influence of social beliefs and beliefs in different decorative groups Social beliefs Pattern Description Geometric - The square and rhombus symbol of the earth, which is related to the number 4 - The circle pattern is a symbol of humanity and a mirror of the universe - Cross motifs are a symbol of growth and fertility, which also emphasizes the number 4 and its related concepts - The downward triangle is the concept of man and his power, and the zigzag forms are a symbol of holy moun- tains and waves Combined geometries - The use of the candle pattern with the concept of sanctity and ritual thinking is considered in the society’s thought - Chain patterns are a symbol of unity and integrity Belief and Religious In the group of religious thoughts: - Objective use of religious names such as Bismillah, Muhammad, Ali, etc In the group of non-religious beliefs: - Attention to the eye pattern that protects people from natural disasters and problems Related to plants and nature - The role of the wave, which is reminiscent of a pattern in nature - The flower pattern, which is inspired by plants and flowers in nature and has a variety of patterns - The role of grape clusters, which have been used as a natural element in motifs Animal-related - The role of the cow’s eye, which is influenced by people’s attention to the cow as a valuable animal - The role of monkey and cockroach, which was chosen because of the similarity of the pattern to them, and is a symbol of life and living nature in architecture Influenced by construction technique - The role of the cow’s eye, which is influenced by people’s attention to the cow as a valuable animal - The role of monkey and cockroach, which was chosen because of the similarity of the pattern to them, and is a symbol of life and living nature in architecture derived from hanging objects. The implemented motif implementation and ability to demonstrate the quality of can convey the designer’s thoughts in this instance. In Xowun decorations. motifs such as simple Ali or simple flower, the visual qual - Patterns in this category are considered experimental ity that distinguishes simple from complex motifs can be concepts in pattern composition and design. Thus, the considered. Some motifs were created for their applica- designer’s mindset when developing the role of Xowun bility, while others were created for their simplicity of decoration can be interpreted symbolically. However, the names of these designs are directly related to their complexity and simplicity, the pattern’s placement, the arrangement of the bricks, and the num- ber of designs. The rate at which each role is used is calculated using the distribution in various species. This rate includes religious motifs with 14 patterns equaling 11.47%, plant motifs with 50 patterns equaling 40.65%, animal motifs with 6 patterns equaling 4.87%, construction technique-influenced designs with 25 patterns equaling 20.34%, geometric patterns with 14 patterns equaling 11.38%, and geometric compositional patterns with 14 patterns equaling 11.38%. Conclusion The Xowun’s patterns and hidden thoughts have been analyzed, indicating the existence of a shared language between generations and members of society. There - fore, we can refer to the various decorative categories to which include Geometric, religious, plant-related, ani- mal-related, combined geometric groups, and patterns influenced by construction techniques are all examples of brick patterns. Fig. 13 Gol-E-Bozorg Xowun in Mirza Ebrahimi house. Source: MCHT of Dezful S arrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 19 of 20 animal- and plant-related motifs have been created through the use of naturalism’s structure and the integra- tion of architecture and nature. These motifs permeate the decorative body and infuse the populace with vital- ity. Finally, the patterns influenced by the construction technique are derived from the technical and executive structures of the designs, which are an expression of the Step 1 traditional performers’ creativity, art, and skill. The elements influencing in the naming of Xowun decorations are influenced by society’s ideas and intellec - tual structures and show attachment to motifs, creating a common language between generations and connecting motifs with society’s thoughts. Xowun decoration motifs effectively create comfort and tranquility in society through patterns, symbolizing Step 2 societal values and people’s satisfaction with decorative motifs. The relationship between Xowun patterns and community thinking has been effective in naming them, which can be seen in the influence of thoughts and simi - les of the name of the decoration and the roles used. Therefore, the strong relationship between decora - tive motifs and society’s thoughts can be considered as a quality of religious aspects and social beliefs of society Step 3 that have led to the naming of architectural patterns. As a result, the continuation and use of the name of decorative motifs in the architecture of this city represents the qual- ity of architecture on the lives of people in the society. The effective social aspects can be considered the hid - den concepts used in the Xowun patterns (Table 8), which include the application of order and mathemat- Fig. 14 Simplification steps in brick decoration for contemporary ics, attention to the implementation method and pat- architecture terns derived from the skill and expertise of architectural masters, religious ideas and non-religious influence on the formation of decorative patterns, inspiration from nature and the living beings in creating vitality and fresh- The most decorative patterns are related to plant and ness, considering innovation and creating new combined nature with 40% and the least amount of motifs is animal designs with each other. related pattern with 8%. Each of these patterns is based Based on this, the use of decorations in today’s archi- on a specific concept, as described in Table 7. Therefore, tecture can be improved by simplifying decorations and we can refer to each of them as having a hidden spe- reusing them, which is shown in Fig. 14. cies. An example of each of them is presented in Table 7 This technique can be used with the help of geometric to better express the issue in different types of Xowun simplification, simplification in the materials used and decoration. even the use of simple patterns with other materials. The The Geometric patterns are ordered thought struc - simplified pattern creates a different effect by combining tures that mathematics and predefined geometries create. it with simple surfaces that can be raised or hollow. This contrasts with how Xowun decoration in composite geometries have been developed from a broader perspec- Acknowledgements Not applicable. tive and outside the basic framework. This meta-thinking through the use of combined motifs is accompanied by Author contributions establishing intellectual frameworks, combining multi- SA arranged the analysis, a part of the result, a part of the conclusions, and a part of the research literature. DI arranged a part of the research literature, a ple roles, and creating patterns derived from natural and part of the result, and the introduction. VA arranged the methodology and a artificial geometries. part of the conclusions. However, all sections of the article are based on the Religious and doctrinal motifs form a group influ - opinions of the authors, which are approved by them. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. enced by society’s beliefs and adherence. Additionally, Sarrafzadeh et al. City, Territory and Architecture (2023) 10:7 Page 20 of 20 Funding Shahpasan Zadeh B (2016) Brick as an identify element in iranaian Islamic Not applicable. architecture. research paper at the brick and brickwork in Iranian Art and Architecture Conference, Azad University, Dezful. Availability of data and materials Not applicable. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- Declarations lished maps and institutional affiliations. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Received: 23 January 2022 Accepted: 28 December 2022 References Adkinson R (2009) Sacred symbols, people, religions, mysteries. Thames & Hudson, London Alizade D, Zarghami E (2014) Assessment and study of brick tombs in Dezful. 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City Territory and Architecture – Springer Journals
Published: Mar 4, 2023
Keywords: Geometry; Name of Xowun decorations; Documentation; Historic house; Dezful
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