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Sodium-ion battery from sea salt: a review

Sodium-ion battery from sea salt: a review The electrical energy storage is important right now, because it is influenced by increasing human energy needs, and the battery is a storage energy that is being developed simultaneously. Furthermore, it is planned to switch the lithium-ion bat- teries with the sodium-ion batteries and the abundance of the sodium element and its economical price compared to lithium is the main point. The main components anode and cathode have significant effect on the sodium battery performance. This review briefly describes the components of the sodium battery, including the anode, cathode, electrolyte, binder, and separa- tor, and the sources of sodium raw material is the most important in material synthesis or installation. Sea salt or NaCl has potential ability as a raw material for sodium battery cathodes, and the usage of sea salt in the cathode synthesis process reduces production costs, because the salt is very abundant and environmentally friendly as well. When a cathode using a source of Na CO , which was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 16.66% after being calculated and anode 2 3 with sodium metal when synthesized independently with NaCl can save about 98% after being calculated, because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter. Keywords Energy storage · Battery · Sodium-ion · Sea salt Introduction As a result, energy research and development has become a well-known topic and a major goal in world achievements. Researchers have established renewable resources usage as The development of renewable power generation is part of the Paris Agreement [1, 2]. The agreement aims to inseparable from the importance of reliable and efficient reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to restrict the incre- energy storage technology [4]. Energy storage devices con- ment in global temperatures in 2 °C above per-industrial vert electrical energy into several forms that can be stored levels while pursuing ways to limit the increment in 1.5 °C and released when they are used [5]. The energy storage [3]. To achieve this goal, the obligation for transition from system increases the reliability of the electricity supply by fossil energy to clean energy is conducted to get a better life. storing electricity during off-peak hours and releasing dur - ing on-peak hours [6]. Several types of these devices include * Agus Purwanto Kiwi Aliwarga aguspurwanto@staff.uns.ac.id kiwi.aliwarga@umgroups.com Anisa Raditya Nurohmah Hendri Widiyandari anisaradityan@student.uns.ac.id hendriwidiyandari@staff.uns.ac.id Shofirul Sholikhatun Nisa Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Sebelas shofirulsnisa@student.uns.ac.id Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia Khikmah Nur Rikhy Stulasti Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural khikmahnur@student.uns.ac.id Science, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia Cornelius Satria Yudha Center of Excellence for Electrical Energy Storage, corneliussyudha@staff.uns.ac.id Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia Windhu Griyasti Suci UMG Idealab, Jakarta, Indonesia windhugriya@staff.uns.ac.id Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 72 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 1 Global battery demand from 2020 to 2030 [1] secondary batteries, compressed air energy storage (CAES), “consumer use” and contain features and functionalities that electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC), flywheels, were previously inaccessible. superconductive magnetic energy storage (SMES), fuel Electric vehicles will progressively use lithium-ion bat- cells, and thermometric energy storage (TEES) [5]. Sec- teries as an environmentally acceptable form of transporta- ondary batteries have a long-life cycle, flexible power, high tion, which is predicted to grow dramatically [16]. However, round-trip efficiency, and easy maintenance among these the main source of batteries, namely lithium, is a challenge energy storage devices. Secondary batteries will be good for the future because it is a finite metal source. Accord- energy storage technology when integrated with renewable ing to US geological surveys, it is estimated that worldwide resources. Furthermore, the compact size of the battery is lithium resources can meet market demand by 2100 [17]. suitable to be used in distribution network locations [7]. The Sodium is found in the form of brine and seawater, counted challenge is that some portable devices, i.e. mobile phones, for 61.8% of the world's total (26.9 Mt), especially in the laptops, digital cameras, and drones, turn out more expen- USA, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and China. The remainder is sive because of the batteries [8]. To get the desired specifi- in mineral form about 16.7 Mt [18]. However, actual demand cations, selecting the type of battery is the main point. The may exceed this forecast demand coupled with hard-to-find type of battery chosen is undoubtedly related to the produc- lithium sources  [17]. New sources of lithium are being tion cost, which is dominated by the material, about 70% of explored, both primary sources from mining and secondary the total cost [9]. sources from recycled active materials. It is possible that The Lithium-ion battery (LIB) contains the most expen- the LIB will not be able to cross the growing demand [19]. sive material but has many advantages [10]. High power The new battery source that is more readily available in density, high energy efficiency, and being environmentally nature and less expensive is the sodium-ion battery (SIB). friendly are the main advantages of this battery [11–13]. Several studies have been carried out, therefore SIB can be The research on LIB was conducted in 1970–1980s and an alternative to LIB for large-scale production [20]. From Sony became a successful pioneer in the commercializa- an economic point of view, SIB can compete with LIB in tion in 1991 [14]. The most important component of the terms of price, as explained by Peters et al. [21]. In the same LIB is the electrode (cathode and anode), the separator and cell, such as the 18,650-round cell, the SIB is cheaper than the electrolyte. Commercial anodes in commercial LIB are the LIB with an LFP/NMC cathode. generally made of graphite, which can easily diffuse Li ions As the main source of SIB, sodium is the lightest metal over thousands of cycles. Since this battery is used widely, and the second smallest after lithium [22]. Geographically, especially for electric vehicles and consumer use, its pro- compared to the limited lithium, the availability of sodium is duction increases every year [15]. As shown in Fig. 1, the more abundant. Sodium can be resourced from both seawater application of batteries has grown rapidly and is expected and the earth’s crust. In seawater, the sodium concentration to increase simultaneously. The applications, which include is 10,800 ppm compared to the lithium concentration of only portable devices such as video cameras, PCs, mobile phones, 0.1–0.2 ppm [23]. Similarly in the earth’s crust, 2.8% sodium and a variety of other electronic gadgets, are designated as is provided [24], whereas lithium is only 0.002–0.006% [25]. 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 73 The high gap in availability further strengthens sodium as Table 1 Comparison of basic characteristic of Li and Na metals a raw material for new battery materials. Sodium sources Comparison Li Na can be reached from various compounds such as Na CO , 2 3 Atomic mass 6.941 22.99 NaCH COO, NaCl and N aNO . Most of the sodium salt 3 3 Ionic radius (Å) 1.45 1.80 can be produced using NaCl or saline salt. As the main −3 Density (kg m ) 534 968 SIB source, sea salt (NaCl) from seawater can be the main SHE versus Std reduction potential (V) -3.038 -2.712 candidate  [26, 27] due to its abundant compounds and Gravimetric capacity (mAh/g) 3829 1165 not geographically limited. NaCl can be activated into an –3 Volumetric capacity (mAhcm ) 2062 1131 electrode by inducing it electrochemically in a crystalline Abundance in Earth encrustation(%) 0.002 2.358 structure [26]. NaCl has been used in several components Equivalent mass abundance in Earth encrus- 0.00288 1.0265 of sodium-ion batteries, including electrolyte [28, 29], as tation (mol/kg) a raw material for electrodes and electrode doping  [30]. Price ($/kg) 17.00 0.15 Nowadays, the challenge in developing SIB is selecting the suitable electrode type. This review examines SIB as an alternative to LIB for Similar as LIB, an SIB cell consists of a cathode, anode, the future secondary battery using NaCl potential as a raw material especially from seawater. Seawater is processed in and electrolyte. The cathode in SIB is made of a substance that can absorb Na cations reversibly at voltages significantly such a way into sea salt (NaCl) which is ready to use for production. NaCl can be used directly as raw material for higher than 2 V positive for Na metal. The best anodes are those with low voltages (less than 2 V vs. Na). The active SIB or processed into intermediate raw materials for SIB, such as Na CO or NaNO . Details on the seawater potential cathode material commonly used is NaFeO and the nega- 2 3 3 tive electrode or anode is hard carbon. Throughout charg- for the SIB component, its challenges, and future projections are discussed in the next section. ing, the cathode (NaFeO ) will donate electrons to the external circuit, which can cause oxidation for the transi- Sodium‑ion battery tion metal. Some of the added sodium atoms dissolve as ions in the electrolyte to maintain charge neutrality. They A sodium-ion battery (SIB) is one of the options for LIB. travel to the anode (hard carbon) and are incorporated into the structure to restore charge neutrality to the site, which Because of the comparatively high amount of sodium sources in the earth's encrustation and seawater, as well as its was disrupted by electrons transmitted and absorbed from the cathode side. During discharge, the procedure is iterated relatively inexpensive manufacturing costs, SIB has recently gained a lot of interest as a promising commercial choice in the opposite direction. This complete cycle of reactions happens in a closed system. Each electron produced dur- for large-scale energy storage systems [20]. Furthermore, because sodium belongs to the same periodic table group ing oxidation is consumed in the reduction reaction at the opposite electrode [32]. Figure 2 shows the entire procedure as lithium and has similar physicochemical qualities, SIB's operating mechanism is extremely similar to LIB's [7]. diagrammatically. The specific capacity, cyclic stability, and rate perfor - Lithium and sodium are parts of the periodic table's ele- ments in group 1. They are known as alkali metals, because mance of the SIB need to be improved for commercializa- tion. The electrochemical effect is influenced by the elec- their valence shell has one loosely held electron. As a result, alkali metals are extremely reactive, hardness, conductivity, trode material used in cell manufacturing. The primary challenge is discovering an electrode material with a high melting point, and initial ionization energy fall as their pro- gress through the group [31]. Table 1 summarizes some of and stable specific capacitance, minimal volume change during charge/discharge cycles, and adequate current per- the characteristics of sodium and lithium that interest in their development. The redox potential of the two alkali elements formance  [33]. Increasing the energy density of SIB can be achieved by enhancing the cathode’s working voltage is one of the most important things to compare. The standard Na /Na reduction potential vs. SHE is − 2.71 V, which is or decreasing the anode’s working potential, increasing the capacity of specific electrodes, and generating solid-particle roughly 330 mV higher than Li /Li, which is − 3.04 V. SIB's anodic electrode potential will always be greater than LIB's materials [19]. Another major challenge related to plated cathode materials is their hygroscopic properties after expo- since this potentially specifies a thermodynamics minimum for the anode. However, because the ionic radius of Na sure to air, leading to poor cell performance and ultimately increasing transportation costs [34]. Due to some of these (1.02) is much larger than that of Li (0.76), finding suitable crystalline host materials for N a with sufficient capacity challenges, it is necessary to have a stable material towards the air exposure to produce good cell performance. and cycling stability may be more difficult [19]. 1 3 74 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 2 Working Mechanism of Sodium-Ion Batteries [2] cell, by sticking up a steel gauze diaphragm between the Na‑containing anode materials anode and cathode. The function of the diaphragm is for reducing the mixing of the anode and cathode products Many types of anodes have been developed by researchers, when traverse the electrolyte [38]. including sodium metal, oxide-based, carbon-based, alloys, David S. Peterson in 1966, got sodium metal by elec- and convention anodes. They have a relatively low irrevers- trolysis in a mixture of molten salt which consist of ible capacity, and most of their capacities are potentially 28–36% sodium chloride (NaCl), 23–35% calcium chloride close to that of sodium metal. The metal insertion mecha- (CaCl ), 10–25% strontium chloride (SrCl), and 13–30% nism of sodium is nearly identical to that of lithium [35]. barium chloride (BaCl ) [26] takes pure NaCl as the SIB Sodium metal has been studied by many researchers as electrode. NaCl is a non-metallic compound, so when it the negative electrode in sodium-ion batteries [36, 37]. is used as an electrode, it must be metalized, i.e. it must Due to its high density, it has a good anode for energy stor- be electromagnetically active for a reversible cycle. The age applications in the post lithium-ion battery era because −1 metallization process can be led at high temperatures, as of its large capacity (1166 mAhg ), availability on earth, described above, or by induction. During the induction and inexpensive cost. However, sodium metal anodes suf- process, an electrochemical before filling up to 4.2 V was fer from inconsistent plating, stripping and, therefore, it brought out as an activation cycle. This process generates a cause a low Coulombic efficiency [37]. The large reactiv - partial transition from phase B1 to B2-NaCl. Furthermore, ity of sodium metal with organic electrolyte solvents and the release process of about 0.1 V was done, therefore, the production of dendrites during Na metal deposition Na was intercalated into the active compound. During are even more troublesome, and the low melting point of the release process, the B2-NaCl phase can accommodate Na (98 °C) poses a considerable safety hazard in devices Na and form N a Cl compounds, x > 1. The reactions that intended for operation at room temperatures [19]. Tang occur are as follows et al. devised a method of "sodiophilic" coating an Au-Na alloy onto a Cu substrate that works as a current collector B2 − NaCl + xNa → Na + Cl (1) 1 x to drastically minimize the propensity for nucleation over abundant to address