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Salinity stress and PGPR effects on essential oil changes in Rosmarinus officinalis L.

Salinity stress and PGPR effects on essential oil changes in Rosmarinus officinalis L. Background: Medicinal plant species have been used by the ancestors around the world since ancient times. Ros- marinus officinalis is one of the most used medicinal plants, which belongs to the family Lamiaceae. To investigate the effects of different levels of salinity stress along with the induction of bacterial growth stimulation on the amount of essential oil composition in R. officinalis, an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 12 treatments and five replications. Salinity treatments included 0 (control), 2.5 ( T1), 5 ( T2), 7.5 ( T3), 10 ( T4) and 12.5 ( T5) NaCl g/L, and the bacterium was pseudomonas fluorescence. Results: The percentage of essential oils showed a significant relationship with increasing salinity either alone or in composition with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) inoculation treatments and it increased with increas- ing salinity levels to treatment 4 ( T4, 10 g/L NaCl) but decreased with further increases in salinity levels in treatments without using PGPR and it was constant in treatment with using PGPR. Phellandrene, one of the main compounds of essential oils, showed a trend like the whole amount of essential oils in both group of treatments. Conclusion: Abiotic and biotic factors may influence the different mechanisms and limit the interactions between plant and beneficial bacteria, resulting in less-than-acceptable performance in plant growth promotion and manage - ment of diseases. In this context, the results revealed that the application of PGPRs can help improve the essential oil yield in R. officinalis even in salinity conditions. Keywords: Bacteria, Essential oils, Rosemary, Medicinal plant, Salt stress, GC/MS Introduction have stimulatory effects [ 34]. Rosemary oils have been Medicinal plants species and aromatic plants have been widely used for centuries as an ingredient in cosmetics, used by the ancestors around the world since ancient soaps, perfumes, deodorants, both for flavoring and for times [32]. Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) belongs preservation of food products [2], and they have also to the family Labiatae or Lamiaceae and occurs as a many therapeutics and help the distribution of drugs and shrub, under the shrub or herbaceous [3]. It is a dense antiseptics [35]. Rosemary is used for treating different aromatic plant with dark green lavender-like leaves and diseases in traditional medicine, including depression, insomniac and arthritic pains [28, 47]. is a native of the Mediterranean region. The flowering According to Beattie [6], bacteria that reduce the inci tops and the rosemary leaves mainly contain flavonoids, - phenolic acids, especially rosmarinic acid (choleretic dence or severity of plant diseases are often referred to as activities), and an essential oil (containing pinene, cam- biocontrol agents, whereas those that exhibit antagonistic phene, cineole, borneol and camphor) to which it must activity toward a pathogen are defined as antagonists. The idea of using bacteria to sustain land productive for future generations is not new, and the utilization of bacteria to *Correspondence: dehghanir@kashanu.ac.ir 1 stimulate plant growth in agriculture has been practiced Department of Rangeland Management, College of Natural Resources and Earth Sciences, University of Kashan, Isfahan, Iran for millennia. There is increasing evidence that beneficial Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/ publi cdoma in/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 2 of 7 microbes can enhance plants’ tolerance to adverse environ- lasted 4 months in salinity stress either alone or in combi- mental stresses such as salinity stress [18], drought stress nation with PGPR. For all treatments, all planted seedlings [46], weed infestation [4], nutrient deficiency and heavy were harvested and aerial parts of seedlings were dried and metal contaminations [42]. PGPR, as biocontrol agents, can powdered as standard. The essential oils were separately act through various mechanisms, regardless of their role in extracted by the Clevenger device. Isolation and identifica - direct growth promotion, such as by