this challenge. This coating signifi- The phase change from B1 to B2 is the key to the cantly increases the coulombic efficiency of Na coating reversible process, therefore it can intensify the ionic and and stripping. NaCl allows to be used as a source of Na in electrochemical conductivity. Na metal in NaCl can revers- this layer [37]. NaCl has been used in several components ibly intercalate/deintercalate up to a discharge capacity of −1 of sodium-ion batteries, including anode component and 267 mAhg [26]. The success of NaCl as an electrode is sodium metal. Sodium metal is usually produced by elec- shown in Fig. 3. trolysis of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the liquid state at the 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 75 Fig. 3 Galvanostatic profile of NaCl electrodes a intercalation and vated NaCl electrodes at 0.05 C. c Performance of the NaCl cycle. d deintercalation of sodium through the NaCl structure with and with- Voltammetry curve of the NaCl electrode at 0.1  mV / s in a sodium out an activation cycle at 0.03 C. b Charge–discharge profile of acti- half cell [5] Oxide-based materials have also been developed as well, cathode in an aqueous NaCl electrolyte for the deionization as anodes in sodium-ion batteries, such as (NTP), NaTi of seawater as an aqueous energy storage system. During the (PO ), Na Ti O and its composites with carbon, which charging process, the sodium ions in the electrolyte are elec- 4 3 2 3 7 have been studied by several researchers [29, 39]. The three- trochemically caught into the NaTi (PO ) electrode while 2 4 3 dimensional structure of NTP, which creates an open frame- the chloride ions are captured and interacted with the silver work of large interstitial spaces modified with NMNCO, with electrode to generate AgCl. The discharge causes the release rate capability and cycle stability is increasing, because a of sodium and chloride ions from the corresponding elec- better structure can ensure stability between the phases [40]. trode. This will greatly contribute to more energy-efficient A similar study was conducted by Hou using NTP / C com- seawater desalination technology in the future [29]. posites with water-based electrolytes to achieve an energy SIB anodes have been reported to feature three different density of 0.03 Wh / g and a colombic efficiency close to types of energy storage mechanisms such as intercalation 100%, due to the three-dimensional structure of NTP with reactions, conversion reactions, and alloying reactions. This an open framework and uniform nanoparticle shape [41]. mechanism occurs during sodiation and desodiation [31]. NTP / C composites were also studied by Nakamoto using In SIB, carbon compounds are similarly subjected to the several types of electrolytes and Na FeP O cathodes [42]. intercalation mechanism. Graphitic, hard carbon, and gra- 2 2 7 Chen et al. (2018) succeeded in manufacturing a desalina- phene are three types of carbon materials that are one of the tion battery consisting of a NaTi (PO ) anode and a silver most potential anodes for SIBs due to their excellent charge/ 2 4 3 1 3 76 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 discharge voltage plateaus and low price [43]. Graphite is obstacle to commercialization [44]. Their stability must also the most widely used anode material in LIB, with a capacity be increased by the development of advanced structures or −1 of 372 mAhg . Graphite is not suitable for sodium-based interfacial electrode/electrolyte adjustment. Alloying anodes systems, because Na almost does not form gradual graphite with advanced composite and nanostructures have been intercalation compounds and the radius size of Na is larger shown to have high capacity and cycling stability [51]. than Li, which means Na ions cannot enter the graphite [44]. Conversion anodes are a typical way to make a high- To overcome this limitation, Yang et al. created expanded capacity SIB anode. P, S, O, N, F, Se, and other conversion graphite (EG) with a 4.3 interlayer lattice spacing by oxidiz- elements are examples. The components must be paired with ing and reducing some of the graphite. The long-range layer metal or non-metal materials as a partial SIB anode, where structure of EG is similar to that of graphite. They showed the alloy metal's discharge product can give high conduc- that Na may be absorbed into and removed from EG in a tivity while also shielding the alloying discharge product reversible manner [45]. from agglomeration [40]. Conversion anodes has obstacles Hard carbon has a lot of potential as SIB anodes because in its implementation such as volume expansion, poor cycle of its substantial intercalation capacity, low charge/discharge stability, and crushing during the charge–discharge pro- voltage plateaus, and low-cost methods of preparation [44]. cess, all of which are significant impediments to practical The application of hard carbon as a sodium battery anode implementation [44]. Fortunately, nano-engineering of the was investigated by Alcantara. Sodium can be inserted alloying anode material can solve this volume change. Nano- reversibly in amorphous and non-porous hard carbon, result- engineering approaches can help to increase the cycling ing in a high irreversible capacity in the first cycle due to the performance of alloying anodes. Combining alloying and carbon surface area [46] Furthermore, due to its wide mid- conversion elements is another key method for improving dle layer, adequate operating voltage, and inexpensive cost, the capacity and stability of these materials. These anodes hard carbon can be utilized as anode material for sodium-ion have good cycling performance thanks to the synergism of batteries. However, poor ec ffi iency and initial colombic per - conversion and alloying products. Combining alloying or formance remain a problem [47]. NaCl can also be combined conversion anodes with carbonaceous materials has been as an additive on hard carbon to become the anode. The proven to be an excellent strategy for producing an extremely electrochemical properties of hard carbon can be improved stable alloying or conversion anode [52]. + − by intercalating NaCl. N a and Cl can intercalate into the coating at high temperature and pressure, therefore the load Na‑containing cathode materials transfer resistance can decrease sharply. With the addition of this NaCl, the capacity of the SIB can be increased to One of the needful components in a sodium battery is the 100% [48]. cathode. However, its development is relatively slow. There- The capacity of graphene-based carbon materials is fore, developing suitable cathode materials with high capaci- higher than that of hard carbon. However, the density of tap ties and voltages is essential to develop the energy density −3 graphene is often less than 1.0 g  cm , far lower than that of the SIB. Several cathode materials have been developed of hard carbon, lowering graphene’s volumetric capacity. by many researchers such as layered transition metal oxide, Due to the substantially higher outer surface area compared sodium poly anion compound, prussian blue, sulfur and to hard carbon, these low ICEs are almost unsolvable. SIB air, and other organic compounds. Nowdays, layered metal anodes have been developed that combine graphene with oxides (Na MO , 0 < x < 1, M = Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, Ni, etc.) x 2 conversion/alloy anodes to generate bi-functional electrodes. and poly anion-type materials have been the most impor- Due to the synergistic effect, graphene can be combined tant thing for studying cathodes in SIB [31]. In the 1970s, with other electroactive materials, such as metals (or metal Delmas et al. found the electrochemical characteristics and oxides), to supply much greater storage capacities and better structural of Na insertion in N aCoO as a viable cathode cycle stability than metal samples (or metal oxides) [49]. material for SIB, which prompted more research [53]. Other Sodium can form alloys with elements such as Si, Ge, Pb, Sn, Sb, P, and Bi so that it can be used as a SIB anode. Single atoms of these elements can form an alloy with more Table 2 Types of cathode structures than one Na at an average working potential with less than Difference Type O3 Type P2 1 Volt for Na/Na . Alloying anodes have large specific Na ion position the octahedral site [22] the prismatic site between capacities, and advanced composite nanostructure alloying the transition metal anodes offer good capacity and cycle stability [50]. Dur - oxide layers [22] ing the sodiation phase, however, there is a significant vol- Phase Na MO phase [22] Na MO [22] 1 2 1-x 2 ume growth. Furthermore, during long-term cycling, they Strenght Hight capacity [22] Energetically stable [52] are constantly pulverized, which creates a considerable 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 77 Fig. 4 Structure of a O3- b P2 TMO cathode is sodium coated (sodium atom is yellow, the oxygen atom is red, the transi- tion metal is blue) [3] layered oxides of 3d transition metals such as N a CrO [54], 3.5 V, the material undergoes irreversible structural changes x 2 Na FeO [55], and Na MnO [56], were studied further in [58]. x 2 x 2 the early 1980s. These investigations were limited to 3.5 V NaMnO for cathode application was examined by Mend- +/ versus Na Na during that period and due to the electro- iboure et al. on NaMnO premise an impractical low revers- −1 lyte's instability in the beginning cycles [57]. Based on the ible capacity of 54 mAhg [56]. Caballero et al. synthesize −1 nomenclature suggested by Delmas et al. in 1980., the lay- P2-Na MnO and gain a reversible capacity of 140 mAhg 0.6 2 ered TMOs prototype can be described in terms of N a MO and incredible thermal stability [62]. NaNiO and NaCrO 1-x 2 2 2 (0 < x < 1, M is a transition metal), and has two distinct types are also appointed as postulant electrode materials for SIB. of structures which are presented in Table  2 about types The electrode NaCrO was synthesized by Komaba et al. by −1 of cathode structures. The structural form of the layered capacity of 120 mAhg in the first cycle. Vassilaras et al. TMO consists of P2-type or O3-type which is depicted in defined the electrochemical characteristics of O ′3-NaNiO −1 Fig. 4. The letters “P” and “O” stand for prismatic and octa- as a capacity of 120 mAhg . Substitution part of Fe with hedral, respectively, denoting the lattice site inhabited by either Mn [58], Co [63], or Ni [63, 64] has attested to be alkali ion, while the numbers “2” and “3” denote the number a successful technique for dealing with structural changes of layers or stacks in a repetition unit of the TMO crystal and increasing storage capacity while keeping material costs structure [58]. down. NaCoO is the oldest form of TMO cathode insertion Other important type of cathode material is poly-anionic material for SIB, having been investigated in the 1980s [53]. compounds. The most popular learning of poly-anionic 3− 2− Research on NaCoO was conducted by Ding et al. showed a groups contain phosphate (PO4) , sulfate (SO4) ,and 4− poor cycle life of around 100 cycles [59]. In their investiga- pyrophosphate (P2O7) ions [65]. The most productive tion of P2-Na CoO , Fang et al. increased the electrochem- structures in the poly-anionic compounds family are the 0.7 2 ical performance from 300 cycles and 86% initial capacity maricite, olivine, and NASICON [65]. In the case of SIB, retention. [60]. In general, NaCoO has a excellent voltage maricite type N aFePO is the thermodynamic stable. How- 2 4 stability,high rate capability, and a large range of revers- ever, at temperatures above 450 °C, olivine-type NaFePO ible sodium contents in its many polymorphs [60]. Despite change into maricite type N aFePO . Analogous to car- this, it has a oblique voltage profile and has a inclination for bonophosphates and Na Fe (PO ) (P O), Na MePO CO 4 3 4 2 2 7 3 4 3 reacting with electrolytes containing NaPF  [61]. The high (where Me = Fe or Mn), has also been observed [66]. A cost of Co, on the other hand, is a major impediment to the promising poly-anionic carbonophosphate cathode material widespread use of all Co-based electrode materials. has been identified as the Mn compound. However, elec- In the 1980s, Tekeda et al. were prepared NaFeO through trode tuning to reduce capacity loss by 50% in the initial −1 solid-state method at 700 °C. In their examination of the cycles (from 200 to 100 mAhg ) is required to attain its effect of cutoff voltage on electrode performance, Yabu- full potential. Besides, the rate performance is unimpres- uchi et al. discovered that N aFeO has capacity of 80–100 sive [67]. However, the observed reasonable capacity storage −1 mAhg . For a cutoff voltage of 3.4 V, the electrode barely is adequate to generate optimization in this material [31]. manages excellent capacity. When the cutoff voltage exceeds 1 3 78 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Table 3 Several Na sources for Sodium Battery Cathode therefore, it is necessary to develop a transition metal based on cathode to make it more stable. Source Na Cathode References Besides being an additional raw material, NaCl can be Na O NaNi Co Fe O [59] 2 1/3 1/3 1/3 2 formed in other compounds, as shown in Table 3, and there- Na CO Na MnO [94] 2 3 0.44 2 fore, it can be used for SIB cathodes. The source of the raw Na CO a-NaMnO [81] 2 3 2 material generally used is N a CO , which requires a process 2 3 NaCl Na MnFe(CN) [68] 2 6 to alter NaCl into Na CO . Synthesis of Na CO according 2 3 2 3 NaCH COO NaTi (PO ) /C [68] 3 2 4 3 to the solvay process with table salt, therefore it is more Na CO NaMnO [70] 2 3 2 environmentally friendly in the equation below [70]: Na CO β-NaMnO [83] 2 3 2 2NH HCO + 2NaCl → 2NaHCO + 2NH Cl (2) 4 3 3 4 NaCH COO Na MnO [85] 3 0.44 2 NaCH COO Na FeP O [86] 3 2 2 7 The recovered sodium bicarbonate can be altered to car- NaCH COO NaMnO [95] 3 2 bonate (soda-ash) by the arts skill method, through calcifica- Na CO α-NaMnO [42] 2 3 2 tion (heating) at 170–190 °C. NaCH COO Silver nanoparticle [27] Na CO Na CoO [26] 2NaHCO → Na CO + CO + H O 2 3 0.71 2 3 2 3 2 2 (3) NaOH Na Mn O [69] 4 9 18 Na CO is gained. After that, it ready to use as raw mate- 2 3 Na CO Na FeP O [65] 2 3 2 2 7 rial for sodium-ion battery cathode. Na CO Na V (PO ) [96] 2 3 3 2 4 3 The sources of sodium can turn into NaNO as well and NaCl Na MnFe(CN) ·zH O [28] 2 6 2 some compounds can be reacted with NaCl to form N aNO (Na MnHFC) 2−δ with heterogeneous reactions at atmospheric pressure such NaNO Na [Mn Ni Co ]O [53] 3 0.67 0.65 0.15 0.2 2 (NaNMC) as [71]: NaCl as electrolyte Na-NiCl and Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl [89] 2 2 HNO (g) + NaCl(s) → HCl(g) + NaNO (s) (4) 3 3 Na O Na CoO [93] 2 x 2 NaCH COO·2H O P2-Na [Ni Mn ]O [84] 3 2 2/3 1/3 2/3 2 N O (g) + NaCl(s) → ClNO (g) + NaNO (s) Na COP2-type Na Ni -xZn Mn 7O [82] (5) 2 3 2 3 2 3 0.66 0.33 x 0.6 2 NaNO Na MnO [91] 3 0.44 2 NaNO Na MnO [51] ClONO g + NaCl s → Cl g + NaNO s 3 0.44 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (6) 2 2 3 Na CO , NaCl Na MnO [90] 2 3 0.44 2 Na CO β-NaAl Mn 0 [97] 2 3 x 1-× 2 2NO (g) + NaCl(s) → NOCl(g) + NaNO (s) (7) 2 3 NaNO Na LixFe Mn O [92] 3 0.6 0.2 0.8-x 2 NaI NaFePO [66] 4 The formation of NaNO from NaCl and HNO begins 3 3 with the recrystallization of NaCl using an ethanol–water mixture. The solid formed is filtered and dried to remove surface-bound H O. NaCl is formed from the precipita- tion process is not from porous. Dry HN O steam was prepared by mixing HNO and H SO . Furthermore, 3 2 4 NaCl can be utilized as an additional raw material in NaNO capping NaCl is produced by dry exposure and recrystallization of NaCl to dry HNO in a closed con- another compound cathode. In its pure form, NaCl is not considered to work properly. Yang et al. [68] synthesizes tainer [72]. Na Fe(CN) /NaCl as SIB cathode. NaCl has a part in 4 6 increasing the Na diffusion, therefore it improves the elec- Na‑containing electrolytes trochemical performance of pure N a Fe(CN) [68]. Moreo- 4 6 ver, it [69] also synthesized the Na MnFe(CN) cathode with As explained in the previous point, the presence of elec- 2 6 trolytes is very important in sodium batteries. The usage Na Fe(CN), NaCl and MnCl raw materials using the co-pre- 4 2 cipitation method using deionized water as a solvent. Using of electrolytes is also build upon the resistance of the elec- trode material used. Regarding of performance, electro- water-based electrolyte, such as 32K Na (Acetate), electro- chemical stability is gained and can use Al foil as a flux col- lytes specify the properties of ion transport and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The usage of electrolytes is also lector for the first time. Besides, the contact with NMHCF shows a clear dark yellow color shift from the production build upon the resistance of the electrode material used. Not only is ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability of iron hydroxide as a result of NMHCF decomposition, window, thermal and mechanical (for solid electrolytes) 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 79 strength, safety, economics, and ecology important when are sometimes too expensive for large-scale energy storage choosing an electrolyte, as well as the mechanism of its system [76]. interaction with electrode materials and the characteris- tics of the SEI produced [74]. For safety reasons, when 3. Inorganic solid electrolytes it comes to thermal runaway or cell breakdown, the cor- rect electrolyte can help reduce the chances of an explo- Solid electrolyte may be divided into two main categories sion [73]. Highly modified intercalation compounds used that is inorganic and organic solid electrolyte. Inorganic solid as anodes likely need a customized SEI to allow stable electrolytes shown a diverse group of crystalline ceramics for cycling in the cell, equal to the litigated graphite elec- and amorphous glasses. The primary goal of inorganic solid trodes in Li-ion systems [19]. Organic electrolytes, ionic electrolyte development is to solve safety concerns, while electrolytes, aqueous based electrolytes, inorganic solid also increasing energy density and also the flammability case electrolytes, and solid polymer electrolytes are among the of previous electrolyte. This electrolyte began to be devel- electrolytes utilized in sodium batteries. Each of the elec- oped due to its non-flammability, strong thermal stability, trolytes that are currently available is described below. mechanical qualities, and broad ESW. Sulfides, β-Alumina, NASICON, and Complex hydrides are examples of inor- 1. Organic electrolytes ganic solid electrolytes that have been discovered. Sulfides are known for their strong ionic conductivities, as well as Diluted sodium salt in organic solvent (ester based and their good mechanical characteristics and low grain-bound- ether based). First, linear carbonates (DMC, EMC, and ary resistances [74]. Because of its layered structure with DEC) and cyclic carbonates (EC and PC); second, ether- open galleries separated by pillars through which Na ions based organic solvents (diglyme and triglyme), which may easily move, β-Alumina has been employed as a rapid suppress dendritic formation, improve thermal stability, Na ion conductor. NASICON for their compositional vari- and lengthen the ESW [74]. Both sodium salt and solvent ety and exceptional performance. Complex hydrides have is important, the additive choice is important to improve a wide ESW and excellent thermal stability, although they the SIB performance (ester based). Organic solvents have have a poor ionic conductivity. several advantages, including a high dielectric constant (> Besides of their good thermal stability and mechanical 15) that promotes sodium salt dissociation, a low viscosity strength, there are some point that being major concern on that promotes N a migration, chemical and electrochemi- developing inorganic solid electrolyte. Which include poor cal stability to charged and discharged electrode materials interface contact, unfavourable chemical/electrochemical within a particular voltage range, the formation of sta- reaction with alkali metal, and solid-state electrolytes with ble passivation films on electrode surfaces, and it is also low thermodynamic and mechanical stability [77]. cost effective for commercial production [ 75]. However, organic electrolytes' flammability and instability at high 4. Solid polymer electrolyte temperatures are major challenges to practical usage [76] Nowadays, the electrolytes used widely for sodium bat- Organic solid electrolytes, which are mainly carbon- teries are N aClO, NaPF , dissoluble in carbonate-based based polymers containing heteroatoms like oxygen or 4 6 organic solvents, either made from a single solvent, such nitrogen capable of solvating embedded sodium ions, as polypropylene carbonate (PC), or a mixture of solvents. are another type of solid electrolyte. Solid polymer elec- trolytes are the subject of a lot of research because their 2. Ionic liquid electrolytes mechanical strength and process ability efficiently increase ionic conductivity and expand ESW. Differ from liquid Because some worse point of organic solvent, ionic liquid electrolyte that dissociated ions are easily move within being used to solve. Cations and anions are the sole constitu- the liquid, polymer electrolyte that contain no liquid, ions ents of ionic liquids, often identified as room-temperature in polymer electrolytes migrate via the polymer network molten salts or ambient-temperature melts. Many studies on itself. ionic liquid electrolytes have been led by their great thermal Some polymer that already developed is PEO, P(VDF- stability, no volatility, and broad Electrochemical Stability HFP), PMMA, PAN-based gel electrolytes. Liquid plas- Windows (ESWs) (up to 6 V), which offer high-quality ticizers, organic solvents, and salt solutions immobilized interfaces and good wetting qualities for separators. Further- inside polymer host matrices make up solid polymer elec- more, their uses have been limited to some extent because trolytes  [78]. Because the loss of quick Na ion transfer to their poor ionic conductivity and relatively high viscosity medium and interfacial compatibility during cycling has [65]. That is also because to the high costs of ingredients, a detrimental impact on SPE performance, high-viscosity manufacture, and purification, ionic liquid-based battery solvents must be used to solve the problem. SPEs have low 1 3 80 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 mechanical strength, which puts them at danger of dendritic electrode, and therefore, the solid acts as a catalyst. The penetration [76]. reaction mechanism in the formation of chlorides in per- chlorates is through the formation of hypochlorite, chlorite, 5. Aqueous-based electrolyte and chlorate compounds first. More specifically, the reaction mechanism is shown below [88]: The development of aqueous electrolytes for SIBs is On the anode surface: essential from the standpoints of sodium storage and inter- − − 2Cl → Cl + 2e (8) facial stability. Diluted sodium salt in aqueous solution. The electrolyte concentration is regarded as an important index − − − Cl + ClO → Cl O + 2e (9) for improving aqueous electrolytes because of its direct effects on ionic conductivity and rate performance. The − − − oxygen solubility decreases and becomes more stable as the Cl + ClO → Cl O + 2e 2 2 (10) electrolyte concentration rises. Because self-discharging is generated by oxygen that is not soluble in the electrolyte, the − − Cl + ClO → Cl O + 2e− 2 3 (11) higher the electrolyte concentration, the less self-discharging occurs. On the cathode surface: Because of their low cost and great safety, aqueous elec- 2H O + 2e → H + 2OH− (12) 2 2 trolytes are widely studied. Because of the kinetic impact, the practical stability window of the aqueous electrolyte is In an electrolyte solution: greater than the thermodynamic limit, allowing for the use of + − − a wider range of electrode materials in these systems. How- Cl OH → HOCl + Cl (13) ever, excessive salt concentrations cause corrosion. There is following aspect that can be considered to improve aqueous − − Cl O + OH → HO Cl + Cl (14) 2 2 electrolytes: such as combination of adequate sodium salts with an appropriate anion to build a stable and low-resist- − − Cl O + OH → HO Cl + Cl (15) 2 2 3 ance protective layer on the electrode surface; and inclusion of functional additives to increase interface stability and − − Cl O + OH → HO Cl + Cl (16) reduce side reactions in high-concentration electrolytes [76]. 2 3 4 Aqueous-based electrolyte or water used as a salt sol- + − vent has been studied deeply. The salt used are NaCl [29, HOCl → H + ClO (17) 79], Na SO [80–82], and CH COONa [69, 83, 84]. Water 2 4 3 electrolytes are promising candidates for an environmentally + − HO Cl → H + ClO (18) friendly SIB system due to long life and good performance, safe and low-cost SIB system for grid-scale applications + − HO Cl → H + ClO (19) [73]. Because of its high dielectric constant, low viscosity, 3 strong ionic conductivity, and low vapor pressure, water is + − an appealing choice as an ideal solvent for aqueous elec- HO Cl → H + ClO (20) trolytes, especially because of its inherent safety [79]. The majority of inorganic salts in aqueous electrolytes (such as NaClO have been widely used as sodium battery salt Na SO , NaCl) have no influence on the electrochemical sta-electrolyte. NaClO can be used in organic solvent or aque- 2 4 4 bility window [85]. Further development of NaCl as sodium ous solvent. The impact of extending the aqueous elec- salt electrolyte is really compromising, because the abun- trolyte's limited working potential window has also been dance of NaCl in the form of sea salt in the world. examined using aqueous Na-ion batteries with highly con- NaCl from sea salt has been one of promising point for centrated electrolytes [89]. sodium-ion battery development. In fact, NaCl can be used For Na in aqueous solutions below 5M, which the water separately as an electrolyte. As an electrolyte, NaCl is used molecules surpass the salt level, the solvation shell consists as an additive in the NaPF electrolyte. The concentration of at least two layers a closely related primary and a rela- used is about 0.19% and was reported to improve cycling tively loose secondary solvation shell, with the first Na ability  [86]. It can also be used as a raw material for the solvation layer usually contains 6 oxygen. However, when production of electrolytes by reacting with AlCl at 300°C, the salt concentration is above 9M, there are hardly enough and the electrolyte formed is NaAlCl [87]. Furthermore, water molecules available to form the "classic" primary sol- NaCl can be electrolyzed to become NaClO and the elec- vation sheath, and bring out "water-in-salt" solution then it trolysis process occurs on the solid surface, in the case an can be visualized as molten salt [90]. 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 81 Application of aqueous sodium-ion batteries suffer from Due to its great mechanical properties, high electrochemical its poor cycling stability, lower voltage window and corro- stability, thermal stability, good interaction with electrolyte sion due to high salt concentration. One of the solution to solutions, and the proven ability to make this feasible, PVDF widen the voltage window is focused on current collector. As has been the dominant binder in the battery industry for the a result, corrosion-resistant current collectors on the cathode transport of Li . The main damage of using PVDF are the and current collectors with a high hydrogen over potential on usage of toxic solvents during its processing and the poor the anode should be used to build high-voltage and long-life adhesion/consistency of power collectors [95]. sodium-ion batteries [79]. Another important external component in the operation of a battery is the binder that holds the electrode material Na‑containing other components to the current collector. The electrochemically active mass must be fastened to the current collector unless the elec- Separators, current collector, and binders are also important trode material is naturally self-standing and may be used components for SIB. Fiber glass is used as a separator in as a monolith anode. As briefly mentioned in the previous cells with electrolyte dissolved in PC solvent. The usage of point, corrosion-resistant current collectors on the cathode fiber glass can reduce the energy density lower build upon and current collectors with a high hydrogen over potential the weight or volume of SIB whole components [91]. Fiber on the anode should be used to develop sodium-ion batter- glass that composed of nonmetallic fibers have a melting ies with high voltage and longer life [79]. As a result, strong point more than 500 °C and excellent fire-resistance perfor - electronic conductivity and long-term viability in a certain mance. But it also has disadvantages such as bad flexibility, electrochemical environment are key parameters for the cur- mechanical strength and high cost. It makes the difficulty rent collector. It also does not have to be overly thick or in the assembly process and also bring great safety hidden heavy to avoid lowering the system's gravimetric and volu- danger in large-scale application [92]. Here is the require- metric energy densities [96]. There have been proposed for ment of separator for SIBs [93] (1) minimal cost to fulfill sodium batteries current collector such as prepatterned cur- the requirements of large-scale energy storage; (2) due to rent collectors, porous Al and Cu current collectors, carbon the high viscosity of SIB electrolyte, better chemical stabil- felt, and conducting polymer paper-derived mesoporous 3D ity and wettability of separators are required; (3) Na den- N-doped carbon [97]. drites have a higher reaction rate and risk than Li dendrites, and SIB separators should be more resistant to dendrites; Sodium source (4) other safety indexes of SIB separators, such as thermal stability and mechanical strength, are also strongly. Several Sodium can be found from sea salt and the earth’s crust. separator modifications have also been unfolded, including There is 2.8% sodium available in the earth’s crust [24]. Fig- the Electrospun Hybrid PVDF-HFP/SiO fiber-based separa- ure 5 demonstrated the relative abundance of the eight most tor, which is applied to sodium-ion batteries and the electro- abundant elements. lyte absorption shows no swelling, and stable interface [93]. According to the 2013 Geospatial Information Agency, The present research on SIB separators is mostly focused on Indonesia has a coastline of 99.093 km, which is the second the modification of polyolefin separators and the manufac- longest in the world after Canada. It shows that the country ture of nonwoven separators to ensure that the separator can has a great potential for salt development. retain chemical stability in the electrolyte while also having The quality of saltwater, the procedure, and the tech- a high affinity for the electrolyte. nology which are have an impact on the salt production. Another major component for the development of practi- The production of salt in Indonesia is in the middle class. cal SIB is the binder used for powdered electrode materials. Based on Ministry of Industry, Indonesia 2018, the average A binder’s key functions may be described as follows: func- national salt production is 1,281,522 tons and the average tioning as a dispersant or thickening agent to bind the active national salt consumption is 3,185,194 tons that means the material together and provide consistent mixing of electrode national salt production cannot meet national salt consump- components; maintaining the electrode structure's integrity tion [98]. It contains 85–90 percents sodium chloride. The by functioning as a conductive agent and fluid collector; sodium chloride level of those salts is still beneath the Indo- allowing the electrode to conduct the requisite amount of nesian National Standard (SNI) for human salt consumption electrons; increasing the electrolyte's wettability and encour- (dry base) [99] and for salt industry is 98.5% [100]. aging ion transport between the electrode and the electrolyte A method is needed for the salt production to fulfill the contact [94]. The most used binders are PVDF and CMC. needs based on the quality of the generated salt and the salt Furthermore, PVDF is used with NMP (N-methyl-2-pyrro- requirements for human salt consumption and salt indus- lidone) solvent which is pestilent and volatile, while CMC try. There are plenty methods for increasing salt quality, is water-soluble, consequently, it is become easier and safer. including physical and chemical approaches. A physical 1 3 82 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 5 Relative abundance of the eight most abundant elements in the continental encrustation [4] method is one method that improves salt quality without [117]. Another study conducted by Jo, 2014, synthesized using chemicals, such as hydro-extraction and evaporation a-NaMnO by a conventional solid-state method using a (re-crystallization)  [101] and chemicals such as sodium mixture of Mn O and Na CO at a molar ratio of 2:1. This 2 3 2 3 carbonate (Na CO ), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), barium selection is due to the fact that nano-sized N a CO as a 2 3 2 3 chloride (BaCl ), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ), calcium source of Na has a good size distribution, and Mn O as 2 2 2 3 chloride (CaCl ), and others are used in the chemical pro- a source of Mn has polygon pieces with micro sizes. The cedure [102]. The hydro-extraction procedure is an extrac- synthesized A-NaMnO shows an agglomerate stick shape tion or separation of a solid-phase component using a liquid with an average particle size of more than 10–50 mm, but phase as a solvent. The salt is the solid phase, while the due to the high surface activity, the small powder stick salt solution is the solvent in this context. The size of salt, form having a 4–5 mm size can be agglomerated easily the concentration of the salt solution as a solvent, and the [105]. The β-NaMnO sample was synthesized by the extraction period all work on the performance of the hydro- solid-state method. The solid-state route implicate mix- extraction process.ing Na CO and Mn O ; then 15% excess sodium weight 2 3 2 3 The high abundance and an urge to develop Indonesian was used. The significant proportion of Na atoms at this salt industries made sodium-ion batteries from sea salt is intermediate site indicates that -NaMnO2 has a strong an interesting research field to develop. Sodium can be probability to produce planar breakdown. The compound −1 extracted from sea salt to be used for sodium-ion batteries. shows a high discharge capacity of 190 mAhg at a low As explained before, desalination batteries also have been C/20 level when it examined as a cathode in a sodium-ion developed and use seawater in the case of NaCl. Besides battery [107]. of using seawater directly to the battery system, a lot of The source of the raw material generally used is sodium salt have been used. Some of the sodium salts used Na CO , which requires a process to alter NaCl into 2 3 by researchers to gain sodium batteries are N a CO [81, 84, Na CO . Synthesis of N a CO according to the solvay pro- 2 3 2 3 2 3 103–107], NaCH COO [29, 69, 108–110], NaCl [30, 69, cess with table salt, therefore, it is more environmentally 87, 111–113], NaNO [57, 59, 114, 115], Na O [64, 116], friendly in the equation below [70]: 3 2 NaOH [83], NaI [82] as shown in Table 3 below. Na CO is 2 3 2NH HCO + 2NaCl → 2NaHCO + 2NH Cl (2) 4 3 3 4 the dominant salt in the manufacturing of sodium-ion bat- tery cathodes. The recovered sodium bicarbonate can be altered to car- For example, of the using of Na CO , Sauvage, 2007, 2 3 bonate (soda-ash) by the arts skill method, through calcifica- synthesized single-phase Na MnO powder via a classic 0.44 2 tion (heating) at 170–190 °C. solid-state reaction using MnCO and Na CO (with excess 3 2 3 2NaHCO → Na CO + CO + H O stoichiometry of 10 wt %). Billaud also performed a solid- 3 2 3 2 2 (3) state method with combining Na CO and Mn O ; then 2 3 2 3 Na CO is gained. After that, it ready to use as raw mate- 2 3 15% excess sodium weight was used to obtain β-NaMnO rial for sodium-ion battery cathode. 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 83 Table 4 Chemical and physical Molecular formula NaCl properties of sodium chloride [98] Molecular weight 58.44 Physical form at 25 °C 1 bar Solid Color White or colorless Taste and smell Salty Density 2.17 g / cm Melting point 804 °C Boiling point Easily evaporate above the melting point Solubility Easily soluble in water and glycerol, slightly soluble in alcohol, and almost insoluble in hydrochloric acid pH Neutral Flammability Not flammable Storage stability Stable, compatible with strong oxidizing agents Corrosion characteristics Corrosive to base metal Potential of NaCl for sodium‑ion batteries Future projection of SIBs obtained from cheap Na sources The various sources of sodium, sodium chloride (NaCl) or commonly considered as salt, mentioning above that they There is something more interesting about the use of sea have been known for a long time and used widely in various salt in batteries, namely the desalination batteries. Desali- industrial fields. Salt is easy to obtain from evaporation of nation batteries recover sodium and chloride ions from seawater. This dominates mineral deposits as well, especially seawater and create fresh water using an electrical energy in the form of halite [118]. The physical and chemical prop- input, firstly developed by Pasta, 2012 [120]. They used erties of NaCl can be seen in Table 4 below. Na Mn O as cathode for capture N a ions and Ag elec- 2-x 5 10 NaCl is predicted to be thermodynamically stable by trode was used to capture Cl ions with this following preserving its electronic properties and bond structure. The reaction. chemical properties of NaCl under ambient conditions can 5MnO + 2Ag + 2NaCl <-> Na Mn O + 2AgCl 2 2 5 10 be understandable, but under a very high-pressure condi- tions, they can turn the NaCl bond properties. The turning The desalination battery is simple to build, employs can make differences in mechanical and electronic proper - commonly accessible materials, has a promising energy ties. NaCl runs into a phase transformation from F-centered efficiency, runs at room temperature with less corrosion B1 to primitive B2 phase in the NaCl to CsCl structure at issues than conventional desalination technologies, and it + − pressures between 20 and 30 GPa, depending on the tem- has the potential to be N a and Cl selective, obviating the perature [119]. need for resalination [120]. NaCl has been used in several components of sodium-ion Other desalination method also developed by Lee [121]. batteries, including electrolyte [28, 29], as a raw material They created a novel way of desalting water by merging for electrodes and electrode doping [30]. NaCl as an elec- CDI and battery systems to improve the desalination trolyte was examined by Liu and compared to NaNO , it performance of capacitive approaches, dubbed "hybrid has a lower ionic strength with the same conductivity [28]. capacitive deionization (HCDI)". A sodium manganese Chen utilizes NaCl as a template for the carbon airgel, with oxide (NMO) electrode, an anion exchange membrane, NaCl and flux, a carbon air-gel having a wave-like morphol- and a porous carbon electrode make up the HCDI asym- ogy with overflow micro-pores, large accessible surface area metric system [121]. The result is the HCDI system has and strong structural stability. Furthermore, it can provide successfully desalted high-capacity sodium chloride solu- an increasing specific capacity and a better capability for tion, faster ion removal rate, excellent stability and gotten sodium storage [66]. higher specific capacity of the batteries. Lately, Cao (2019) also developed HCDI system for desalination using Na3V2(PO4)3@C as sodium ions trap- per while chloride ions are physically trapped or released by the AC electrode. From the result, conclude that the 1 3 84 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 6 Comparison of the 18,650 cells price [6] removal ion rates increased as the water concentrations same cell, such as the 18,650-round cell, the SIB is cheaper increased [122]. than LIB with an LFP/NMC cathode. The changing of NaCl as an electrolyte also examined by Liu and com- lithium salt into sodium salt, changing copper foil to alu- pared to NaNO , it has a lower ionic strength with the minium foil for anodes and some additive can help decrease same conductivity [28]. Another by Chen, N a during the material cost production [123]. Furthermore, the usege charging is captured by the N aTi (PO ) cathode, while of NaCl as an electrode, additive and electrolyte is also a 2 4 3 Cl is captured by the silver electrode to form AgCl, and factor that give contribution in reducting production costs, vice versa [29]. The function of the NaCl is to provide bet- especially in raw materials. When a cathode using a source ter ion conduction. This research use 0.6 M NaCl that is of Na CO , which was synthesized independently from NaCl 2 3 equivalent to seawater and increase into 1 M NaCl to make can save about 16.66% after being calculated and anode with sure that ion conduction is enough during charge process. sodium metal when synthesized independently with NaCl The charge process is described in the following reaction: can save about 98% after being calculated because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter. Because of the con- Anode: NaTi PO + 2Na + 2e → Na Ti PO (21) 2 4 3 2 4 3 3 gested areas of Na, developing aqueous Na-ion batteries is both valuable and possible (NaCl, Na SO, NaNO , etc.). 2 4 3 − − As an alternative to LIB, SIB looks forward to have a low Cathode ∶ Ag + Cl → AgCl + e (22) environmental impact. Peters [124] quantify the impact of In contrast, the discharge process occurs as follows: SIB on the environment and compare it with LIB. Conse- quently, SIB has less impact due to the following reasons: + − Anode ∶ Na Ti PO → NaTi PO + 2Na + 2e 3 2 4 2 4 3 3 (23) 1. It is possible to use aluminium for both cathode and − + − Cathode ∶ AgCl + e → Ag + Cl (24) anode 2. When the anode uses hard-carbon, it may be possible to Therefore, the overall reaction occurs as follows: use hard-carbon from organic waste. 3. It can reduce the use of nickel, which is commonly used NaTi PO + 2Ag + 2NaCl → Na Ti PO + 2AgCl 2 4 3 2 4 3 3 for LIB cathodes, therefore the impact of nickel mining (25) on the environment can also be reduced. However, more The charge–discharge process shows good stability [29]. in-depth research is needed. Besides conducted new battery system. This alternative also 4. The binder commonly used in LIB, such as PVDF, in its contributed to renewable energy storage from desalination production, causes a high greenhouse gas effect, there- process, because it is used natural seawater and collect the fore, an alternative water-based binder is needed. salt. From an economic point of view, SIB can compete with Bossche et  al. [125] classify battery types with LIB in terms of price, as explained by [21] in Fig. 6. In the adverse environmental impacts, including lithium-ion, 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 85 nickel–cadmium, lead-acid, sodium-nickel chloride, and can be processed into other forms of sodium salt or used nickel-metal hydride. The sodium-based battery type has directly. The source of this materials can meet the possible the lowest environmental impact than others. high demand for SIB in the future. As will be explained in Some of researchers also have been conducted life cycle the next section, NaCl from seawater can contribute to all assessment (LCA) for sodium-ion batteries. LCA is a defined SIB components, both cathode, anode, and electrolyte. approach for calculating the environmental effects of com- Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- modities, products, and activities. It considers the entire life tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s40243- 022- 00208-1 . cycle, from resource extraction to production, usage, and end-of-life management, as well as waste recycling and dis- Acknowledgements This paper was funded by the Ministry of posal [124]. Except for LFP–LTO type LIBs, the examined Research, Technology and Higher Education (KemenRistekdikti) SIB would already beat existing LIBs in terms of environ- through the “Penelitian Dasar” scheme with Grant Number 221.1/ UN27.22/HK.07.00/2021. mental performance with lifetimes of roughly 3000 cycles. Sodium-ion batteries are still one of the most promising Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- alternatives for next-generation stationary batteries, where bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- the lack of volumetric limits and a focus on economy, safety, tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, and extended life are well linked with SIB features. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not Conclusion permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have long dominant energy stor- copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . age technology in electric vehicles and hand-held electron- ics. The cost and limited quantities of lithium in the earth's encrustation may prevent LIBs from being used in future large-scale renewable energy storage. Lithium metal, if used References simultaneously, is depleted easily. The searching for new sources of lithium batteries and recycling is not expected to 1. Carley, S., Konisky, D.M.: The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition. Nat. Energy 5, 569–577 (2020). meet the high demand. 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Sodium-ion battery from sea salt: a review

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Abstract

The electrical energy storage is important right now, because it is influenced by increasing human energy needs, and the battery is a storage energy that is being developed simultaneously. Furthermore, it is planned to switch the lithium-ion bat- teries with the sodium-ion batteries and the abundance of the sodium element and its economical price compared to lithium is the main point. The main components anode and cathode have significant effect on the sodium battery performance. This review briefly describes the components of the sodium battery, including the anode, cathode, electrolyte, binder, and separa- tor, and the sources of sodium raw material is the most important in material synthesis or installation. Sea salt or NaCl has potential ability as a raw material for sodium battery cathodes, and the usage of sea salt in the cathode synthesis process reduces production costs, because the salt is very abundant and environmentally friendly as well. When a cathode using a source of Na CO , which was synthesized independently from NaCl can save about 16.66% after being calculated and anode 2 3 with sodium metal when synthesized independently with NaCl can save about 98% after being calculated, because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter. Keywords Energy storage · Battery · Sodium-ion · Sea salt Introduction As a result, energy research and development has become a well-known topic and a major goal in world achievements. Researchers have established renewable resources usage as The development of renewable power generation is part of the Paris Agreement [1, 2]. The agreement aims to inseparable from the importance of reliable and efficient reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to restrict the incre- energy storage technology [4]. Energy storage devices con- ment in global temperatures in 2 °C above per-industrial vert electrical energy into several forms that can be stored levels while pursuing ways to limit the increment in 1.5 °C and released when they are used [5]. The energy storage [3]. To achieve this goal, the obligation for transition from system increases the reliability of the electricity supply by fossil energy to clean energy is conducted to get a better life. storing electricity during off-peak hours and releasing dur - ing on-peak hours [6]. Several types of these devices include * Agus Purwanto Kiwi Aliwarga aguspurwanto@staff.uns.ac.id kiwi.aliwarga@umgroups.com Anisa Raditya Nurohmah Hendri Widiyandari anisaradityan@student.uns.ac.id hendriwidiyandari@staff.uns.ac.id Shofirul Sholikhatun Nisa Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Sebelas shofirulsnisa@student.uns.ac.id Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia Khikmah Nur Rikhy Stulasti Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural khikmahnur@student.uns.ac.id Science, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia Cornelius Satria Yudha Center of Excellence for Electrical Energy Storage, corneliussyudha@staff.uns.ac.id Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia Windhu Griyasti Suci UMG Idealab, Jakarta, Indonesia windhugriya@staff.uns.ac.id Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 72 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 1 Global battery demand from 2020 to 2030 [1] secondary batteries, compressed air energy storage (CAES), “consumer use” and contain features and functionalities that electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC), flywheels, were previously inaccessible. superconductive magnetic energy storage (SMES), fuel Electric vehicles will progressively use lithium-ion bat- cells, and thermometric energy storage (TEES) [5]. Sec- teries as an environmentally acceptable form of transporta- ondary batteries have a long-life cycle, flexible power, high tion, which is predicted to grow dramatically [16]. However, round-trip efficiency, and easy maintenance among these the main source of batteries, namely lithium, is a challenge energy storage devices. Secondary batteries will be good for the future because it is a finite metal source. Accord- energy storage technology when integrated with renewable ing to US geological surveys, it is estimated that worldwide resources. Furthermore, the compact size of the battery is lithium resources can meet market demand by 2100 [17]. suitable to be used in distribution network locations [7]. The Sodium is found in the form of brine and seawater, counted challenge is that some portable devices, i.e. mobile phones, for 61.8% of the world's total (26.9 Mt), especially in the laptops, digital cameras, and drones, turn out more expen- USA, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and China. The remainder is sive because of the batteries [8]. To get the desired specifi- in mineral form about 16.7 Mt [18]. However, actual demand cations, selecting the type of battery is the main point. The may exceed this forecast demand coupled with hard-to-find type of battery chosen is undoubtedly related to the produc- lithium sources  [17]. New sources of lithium are being tion cost, which is dominated by the material, about 70% of explored, both primary sources from mining and secondary the total cost [9]. sources from recycled active materials. It is possible that The Lithium-ion battery (LIB) contains the most expen- the LIB will not be able to cross the growing demand [19]. sive material but has many advantages [10]. High power The new battery source that is more readily available in density, high energy efficiency, and being environmentally nature and less expensive is the sodium-ion battery (SIB). friendly are the main advantages of this battery [11–13]. Several studies have been carried out, therefore SIB can be The research on LIB was conducted in 1970–1980s and an alternative to LIB for large-scale production [20]. From Sony became a successful pioneer in the commercializa- an economic point of view, SIB can compete with LIB in tion in 1991 [14]. The most important component of the terms of price, as explained by Peters et al. [21]. In the same LIB is the electrode (cathode and anode), the separator and cell, such as the 18,650-round cell, the SIB is cheaper than the electrolyte. Commercial anodes in commercial LIB are the LIB with an LFP/NMC cathode. generally made of graphite, which can easily diffuse Li ions As the main source of SIB, sodium is the lightest metal over thousands of cycles. Since this battery is used widely, and the second smallest after lithium [22]. Geographically, especially for electric vehicles and consumer use, its pro- compared to the limited lithium, the availability of sodium is duction increases every year [15]. As shown in Fig. 1, the more abundant. Sodium can be resourced from both seawater application of batteries has grown rapidly and is expected and the earth’s crust. In seawater, the sodium concentration to increase simultaneously. The applications, which include is 10,800 ppm compared to the lithium concentration of only portable devices such as video cameras, PCs, mobile phones, 0.1–0.2 ppm [23]. Similarly in the earth’s crust, 2.8% sodium and a variety of other electronic gadgets, are designated as is provided [24], whereas lithium is only 0.002–0.006% [25]. 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 73 The high gap in availability further strengthens sodium as Table 1 Comparison of basic characteristic of Li and Na metals a raw material for new battery materials. Sodium sources Comparison Li Na can be reached from various compounds such as Na CO , 2 3 Atomic mass 6.941 22.99 NaCH COO, NaCl and N aNO . Most of the sodium salt 3 3 Ionic radius (Å) 1.45 1.80 can be produced using NaCl or saline salt. As the main −3 Density (kg m ) 534 968 SIB source, sea salt (NaCl) from seawater can be the main SHE versus Std reduction potential (V) -3.038 -2.712 candidate  [26, 27] due to its abundant compounds and Gravimetric capacity (mAh/g) 3829 1165 not geographically limited. NaCl can be activated into an –3 Volumetric capacity (mAhcm ) 2062 1131 electrode by inducing it electrochemically in a crystalline Abundance in Earth encrustation(%) 0.002 2.358 structure [26]. NaCl has been used in several components Equivalent mass abundance in Earth encrus- 0.00288 1.0265 of sodium-ion batteries, including electrolyte [28, 29], as tation (mol/kg) a raw material for electrodes and electrode doping  [30]. Price ($/kg) 17.00 0.15 Nowadays, the challenge in developing SIB is selecting the suitable electrode type. This review examines SIB as an alternative to LIB for Similar as LIB, an SIB cell consists of a cathode, anode, the future secondary battery using NaCl potential as a raw material especially from seawater. Seawater is processed in and electrolyte. The cathode in SIB is made of a substance that can absorb Na cations reversibly at voltages significantly such a way into sea salt (NaCl) which is ready to use for production. NaCl can be used directly as raw material for higher than 2 V positive for Na metal. The best anodes are those with low voltages (less than 2 V vs. Na). The active SIB or processed into intermediate raw materials for SIB, such as Na CO or NaNO . Details on the seawater potential cathode material commonly used is NaFeO and the nega- 2 3 3 tive electrode or anode is hard carbon. Throughout charg- for the SIB component, its challenges, and future projections are discussed in the next section. ing, the cathode (NaFeO ) will donate electrons to the external circuit, which can cause oxidation for the transi- Sodium‑ion battery tion metal. Some of the added sodium atoms dissolve as ions in the electrolyte to maintain charge neutrality. They A sodium-ion battery (SIB) is one of the options for LIB. travel to the anode (hard carbon) and are incorporated into the structure to restore charge neutrality to the site, which Because of the comparatively high amount of sodium sources in the earth's encrustation and seawater, as well as its was disrupted by electrons transmitted and absorbed from the cathode side. During discharge, the procedure is iterated relatively inexpensive manufacturing costs, SIB has recently gained a lot of interest as a promising commercial choice in the opposite direction. This complete cycle of reactions happens in a closed system. Each electron produced dur- for large-scale energy storage systems [20]. Furthermore, because sodium belongs to the same periodic table group ing oxidation is consumed in the reduction reaction at the opposite electrode [32]. Figure 2 shows the entire procedure as lithium and has similar physicochemical qualities, SIB's operating mechanism is extremely similar to LIB's [7]. diagrammatically. The specific capacity, cyclic stability, and rate perfor - Lithium and sodium are parts of the periodic table's ele- ments in group 1. They are known as alkali metals, because mance of the SIB need to be improved for commercializa- tion. The electrochemical effect is influenced by the elec- their valence shell has one loosely held electron. As a result, alkali metals are extremely reactive, hardness, conductivity, trode material used in cell manufacturing. The primary challenge is discovering an electrode material with a high melting point, and initial ionization energy fall as their pro- gress through the group [31]. Table 1 summarizes some of and stable specific capacitance, minimal volume change during charge/discharge cycles, and adequate current per- the characteristics of sodium and lithium that interest in their development. The redox potential of the two alkali elements formance  [33]. Increasing the energy density of SIB can be achieved by enhancing the cathode’s working voltage is one of the most important things to compare. The standard Na /Na reduction potential vs. SHE is − 2.71 V, which is or decreasing the anode’s working potential, increasing the capacity of specific electrodes, and generating solid-particle roughly 330 mV higher than Li /Li, which is − 3.04 V. SIB's anodic electrode potential will always be greater than LIB's materials [19]. Another major challenge related to plated cathode materials is their hygroscopic properties after expo- since this potentially specifies a thermodynamics minimum for the anode. However, because the ionic radius of Na sure to air, leading to poor cell performance and ultimately increasing transportation costs [34]. Due to some of these (1.02) is much larger than that of Li (0.76), finding suitable crystalline host materials for N a with sufficient capacity challenges, it is necessary to have a stable material towards the air exposure to produce good cell performance. and cycling stability may be more difficult [19]. 1 3 74 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 2 Working Mechanism of Sodium-Ion Batteries [2] cell, by sticking up a steel gauze diaphragm between the Na‑containing anode materials anode and cathode. The function of the diaphragm is for reducing the mixing of the anode and cathode products Many types of anodes have been developed by researchers, when traverse the electrolyte [38]. including sodium metal, oxide-based, carbon-based, alloys, David S. Peterson in 1966, got sodium metal by elec- and convention anodes. They have a relatively low irrevers- trolysis in a mixture of molten salt which consist of ible capacity, and most of their capacities are potentially 28–36% sodium chloride (NaCl), 23–35% calcium chloride close to that of sodium metal. The metal insertion mecha- (CaCl ), 10–25% strontium chloride (SrCl), and 13–30% nism of sodium is nearly identical to that of lithium [35]. barium chloride (BaCl ) [26] takes pure NaCl as the SIB Sodium metal has been studied by many researchers as electrode. NaCl is a non-metallic compound, so when it the negative electrode in sodium-ion batteries [36, 37]. is used as an electrode, it must be metalized, i.e. it must Due to its high density, it has a good anode for energy stor- be electromagnetically active for a reversible cycle. The age applications in the post lithium-ion battery era because −1 metallization process can be led at high temperatures, as of its large capacity (1166 mAhg ), availability on earth, described above, or by induction. During the induction and inexpensive cost. However, sodium metal anodes suf- process, an electrochemical before filling up to 4.2 V was fer from inconsistent plating, stripping and, therefore, it brought out as an activation cycle. This process generates a cause a low Coulombic efficiency [37]. The large reactiv - partial transition from phase B1 to B2-NaCl. Furthermore, ity of sodium metal with organic electrolyte solvents and the release process of about 0.1 V was done, therefore, the production of dendrites during Na metal deposition Na was intercalated into the active compound. During are even more troublesome, and the low melting point of the release process, the B2-NaCl phase can accommodate Na (98 °C) poses a considerable safety hazard in devices Na and form N a Cl compounds, x > 1. The reactions that intended for operation at room temperatures [19]. Tang occur are as follows et al. devised a method of "sodiophilic" coating an Au-Na alloy onto a Cu substrate that works as a current collector B2 − NaCl + xNa → Na + Cl (1) 1 x to drastically minimize the propensity for nucleation over abundant to address this challenge. This coating signifi- The phase change from B1 to B2 is the key to the cantly increases the coulombic efficiency of Na coating reversible process, therefore it can intensify the ionic and and stripping. NaCl allows to be used as a source of Na in electrochemical conductivity. Na metal in NaCl can revers- this layer [37]. NaCl has been used in several components ibly intercalate/deintercalate up to a discharge capacity of −1 of sodium-ion batteries, including anode component and 267 mAhg [26]. The success of NaCl as an electrode is sodium metal. Sodium metal is usually produced by elec- shown in Fig. 3. trolysis of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the liquid state at the 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 75 Fig. 3 Galvanostatic profile of NaCl electrodes a intercalation and vated NaCl electrodes at 0.05 C. c Performance of the NaCl cycle. d deintercalation of sodium through the NaCl structure with and with- Voltammetry curve of the NaCl electrode at 0.1  mV / s in a sodium out an activation cycle at 0.03 C. b Charge–discharge profile of acti- half cell [5] Oxide-based materials have also been developed as well, cathode in an aqueous NaCl electrolyte for the deionization as anodes in sodium-ion batteries, such as (NTP), NaTi of seawater as an aqueous energy storage system. During the (PO ), Na Ti O and its composites with carbon, which charging process, the sodium ions in the electrolyte are elec- 4 3 2 3 7 have been studied by several researchers [29, 39]. The three- trochemically caught into the NaTi (PO ) electrode while 2 4 3 dimensional structure of NTP, which creates an open frame- the chloride ions are captured and interacted with the silver work of large interstitial spaces modified with NMNCO, with electrode to generate AgCl. The discharge causes the release rate capability and cycle stability is increasing, because a of sodium and chloride ions from the corresponding elec- better structure can ensure stability between the phases [40]. trode. This will greatly contribute to more energy-efficient A similar study was conducted by Hou using NTP / C com- seawater desalination technology in the future [29]. posites with water-based electrolytes to achieve an energy SIB anodes have been reported to feature three different density of 0.03 Wh / g and a colombic efficiency close to types of energy storage mechanisms such as intercalation 100%, due to the three-dimensional structure of NTP with reactions, conversion reactions, and alloying reactions. This an open framework and uniform nanoparticle shape [41]. mechanism occurs during sodiation and desodiation [31]. NTP / C composites were also studied by Nakamoto using In SIB, carbon compounds are similarly subjected to the several types of electrolytes and Na FeP O cathodes [42]. intercalation mechanism. Graphitic, hard carbon, and gra- 2 2 7 Chen et al. (2018) succeeded in manufacturing a desalina- phene are three types of carbon materials that are one of the tion battery consisting of a NaTi (PO ) anode and a silver most potential anodes for SIBs due to their excellent charge/ 2 4 3 1 3 76 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 discharge voltage plateaus and low price [43]. Graphite is obstacle to commercialization [44]. Their stability must also the most widely used anode material in LIB, with a capacity be increased by the development of advanced structures or −1 of 372 mAhg . Graphite is not suitable for sodium-based interfacial electrode/electrolyte adjustment. Alloying anodes systems, because Na almost does not form gradual graphite with advanced composite and nanostructures have been intercalation compounds and the radius size of Na is larger shown to have high capacity and cycling stability [51]. than Li, which means Na ions cannot enter the graphite [44]. Conversion anodes are a typical way to make a high- To overcome this limitation, Yang et al. created expanded capacity SIB anode. P, S, O, N, F, Se, and other conversion graphite (EG) with a 4.3 interlayer lattice spacing by oxidiz- elements are examples. The components must be paired with ing and reducing some of the graphite. The long-range layer metal or non-metal materials as a partial SIB anode, where structure of EG is similar to that of graphite. They showed the alloy metal's discharge product can give high conduc- that Na may be absorbed into and removed from EG in a tivity while also shielding the alloying discharge product reversible manner [45]. from agglomeration [40]. Conversion anodes has obstacles Hard carbon has a lot of potential as SIB anodes because in its implementation such as volume expansion, poor cycle of its substantial intercalation capacity, low charge/discharge stability, and crushing during the charge–discharge pro- voltage plateaus, and low-cost methods of preparation [44]. cess, all of which are significant impediments to practical The application of hard carbon as a sodium battery anode implementation [44]. Fortunately, nano-engineering of the was investigated by Alcantara. Sodium can be inserted alloying anode material can solve this volume change. Nano- reversibly in amorphous and non-porous hard carbon, result- engineering approaches can help to increase the cycling ing in a high irreversible capacity in the first cycle due to the performance of alloying anodes. Combining alloying and carbon surface area [46] Furthermore, due to its wide mid- conversion elements is another key method for improving dle layer, adequate operating voltage, and inexpensive cost, the capacity and stability of these materials. These anodes hard carbon can be utilized as anode material for sodium-ion have good cycling performance thanks to the synergism of batteries. However, poor ec ffi iency and initial colombic per - conversion and alloying products. Combining alloying or formance remain a problem [47]. NaCl can also be combined conversion anodes with carbonaceous materials has been as an additive on hard carbon to become the anode. The proven to be an excellent strategy for producing an extremely electrochemical properties of hard carbon can be improved stable alloying or conversion anode [52]. + − by intercalating NaCl. N a and Cl can intercalate into the coating at high temperature and pressure, therefore the load Na‑containing cathode materials transfer resistance can decrease sharply. With the addition of this NaCl, the capacity of the SIB can be increased to One of the needful components in a sodium battery is the 100% [48]. cathode. However, its development is relatively slow. There- The capacity of graphene-based carbon materials is fore, developing suitable cathode materials with high capaci- higher than that of hard carbon. However, the density of tap ties and voltages is essential to develop the energy density −3 graphene is often less than 1.0 g  cm , far lower than that of the SIB. Several cathode materials have been developed of hard carbon, lowering graphene’s volumetric capacity. by many researchers such as layered transition metal oxide, Due to the substantially higher outer surface area compared sodium poly anion compound, prussian blue, sulfur and to hard carbon, these low ICEs are almost unsolvable. SIB air, and other organic compounds. Nowdays, layered metal anodes have been developed that combine graphene with oxides (Na MO , 0 < x < 1, M = Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, Ni, etc.) x 2 conversion/alloy anodes to generate bi-functional electrodes. and poly anion-type materials have been the most impor- Due to the synergistic effect, graphene can be combined tant thing for studying cathodes in SIB [31]. In the 1970s, with other electroactive materials, such as metals (or metal Delmas et al. found the electrochemical characteristics and oxides), to supply much greater storage capacities and better structural of Na insertion in N aCoO as a viable cathode cycle stability than metal samples (or metal oxides) [49]. material for SIB, which prompted more research [53]. Other Sodium can form alloys with elements such as Si, Ge, Pb, Sn, Sb, P, and Bi so that it can be used as a SIB anode. Single atoms of these elements can form an alloy with more Table 2 Types of cathode structures than one Na at an average working potential with less than Difference Type O3 Type P2 1 Volt for Na/Na . Alloying anodes have large specific Na ion position the octahedral site [22] the prismatic site between capacities, and advanced composite nanostructure alloying the transition metal anodes offer good capacity and cycle stability [50]. Dur - oxide layers [22] ing the sodiation phase, however, there is a significant vol- Phase Na MO phase [22] Na MO [22] 1 2 1-x 2 ume growth. Furthermore, during long-term cycling, they Strenght Hight capacity [22] Energetically stable [52] are constantly pulverized, which creates a considerable 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 77 Fig. 4 Structure of a O3- b P2 TMO cathode is sodium coated (sodium atom is yellow, the oxygen atom is red, the transi- tion metal is blue) [3] layered oxides of 3d transition metals such as N a CrO [54], 3.5 V, the material undergoes irreversible structural changes x 2 Na FeO [55], and Na MnO [56], were studied further in [58]. x 2 x 2 the early 1980s. These investigations were limited to 3.5 V NaMnO for cathode application was examined by Mend- +/ versus Na Na during that period and due to the electro- iboure et al. on NaMnO premise an impractical low revers- −1 lyte's instability in the beginning cycles [57]. Based on the ible capacity of 54 mAhg [56]. Caballero et al. synthesize −1 nomenclature suggested by Delmas et al. in 1980., the lay- P2-Na MnO and gain a reversible capacity of 140 mAhg 0.6 2 ered TMOs prototype can be described in terms of N a MO and incredible thermal stability [62]. NaNiO and NaCrO 1-x 2 2 2 (0 < x < 1, M is a transition metal), and has two distinct types are also appointed as postulant electrode materials for SIB. of structures which are presented in Table  2 about types The electrode NaCrO was synthesized by Komaba et al. by −1 of cathode structures. The structural form of the layered capacity of 120 mAhg in the first cycle. Vassilaras et al. TMO consists of P2-type or O3-type which is depicted in defined the electrochemical characteristics of O ′3-NaNiO −1 Fig. 4. The letters “P” and “O” stand for prismatic and octa- as a capacity of 120 mAhg . Substitution part of Fe with hedral, respectively, denoting the lattice site inhabited by either Mn [58], Co [63], or Ni [63, 64] has attested to be alkali ion, while the numbers “2” and “3” denote the number a successful technique for dealing with structural changes of layers or stacks in a repetition unit of the TMO crystal and increasing storage capacity while keeping material costs structure [58]. down. NaCoO is the oldest form of TMO cathode insertion Other important type of cathode material is poly-anionic material for SIB, having been investigated in the 1980s [53]. compounds. The most popular learning of poly-anionic 3− 2− Research on NaCoO was conducted by Ding et al. showed a groups contain phosphate (PO4) , sulfate (SO4) ,and 4− poor cycle life of around 100 cycles [59]. In their investiga- pyrophosphate (P2O7) ions [65]. The most productive tion of P2-Na CoO , Fang et al. increased the electrochem- structures in the poly-anionic compounds family are the 0.7 2 ical performance from 300 cycles and 86% initial capacity maricite, olivine, and NASICON [65]. In the case of SIB, retention. [60]. In general, NaCoO has a excellent voltage maricite type N aFePO is the thermodynamic stable. How- 2 4 stability,high rate capability, and a large range of revers- ever, at temperatures above 450 °C, olivine-type NaFePO ible sodium contents in its many polymorphs [60]. Despite change into maricite type N aFePO . Analogous to car- this, it has a oblique voltage profile and has a inclination for bonophosphates and Na Fe (PO ) (P O), Na MePO CO 4 3 4 2 2 7 3 4 3 reacting with electrolytes containing NaPF  [61]. The high (where Me = Fe or Mn), has also been observed [66]. A cost of Co, on the other hand, is a major impediment to the promising poly-anionic carbonophosphate cathode material widespread use of all Co-based electrode materials. has been identified as the Mn compound. However, elec- In the 1980s, Tekeda et al. were prepared NaFeO through trode tuning to reduce capacity loss by 50% in the initial −1 solid-state method at 700 °C. In their examination of the cycles (from 200 to 100 mAhg ) is required to attain its effect of cutoff voltage on electrode performance, Yabu- full potential. Besides, the rate performance is unimpres- uchi et al. discovered that N aFeO has capacity of 80–100 sive [67]. However, the observed reasonable capacity storage −1 mAhg . For a cutoff voltage of 3.4 V, the electrode barely is adequate to generate optimization in this material [31]. manages excellent capacity. When the cutoff voltage exceeds 1 3 78 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Table 3 Several Na sources for Sodium Battery Cathode therefore, it is necessary to develop a transition metal based on cathode to make it more stable. Source Na Cathode References Besides being an additional raw material, NaCl can be Na O NaNi Co Fe O [59] 2 1/3 1/3 1/3 2 formed in other compounds, as shown in Table 3, and there- Na CO Na MnO [94] 2 3 0.44 2 fore, it can be used for SIB cathodes. The source of the raw Na CO a-NaMnO [81] 2 3 2 material generally used is N a CO , which requires a process 2 3 NaCl Na MnFe(CN) [68] 2 6 to alter NaCl into Na CO . Synthesis of Na CO according 2 3 2 3 NaCH COO NaTi (PO ) /C [68] 3 2 4 3 to the solvay process with table salt, therefore it is more Na CO NaMnO [70] 2 3 2 environmentally friendly in the equation below [70]: Na CO β-NaMnO [83] 2 3 2 2NH HCO + 2NaCl → 2NaHCO + 2NH Cl (2) 4 3 3 4 NaCH COO Na MnO [85] 3 0.44 2 NaCH COO Na FeP O [86] 3 2 2 7 The recovered sodium bicarbonate can be altered to car- NaCH COO NaMnO [95] 3 2 bonate (soda-ash) by the arts skill method, through calcifica- Na CO α-NaMnO [42] 2 3 2 tion (heating) at 170–190 °C. NaCH COO Silver nanoparticle [27] Na CO Na CoO [26] 2NaHCO → Na CO + CO + H O 2 3 0.71 2 3 2 3 2 2 (3) NaOH Na Mn O [69] 4 9 18 Na CO is gained. After that, it ready to use as raw mate- 2 3 Na CO Na FeP O [65] 2 3 2 2 7 rial for sodium-ion battery cathode. Na CO Na V (PO ) [96] 2 3 3 2 4 3 The sources of sodium can turn into NaNO as well and NaCl Na MnFe(CN) ·zH O [28] 2 6 2 some compounds can be reacted with NaCl to form N aNO (Na MnHFC) 2−δ with heterogeneous reactions at atmospheric pressure such NaNO Na [Mn Ni Co ]O [53] 3 0.67 0.65 0.15 0.2 2 (NaNMC) as [71]: NaCl as electrolyte Na-NiCl and Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl [89] 2 2 HNO (g) + NaCl(s) → HCl(g) + NaNO (s) (4) 3 3 Na O Na CoO [93] 2 x 2 NaCH COO·2H O P2-Na [Ni Mn ]O [84] 3 2 2/3 1/3 2/3 2 N O (g) + NaCl(s) → ClNO (g) + NaNO (s) Na COP2-type Na Ni -xZn Mn 7O [82] (5) 2 3 2 3 2 3 0.66 0.33 x 0.6 2 NaNO Na MnO [91] 3 0.44 2 NaNO Na MnO [51] ClONO g + NaCl s → Cl g + NaNO s 3 0.44 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (6) 2 2 3 Na CO , NaCl Na MnO [90] 2 3 0.44 2 Na CO β-NaAl Mn 0 [97] 2 3 x 1-× 2 2NO (g) + NaCl(s) → NOCl(g) + NaNO (s) (7) 2 3 NaNO Na LixFe Mn O [92] 3 0.6 0.2 0.8-x 2 NaI NaFePO [66] 4 The formation of NaNO from NaCl and HNO begins 3 3 with the recrystallization of NaCl using an ethanol–water mixture. The solid formed is filtered and dried to remove surface-bound H O. NaCl is formed from the precipita- tion process is not from porous. Dry HN O steam was prepared by mixing HNO and H SO . Furthermore, 3 2 4 NaCl can be utilized as an additional raw material in NaNO capping NaCl is produced by dry exposure and recrystallization of NaCl to dry HNO in a closed con- another compound cathode. In its pure form, NaCl is not considered to work properly. Yang et al. [68] synthesizes tainer [72]. Na Fe(CN) /NaCl as SIB cathode. NaCl has a part in 4 6 increasing the Na diffusion, therefore it improves the elec- Na‑containing electrolytes trochemical performance of pure N a Fe(CN) [68]. Moreo- 4 6 ver, it [69] also synthesized the Na MnFe(CN) cathode with As explained in the previous point, the presence of elec- 2 6 trolytes is very important in sodium batteries. The usage Na Fe(CN), NaCl and MnCl raw materials using the co-pre- 4 2 cipitation method using deionized water as a solvent. Using of electrolytes is also build upon the resistance of the elec- trode material used. Regarding of performance, electro- water-based electrolyte, such as 32K Na (Acetate), electro- chemical stability is gained and can use Al foil as a flux col- lytes specify the properties of ion transport and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The usage of electrolytes is also lector for the first time. Besides, the contact with NMHCF shows a clear dark yellow color shift from the production build upon the resistance of the electrode material used. Not only is ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability of iron hydroxide as a result of NMHCF decomposition, window, thermal and mechanical (for solid electrolytes) 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 79 strength, safety, economics, and ecology important when are sometimes too expensive for large-scale energy storage choosing an electrolyte, as well as the mechanism of its system [76]. interaction with electrode materials and the characteris- tics of the SEI produced [74]. For safety reasons, when 3. Inorganic solid electrolytes it comes to thermal runaway or cell breakdown, the cor- rect electrolyte can help reduce the chances of an explo- Solid electrolyte may be divided into two main categories sion [73]. Highly modified intercalation compounds used that is inorganic and organic solid electrolyte. Inorganic solid as anodes likely need a customized SEI to allow stable electrolytes shown a diverse group of crystalline ceramics for cycling in the cell, equal to the litigated graphite elec- and amorphous glasses. The primary goal of inorganic solid trodes in Li-ion systems [19]. Organic electrolytes, ionic electrolyte development is to solve safety concerns, while electrolytes, aqueous based electrolytes, inorganic solid also increasing energy density and also the flammability case electrolytes, and solid polymer electrolytes are among the of previous electrolyte. This electrolyte began to be devel- electrolytes utilized in sodium batteries. Each of the elec- oped due to its non-flammability, strong thermal stability, trolytes that are currently available is described below. mechanical qualities, and broad ESW. Sulfides, β-Alumina, NASICON, and Complex hydrides are examples of inor- 1. Organic electrolytes ganic solid electrolytes that have been discovered. Sulfides are known for their strong ionic conductivities, as well as Diluted sodium salt in organic solvent (ester based and their good mechanical characteristics and low grain-bound- ether based). First, linear carbonates (DMC, EMC, and ary resistances [74]. Because of its layered structure with DEC) and cyclic carbonates (EC and PC); second, ether- open galleries separated by pillars through which Na ions based organic solvents (diglyme and triglyme), which may easily move, β-Alumina has been employed as a rapid suppress dendritic formation, improve thermal stability, Na ion conductor. NASICON for their compositional vari- and lengthen the ESW [74]. Both sodium salt and solvent ety and exceptional performance. Complex hydrides have is important, the additive choice is important to improve a wide ESW and excellent thermal stability, although they the SIB performance (ester based). Organic solvents have have a poor ionic conductivity. several advantages, including a high dielectric constant (> Besides of their good thermal stability and mechanical 15) that promotes sodium salt dissociation, a low viscosity strength, there are some point that being major concern on that promotes N a migration, chemical and electrochemi- developing inorganic solid electrolyte. Which include poor cal stability to charged and discharged electrode materials interface contact, unfavourable chemical/electrochemical within a particular voltage range, the formation of sta- reaction with alkali metal, and solid-state electrolytes with ble passivation films on electrode surfaces, and it is also low thermodynamic and mechanical stability [77]. cost effective for commercial production [ 75]. However, organic electrolytes' flammability and instability at high 4. Solid polymer electrolyte temperatures are major challenges to practical usage [76] Nowadays, the electrolytes used widely for sodium bat- Organic solid electrolytes, which are mainly carbon- teries are N aClO, NaPF , dissoluble in carbonate-based based polymers containing heteroatoms like oxygen or 4 6 organic solvents, either made from a single solvent, such nitrogen capable of solvating embedded sodium ions, as polypropylene carbonate (PC), or a mixture of solvents. are another type of solid electrolyte. Solid polymer elec- trolytes are the subject of a lot of research because their 2. Ionic liquid electrolytes mechanical strength and process ability efficiently increase ionic conductivity and expand ESW. Differ from liquid Because some worse point of organic solvent, ionic liquid electrolyte that dissociated ions are easily move within being used to solve. Cations and anions are the sole constitu- the liquid, polymer electrolyte that contain no liquid, ions ents of ionic liquids, often identified as room-temperature in polymer electrolytes migrate via the polymer network molten salts or ambient-temperature melts. Many studies on itself. ionic liquid electrolytes have been led by their great thermal Some polymer that already developed is PEO, P(VDF- stability, no volatility, and broad Electrochemical Stability HFP), PMMA, PAN-based gel electrolytes. Liquid plas- Windows (ESWs) (up to 6 V), which offer high-quality ticizers, organic solvents, and salt solutions immobilized interfaces and good wetting qualities for separators. Further- inside polymer host matrices make up solid polymer elec- more, their uses have been limited to some extent because trolytes  [78]. Because the loss of quick Na ion transfer to their poor ionic conductivity and relatively high viscosity medium and interfacial compatibility during cycling has [65]. That is also because to the high costs of ingredients, a detrimental impact on SPE performance, high-viscosity manufacture, and purification, ionic liquid-based battery solvents must be used to solve the problem. SPEs have low 1 3 80 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 mechanical strength, which puts them at danger of dendritic electrode, and therefore, the solid acts as a catalyst. The penetration [76]. reaction mechanism in the formation of chlorides in per- chlorates is through the formation of hypochlorite, chlorite, 5. Aqueous-based electrolyte and chlorate compounds first. More specifically, the reaction mechanism is shown below [88]: The development of aqueous electrolytes for SIBs is On the anode surface: essential from the standpoints of sodium storage and inter- − − 2Cl → Cl + 2e (8) facial stability. Diluted sodium salt in aqueous solution. The electrolyte concentration is regarded as an important index − − − Cl + ClO → Cl O + 2e (9) for improving aqueous electrolytes because of its direct effects on ionic conductivity and rate performance. The − − − oxygen solubility decreases and becomes more stable as the Cl + ClO → Cl O + 2e 2 2 (10) electrolyte concentration rises. Because self-discharging is generated by oxygen that is not soluble in the electrolyte, the − − Cl + ClO → Cl O + 2e− 2 3 (11) higher the electrolyte concentration, the less self-discharging occurs. On the cathode surface: Because of their low cost and great safety, aqueous elec- 2H O + 2e → H + 2OH− (12) 2 2 trolytes are widely studied. Because of the kinetic impact, the practical stability window of the aqueous electrolyte is In an electrolyte solution: greater than the thermodynamic limit, allowing for the use of + − − a wider range of electrode materials in these systems. How- Cl OH → HOCl + Cl (13) ever, excessive salt concentrations cause corrosion. There is following aspect that can be considered to improve aqueous − − Cl O + OH → HO Cl + Cl (14) 2 2 electrolytes: such as combination of adequate sodium salts with an appropriate anion to build a stable and low-resist- − − Cl O + OH → HO Cl + Cl (15) 2 2 3 ance protective layer on the electrode surface; and inclusion of functional additives to increase interface stability and − − Cl O + OH → HO Cl + Cl (16) reduce side reactions in high-concentration electrolytes [76]. 2 3 4 Aqueous-based electrolyte or water used as a salt sol- + − vent has been studied deeply. The salt used are NaCl [29, HOCl → H + ClO (17) 79], Na SO [80–82], and CH COONa [69, 83, 84]. Water 2 4 3 electrolytes are promising candidates for an environmentally + − HO Cl → H + ClO (18) friendly SIB system due to long life and good performance, safe and low-cost SIB system for grid-scale applications + − HO Cl → H + ClO (19) [73]. Because of its high dielectric constant, low viscosity, 3 strong ionic conductivity, and low vapor pressure, water is + − an appealing choice as an ideal solvent for aqueous elec- HO Cl → H + ClO (20) trolytes, especially because of its inherent safety [79]. The majority of inorganic salts in aqueous electrolytes (such as NaClO have been widely used as sodium battery salt Na SO , NaCl) have no influence on the electrochemical sta-electrolyte. NaClO can be used in organic solvent or aque- 2 4 4 bility window [85]. Further development of NaCl as sodium ous solvent. The impact of extending the aqueous elec- salt electrolyte is really compromising, because the abun- trolyte's limited working potential window has also been dance of NaCl in the form of sea salt in the world. examined using aqueous Na-ion batteries with highly con- NaCl from sea salt has been one of promising point for centrated electrolytes [89]. sodium-ion battery development. In fact, NaCl can be used For Na in aqueous solutions below 5M, which the water separately as an electrolyte. As an electrolyte, NaCl is used molecules surpass the salt level, the solvation shell consists as an additive in the NaPF electrolyte. The concentration of at least two layers a closely related primary and a rela- used is about 0.19% and was reported to improve cycling tively loose secondary solvation shell, with the first Na ability  [86]. It can also be used as a raw material for the solvation layer usually contains 6 oxygen. However, when production of electrolytes by reacting with AlCl at 300°C, the salt concentration is above 9M, there are hardly enough and the electrolyte formed is NaAlCl [87]. Furthermore, water molecules available to form the "classic" primary sol- NaCl can be electrolyzed to become NaClO and the elec- vation sheath, and bring out "water-in-salt" solution then it trolysis process occurs on the solid surface, in the case an can be visualized as molten salt [90]. 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 81 Application of aqueous sodium-ion batteries suffer from Due to its great mechanical properties, high electrochemical its poor cycling stability, lower voltage window and corro- stability, thermal stability, good interaction with electrolyte sion due to high salt concentration. One of the solution to solutions, and the proven ability to make this feasible, PVDF widen the voltage window is focused on current collector. As has been the dominant binder in the battery industry for the a result, corrosion-resistant current collectors on the cathode transport of Li . The main damage of using PVDF are the and current collectors with a high hydrogen over potential on usage of toxic solvents during its processing and the poor the anode should be used to build high-voltage and long-life adhesion/consistency of power collectors [95]. sodium-ion batteries [79]. Another important external component in the operation of a battery is the binder that holds the electrode material Na‑containing other components to the current collector. The electrochemically active mass must be fastened to the current collector unless the elec- Separators, current collector, and binders are also important trode material is naturally self-standing and may be used components for SIB. Fiber glass is used as a separator in as a monolith anode. As briefly mentioned in the previous cells with electrolyte dissolved in PC solvent. The usage of point, corrosion-resistant current collectors on the cathode fiber glass can reduce the energy density lower build upon and current collectors with a high hydrogen over potential the weight or volume of SIB whole components [91]. Fiber on the anode should be used to develop sodium-ion batter- glass that composed of nonmetallic fibers have a melting ies with high voltage and longer life [79]. As a result, strong point more than 500 °C and excellent fire-resistance perfor - electronic conductivity and long-term viability in a certain mance. But it also has disadvantages such as bad flexibility, electrochemical environment are key parameters for the cur- mechanical strength and high cost. It makes the difficulty rent collector. It also does not have to be overly thick or in the assembly process and also bring great safety hidden heavy to avoid lowering the system's gravimetric and volu- danger in large-scale application [92]. Here is the require- metric energy densities [96]. There have been proposed for ment of separator for SIBs [93] (1) minimal cost to fulfill sodium batteries current collector such as prepatterned cur- the requirements of large-scale energy storage; (2) due to rent collectors, porous Al and Cu current collectors, carbon the high viscosity of SIB electrolyte, better chemical stabil- felt, and conducting polymer paper-derived mesoporous 3D ity and wettability of separators are required; (3) Na den- N-doped carbon [97]. drites have a higher reaction rate and risk than Li dendrites, and SIB separators should be more resistant to dendrites; Sodium source (4) other safety indexes of SIB separators, such as thermal stability and mechanical strength, are also strongly. Several Sodium can be found from sea salt and the earth’s crust. separator modifications have also been unfolded, including There is 2.8% sodium available in the earth’s crust [24]. Fig- the Electrospun Hybrid PVDF-HFP/SiO fiber-based separa- ure 5 demonstrated the relative abundance of the eight most tor, which is applied to sodium-ion batteries and the electro- abundant elements. lyte absorption shows no swelling, and stable interface [93]. According to the 2013 Geospatial Information Agency, The present research on SIB separators is mostly focused on Indonesia has a coastline of 99.093 km, which is the second the modification of polyolefin separators and the manufac- longest in the world after Canada. It shows that the country ture of nonwoven separators to ensure that the separator can has a great potential for salt development. retain chemical stability in the electrolyte while also having The quality of saltwater, the procedure, and the tech- a high affinity for the electrolyte. nology which are have an impact on the salt production. Another major component for the development of practi- The production of salt in Indonesia is in the middle class. cal SIB is the binder used for powdered electrode materials. Based on Ministry of Industry, Indonesia 2018, the average A binder’s key functions may be described as follows: func- national salt production is 1,281,522 tons and the average tioning as a dispersant or thickening agent to bind the active national salt consumption is 3,185,194 tons that means the material together and provide consistent mixing of electrode national salt production cannot meet national salt consump- components; maintaining the electrode structure's integrity tion [98]. It contains 85–90 percents sodium chloride. The by functioning as a conductive agent and fluid collector; sodium chloride level of those salts is still beneath the Indo- allowing the electrode to conduct the requisite amount of nesian National Standard (SNI) for human salt consumption electrons; increasing the electrolyte's wettability and encour- (dry base) [99] and for salt industry is 98.5% [100]. aging ion transport between the electrode and the electrolyte A method is needed for the salt production to fulfill the contact [94]. The most used binders are PVDF and CMC. needs based on the quality of the generated salt and the salt Furthermore, PVDF is used with NMP (N-methyl-2-pyrro- requirements for human salt consumption and salt indus- lidone) solvent which is pestilent and volatile, while CMC try. There are plenty methods for increasing salt quality, is water-soluble, consequently, it is become easier and safer. including physical and chemical approaches. A physical 1 3 82 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 5 Relative abundance of the eight most abundant elements in the continental encrustation [4] method is one method that improves salt quality without [117]. Another study conducted by Jo, 2014, synthesized using chemicals, such as hydro-extraction and evaporation a-NaMnO by a conventional solid-state method using a (re-crystallization)  [101] and chemicals such as sodium mixture of Mn O and Na CO at a molar ratio of 2:1. This 2 3 2 3 carbonate (Na CO ), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), barium selection is due to the fact that nano-sized N a CO as a 2 3 2 3 chloride (BaCl ), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ), calcium source of Na has a good size distribution, and Mn O as 2 2 2 3 chloride (CaCl ), and others are used in the chemical pro- a source of Mn has polygon pieces with micro sizes. The cedure [102]. The hydro-extraction procedure is an extrac- synthesized A-NaMnO shows an agglomerate stick shape tion or separation of a solid-phase component using a liquid with an average particle size of more than 10–50 mm, but phase as a solvent. The salt is the solid phase, while the due to the high surface activity, the small powder stick salt solution is the solvent in this context. The size of salt, form having a 4–5 mm size can be agglomerated easily the concentration of the salt solution as a solvent, and the [105]. The β-NaMnO sample was synthesized by the extraction period all work on the performance of the hydro- solid-state method. The solid-state route implicate mix- extraction process.ing Na CO and Mn O ; then 15% excess sodium weight 2 3 2 3 The high abundance and an urge to develop Indonesian was used. The significant proportion of Na atoms at this salt industries made sodium-ion batteries from sea salt is intermediate site indicates that -NaMnO2 has a strong an interesting research field to develop. Sodium can be probability to produce planar breakdown. The compound −1 extracted from sea salt to be used for sodium-ion batteries. shows a high discharge capacity of 190 mAhg at a low As explained before, desalination batteries also have been C/20 level when it examined as a cathode in a sodium-ion developed and use seawater in the case of NaCl. Besides battery [107]. of using seawater directly to the battery system, a lot of The source of the raw material generally used is sodium salt have been used. Some of the sodium salts used Na CO , which requires a process to alter NaCl into 2 3 by researchers to gain sodium batteries are N a CO [81, 84, Na CO . Synthesis of N a CO according to the solvay pro- 2 3 2 3 2 3 103–107], NaCH COO [29, 69, 108–110], NaCl [30, 69, cess with table salt, therefore, it is more environmentally 87, 111–113], NaNO [57, 59, 114, 115], Na O [64, 116], friendly in the equation below [70]: 3 2 NaOH [83], NaI [82] as shown in Table 3 below. Na CO is 2 3 2NH HCO + 2NaCl → 2NaHCO + 2NH Cl (2) 4 3 3 4 the dominant salt in the manufacturing of sodium-ion bat- tery cathodes. The recovered sodium bicarbonate can be altered to car- For example, of the using of Na CO , Sauvage, 2007, 2 3 bonate (soda-ash) by the arts skill method, through calcifica- synthesized single-phase Na MnO powder via a classic 0.44 2 tion (heating) at 170–190 °C. solid-state reaction using MnCO and Na CO (with excess 3 2 3 2NaHCO → Na CO + CO + H O stoichiometry of 10 wt %). Billaud also performed a solid- 3 2 3 2 2 (3) state method with combining Na CO and Mn O ; then 2 3 2 3 Na CO is gained. After that, it ready to use as raw mate- 2 3 15% excess sodium weight was used to obtain β-NaMnO rial for sodium-ion battery cathode. 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 83 Table 4 Chemical and physical Molecular formula NaCl properties of sodium chloride [98] Molecular weight 58.44 Physical form at 25 °C 1 bar Solid Color White or colorless Taste and smell Salty Density 2.17 g / cm Melting point 804 °C Boiling point Easily evaporate above the melting point Solubility Easily soluble in water and glycerol, slightly soluble in alcohol, and almost insoluble in hydrochloric acid pH Neutral Flammability Not flammable Storage stability Stable, compatible with strong oxidizing agents Corrosion characteristics Corrosive to base metal Potential of NaCl for sodium‑ion batteries Future projection of SIBs obtained from cheap Na sources The various sources of sodium, sodium chloride (NaCl) or commonly considered as salt, mentioning above that they There is something more interesting about the use of sea have been known for a long time and used widely in various salt in batteries, namely the desalination batteries. Desali- industrial fields. Salt is easy to obtain from evaporation of nation batteries recover sodium and chloride ions from seawater. This dominates mineral deposits as well, especially seawater and create fresh water using an electrical energy in the form of halite [118]. The physical and chemical prop- input, firstly developed by Pasta, 2012 [120]. They used erties of NaCl can be seen in Table 4 below. Na Mn O as cathode for capture N a ions and Ag elec- 2-x 5 10 NaCl is predicted to be thermodynamically stable by trode was used to capture Cl ions with this following preserving its electronic properties and bond structure. The reaction. chemical properties of NaCl under ambient conditions can 5MnO + 2Ag + 2NaCl <-> Na Mn O + 2AgCl 2 2 5 10 be understandable, but under a very high-pressure condi- tions, they can turn the NaCl bond properties. The turning The desalination battery is simple to build, employs can make differences in mechanical and electronic proper - commonly accessible materials, has a promising energy ties. NaCl runs into a phase transformation from F-centered efficiency, runs at room temperature with less corrosion B1 to primitive B2 phase in the NaCl to CsCl structure at issues than conventional desalination technologies, and it + − pressures between 20 and 30 GPa, depending on the tem- has the potential to be N a and Cl selective, obviating the perature [119]. need for resalination [120]. NaCl has been used in several components of sodium-ion Other desalination method also developed by Lee [121]. batteries, including electrolyte [28, 29], as a raw material They created a novel way of desalting water by merging for electrodes and electrode doping [30]. NaCl as an elec- CDI and battery systems to improve the desalination trolyte was examined by Liu and compared to NaNO , it performance of capacitive approaches, dubbed "hybrid has a lower ionic strength with the same conductivity [28]. capacitive deionization (HCDI)". A sodium manganese Chen utilizes NaCl as a template for the carbon airgel, with oxide (NMO) electrode, an anion exchange membrane, NaCl and flux, a carbon air-gel having a wave-like morphol- and a porous carbon electrode make up the HCDI asym- ogy with overflow micro-pores, large accessible surface area metric system [121]. The result is the HCDI system has and strong structural stability. Furthermore, it can provide successfully desalted high-capacity sodium chloride solu- an increasing specific capacity and a better capability for tion, faster ion removal rate, excellent stability and gotten sodium storage [66]. higher specific capacity of the batteries. Lately, Cao (2019) also developed HCDI system for desalination using Na3V2(PO4)3@C as sodium ions trap- per while chloride ions are physically trapped or released by the AC electrode. From the result, conclude that the 1 3 84 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 Fig. 6 Comparison of the 18,650 cells price [6] removal ion rates increased as the water concentrations same cell, such as the 18,650-round cell, the SIB is cheaper increased [122]. than LIB with an LFP/NMC cathode. The changing of NaCl as an electrolyte also examined by Liu and com- lithium salt into sodium salt, changing copper foil to alu- pared to NaNO , it has a lower ionic strength with the minium foil for anodes and some additive can help decrease same conductivity [28]. Another by Chen, N a during the material cost production [123]. Furthermore, the usege charging is captured by the N aTi (PO ) cathode, while of NaCl as an electrode, additive and electrolyte is also a 2 4 3 Cl is captured by the silver electrode to form AgCl, and factor that give contribution in reducting production costs, vice versa [29]. The function of the NaCl is to provide bet- especially in raw materials. When a cathode using a source ter ion conduction. This research use 0.6 M NaCl that is of Na CO , which was synthesized independently from NaCl 2 3 equivalent to seawater and increase into 1 M NaCl to make can save about 16.66% after being calculated and anode with sure that ion conduction is enough during charge process. sodium metal when synthesized independently with NaCl The charge process is described in the following reaction: can save about 98% after being calculated because sodium metal is classified as expensive matter. Because of the con- Anode: NaTi PO + 2Na + 2e → Na Ti PO (21) 2 4 3 2 4 3 3 gested areas of Na, developing aqueous Na-ion batteries is both valuable and possible (NaCl, Na SO, NaNO , etc.). 2 4 3 − − As an alternative to LIB, SIB looks forward to have a low Cathode ∶ Ag + Cl → AgCl + e (22) environmental impact. Peters [124] quantify the impact of In contrast, the discharge process occurs as follows: SIB on the environment and compare it with LIB. Conse- quently, SIB has less impact due to the following reasons: + − Anode ∶ Na Ti PO → NaTi PO + 2Na + 2e 3 2 4 2 4 3 3 (23) 1. It is possible to use aluminium for both cathode and − + − Cathode ∶ AgCl + e → Ag + Cl (24) anode 2. When the anode uses hard-carbon, it may be possible to Therefore, the overall reaction occurs as follows: use hard-carbon from organic waste. 3. It can reduce the use of nickel, which is commonly used NaTi PO + 2Ag + 2NaCl → Na Ti PO + 2AgCl 2 4 3 2 4 3 3 for LIB cathodes, therefore the impact of nickel mining (25) on the environment can also be reduced. However, more The charge–discharge process shows good stability [29]. in-depth research is needed. Besides conducted new battery system. This alternative also 4. The binder commonly used in LIB, such as PVDF, in its contributed to renewable energy storage from desalination production, causes a high greenhouse gas effect, there- process, because it is used natural seawater and collect the fore, an alternative water-based binder is needed. salt. From an economic point of view, SIB can compete with Bossche et  al. [125] classify battery types with LIB in terms of price, as explained by [21] in Fig. 6. In the adverse environmental impacts, including lithium-ion, 1 3 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2022) 11:71–89 85 nickel–cadmium, lead-acid, sodium-nickel chloride, and can be processed into other forms of sodium salt or used nickel-metal hydride. The sodium-based battery type has directly. The source of this materials can meet the possible the lowest environmental impact than others. high demand for SIB in the future. As will be explained in Some of researchers also have been conducted life cycle the next section, NaCl from seawater can contribute to all assessment (LCA) for sodium-ion batteries. LCA is a defined SIB components, both cathode, anode, and electrolyte. approach for calculating the environmental effects of com- Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- modities, products, and activities. It considers the entire life tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s40243- 022- 00208-1 . cycle, from resource extraction to production, usage, and end-of-life management, as well as waste recycling and dis- Acknowledgements This paper was funded by the Ministry of posal [124]. Except for LFP–LTO type LIBs, the examined Research, Technology and Higher Education (KemenRistekdikti) SIB would already beat existing LIBs in terms of environ- through the “Penelitian Dasar” scheme with Grant Number 221.1/ UN27.22/HK.07.00/2021. mental performance with lifetimes of roughly 3000 cycles. Sodium-ion batteries are still one of the most promising Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- alternatives for next-generation stationary batteries, where bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- the lack of volumetric limits and a focus on economy, safety, tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, and extended life are well linked with SIB features. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not Conclusion permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have long dominant energy stor- copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . age technology in electric vehicles and hand-held electron- ics. The cost and limited quantities of lithium in the earth's encrustation may prevent LIBs from being used in future large-scale renewable energy storage. Lithium metal, if used References simultaneously, is depleted easily. The searching for new sources of lithium batteries and recycling is not expected to 1. Carley, S., Konisky, D.M.: The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition. Nat. Energy 5, 569–577 (2020). meet the high demand. 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Journal

Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy – Springer Journals

Published: Apr 1, 2022

Keywords: Energy storage; Battery; Sodium-ion; Sea salt

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