the known production tion of rosemary essential oil compounds were performed of auxin phytohormone [38], a decrease in plant ethylene by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) levels [21] or nitrogen-fixing associated with roots [13]. machine in the laboratory. Statistical analyses were per- Studies on the effect of salinity and PGPR on a plant have formed with mean comparison of Duncan’s multiple range been neglected. Therefore, the present study aims to deter - method using SPSS software version 24.0. mine the changes in amount and performance of essential oils under the salinity stress either alone or in combination Results and discussion with PGPR bacteria in R. officinalis. Based on the analysis of variance, the percentage of essential oils in R. officinalis showed a significant rela - Materials and methods tionship (p < 0.01) with increasing salinity either alone To investigate the effects of different levels of salinity stress or in composition with PGPR inoculation treatments along with the induction of bacterial growth stimulation on (Table 2). The results showed that the amount of essential the amount of essential oils composition of R. officinalis, oils increases with increasing salinity levels to treatment an experiment was conducted in a completely randomized 4 (T4, 10 g/L NaCl) but decreased with further increases block design with 12 treatments and five replications in the in salinity levels (Table  3, Figs.  1 and 2). These results greenhouse of the Natural Resources Faculty at the Uni- were confirmed by Ghorbani et al. [20] studying Nitraria versity of Kashan. Salinity treatments in this experiment schoberi and Panahi et al. [36] studying Salsola orientalis, included 0 (control), 2.5 (T1), 5 (T2), 7.5 (T3), 10 (T4) and explaining that the moderate salinity levels can improve 12.5 (T5) gram NaCl per liter. A fresh culture of bacteria the growth parameters and the plant will be injured by was used to prepare the suspension or inoculum. The bac - increasing salinity levels. terium in this experiment was Pseudomonas fluorescens, a In the other side, the results of treatments along with strain of CHAO; nutrient broth medium was required to PGPR inoculation showed that the amount of essen- prepare the CHAO suspension. In the Soil Laboratory of tial oils increases with increasing salinity levels to treat- the University of Tehran, the pure bacteria of CHAO were ment 4 (T4, 10 g/L NaCl) and it is constant with further cultured in a solid nutrient agar medium and were located increases in salinity levels (Table  3, Figs.  1 and 2). The at a laboratory normal temperature for 36–48 h. Then, sev - highest amount of essential oils in R. officinalis is 0.882 eral lobes were removed from the new bacteria and cul- and 0.784 in treatment 4 (T4) without using PGPR and in tivated in Nb (nutrient broth) fluid medium for 48 h on a treatment 4 and 5 (T4, T5) with using PGPR, respectively shaker at 150–250 rpm and then were centrifuged at 4500 g (Table 3). The synergistic effects of combined inoculation for 10 min. The white cells of bacteria accumulated at the of PGPRs have also been reported in various medicinal bottom of tubes were removed from the nutrient environ- ment in this way, and they were mixed with distilled water. Some of the bacterial suspensions were placed into the Table 2 Analysis of  variance for  the  impact of  salinity spectrophotometer (Model 2100-UV) at 600  nm with the either  alone or  in  composition with  PGPR on  percentage absorption of one (OD600 = 1) resulted in a concentra- of essential oils in Rosmarinus officinalis tion of 109  cfu/ml [44]. The cuttings of R. officinalis were S.O.V. df M.S transferred to plastic pots after 6  months when they were Treatment Treatment with PGPR deployed and rooted. Soil characteristics were examined without PGPR before starting the treatments presented in Table  1. Then, Salinity 5 0.219** 0.285** all plants (in the PGPR and salinity treatments) were inocu- −6 −6 Error 24 1.833 × 10 3.433 × 10 lated with PGPR growth-stimulating bacteria and after that salinity stress was applied to the plants. The time of stress ** Significant in p < 0.01 Table 1 Characteristics of soil used in the study pH EC (dS/m) O.C (%) SP (%) Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Texture class N (%) P (mg/kg) K (mg/kg) 8.1 2.73 0.27 25.3 11 13 76 S.L. 0.025 39.5 192 Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 3 of 7 Table 3 Average percentage of  essential oils of  Rosmarinus officinalis in  different treatments of  salinity alone and in composition with PGPR Treatment Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 With PGPR 0.294 0.294 0.392 0.686 0.784 0.784 Without PGPR 0.294 0.392 0.392 0.588 0.882 0.490 Fig. 1 Percentage of essential oils of Rosmarinus officinalis without PGPR (A) and with PGPR (B) and aromatic plants (MAPs), for example in Azadirachta results showed an increasing trend in phellandrene indica [43], Saracaasoca [25], Phyllanthus amarus [14], content with increasing salinity levels (Fig.  3b). The Alpinia galanga and Coleus amboinicus [31], Ocimum highest amount of phellandrene is 57.48 in treatment basilicum [23], Calendula officinalis [24] and Silybum 5 (T5, 12.5  g NaCl per liter) with using PGPR inocu- marianum [15]. Beneficial rhizosphere bacteria are of lation. Trends of other compounds are shown in Fig.  3 two general types, those forming a symbiotic relation- and Tables  4 and 5. Nevertheless, the application of ship with the plant and those that are free-living in the PGPR has specifically shown a significant positive effect soil and root [5, 7, 27]. On the other hand, various PGPR on essential oil production in R. officinalis. strains have been also proven to be able to increase nutri- Dehydration, salinity, low- and high-temperature ent availability in the rhizosphere [8]. stresses and other abiotic stresses lead to metabolic tox- Based on the analysis of variance, the percent- icity, generation of ROS, membrane disorganization, pre- age of main compounds of essential oils in R. offici - vention of photosynthesis, reduced nutrient acquisition nalis showed a significant relationship (p < 0.01) with and altered hormones levels [9]. Accumulation of osmo- increasing salinity either alone or in composition with protectants, production of superoxide radical scavenging PGPR inoculation treatments (Tables  4 and 5). The mechanisms, exclusion or compartmentation of ions by results showed that the amount of phellandrene con- the efficient transporter and symporter systems and pro - tent increases with increasing salinity levels to treat- duction of specific enzymes involved in the regulation of ment 4 (T4, 10  g/L NaCl) but decreased with further plant hormones are among the mechanisms that plants increases in salinity levels (Fig.  3a) in treatments with- have evolved for adaptation to abiotic stresses [12, 29, out PGPR inoculation. But in another group (treat- 37, 40, 41]. Similar to these, findings of PGPR have been ments with both salinity and PGPR inoculation), the reported by some other workers [19, 26]. Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 4 of 7 Fig. 2 Diagram of salinity alone and in composition with PGPR Table 4 Results of  analysis of  variance for  the  impact of  salinity without  PGPR on  the  rate of  main compounds of essential oils in Rosmarinus officinalis S.O.V. df M.S. Phellandrene Limonene Dill ether Dihydrocarvone Thymol Myristicin Dillapiole Salinity 5 345.444** 35.975** 9.921** 2.441** 0.136** 0.159** 13.312** −5 −5 −5 Error 24 0.000 7.667 × 10 8.000 × 10 0.000 0.010 7.667 × 10 0.000 ** Significant in p < 0.01 Table 5 Results of  analysis of  variance for  the  impact of  salinity with  PGPR on  percentage of  main compounds of essential oils in Rosmarinus officinalis S.O.V. df M.S. Phellandrene Limonene Dill ether Dihydrocarvone Thymol Myristicin Dillapiole Salinity 5 442.204** 37.009** 11.647** 2.057** 0.024** 0.348** 10.338** −5 −5 −5 −5 −5 Error 24 0.000 0.000 667 × 10 7.667 × 10 7.667 × 10 7.000 × 10 5.000 × 10 ** Significant in p < 0.01 Essential oil yield can be increased by plant in asso- development, yield, leaf area, shoot and root weights, ciation with mycorrhiza and humic substances, which chlorophyll content, protein content, hydraulic activity benefit root ramification, improving water absorp - and nutrient uptake (including phosphorus and nitro- tion and phosphorus uptake. Furthermore, they can gen). The bacteria, with their physiological adaptation also influence the chemical composition of EOs [10, and genetic potential for increased tolerance to drought, 22]. Adesemoye and Kloepper [1] compiled the benefits increasing salt concentration and high temperatures, derivable from plant–PGPR interactions to include the could improve plant production in degraded sites [30, 45] following: improvements in seed germination rate, root (Tables 6 and 7). Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 5 of 7 Conclusion literature clearly demonstrates that PGPR induces plant The plant growth-promoting microorganisms were found growth and development through their numerous direct to have a great potential for use as bioinoculants to increase and indirect mechanisms of action [33]. In this work, syn- production of medicinal and aromatic plants [11]. The thesis of herbal organs for essential oils of R. officinalis was Fig. 3 Main compounds of essential oils Rosmarinus officinalis without PGPR (A) and with PGPR (B) Table 6 Amount of the different compounds of essential oils in salinity treatment without PGPR in Rosmarinus officinalis Compounds Retention time Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Phellandrene 15.41 30.31 30.31 43.98 44.40 49.75 45.54 Limonene 16.60 27.86 28.14 29.66 23.17 29.85 30.59 Dill ether 24.12 7.13 6.04 6.62 5.95 5.67 3.08 Dihydrocarvone 24.91 1.71 1.85 1.26 0.52 1.35 0.06 Thymol 29.41 0.42 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.37 0.25 Myristicin 38.87 0.35 0.36 0.45 0.00 0.20 0.07 Dillapiole 43.28 4.43 1.44 1.74 0.00 0.41 0.38 Table 7 Amount of the different compounds of essential oils in salinity treatment with PGPR in Rosmarinus officinalis Compounds Retention time Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Phellandrene 15.41 31.09 40.34 50.24 43.69 49.22 58.48 Limonene 16.60 31.04 29.42 26.11 33.33 26.79 28.11 Dill ether 24.12 5.95 7.63 6.48 6.88 4.44 3.61 Dihydrocarvone 24.91 1.51 1.59 1.18 1.46 0.02 0.50 Thymol 29.41 0.29 0.16 0.25 0.29 0.12 0.25 Myristicin 38.87 0.30 0.47 0.66 0.10 0 0.57 Dillapiole 43.28 3.35 3.50 1.52 0.52 0 1.45 Dehghani Bidgoli et al. 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Palevitch PD, Yaniv Z. Medicinal plants of Holy land. Tel-Aviv, Tammuz Publisher Ltd. 1991;1:2–4. 36. Panahi F, Asareh MH, Jafari M, Givar A, Tavili A, Arzani H, Ghorbani M. The responses of Salsola orientalis to salt stress. Int J Adv Biol Biomed Res. 2015;3(2):163–71. Ready to submit your research ? Choose BMC and benefit from: fast, convenient online submission thorough peer review by experienced researchers in your field rapid publication on acceptance support for research data, including large and complex data types • gold Open Access which fosters wider collaboration and increased citations maximum visibility for your research: over 100M website views per year At BMC, research is always in progress. Learn more biomedcentral.com/submissions http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Agriculture & Food Security Springer Journals

Salinity stress and PGPR effects on essential oil changes in Rosmarinus officinalis L.

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Springer Journals
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Copyright © 2019 by The Author(s)
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Life Sciences; Agriculture; Biotechnology; Plant Sciences; Ecology; Agricultural Economics; Epidemiology
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Abstract

Background: Medicinal plant species have been used by the ancestors around the world since ancient times. Ros- marinus officinalis is one of the most used medicinal plants, which belongs to the family Lamiaceae. To investigate the effects of different levels of salinity stress along with the induction of bacterial growth stimulation on the amount of essential oil composition in R. officinalis, an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 12 treatments and five replications. Salinity treatments included 0 (control), 2.5 ( T1), 5 ( T2), 7.5 ( T3), 10 ( T4) and 12.5 ( T5) NaCl g/L, and the bacterium was pseudomonas fluorescence. Results: The percentage of essential oils showed a significant relationship with increasing salinity either alone or in composition with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) inoculation treatments and it increased with increas- ing salinity levels to treatment 4 ( T4, 10 g/L NaCl) but decreased with further increases in salinity levels in treatments without using PGPR and it was constant in treatment with using PGPR. Phellandrene, one of the main compounds of essential oils, showed a trend like the whole amount of essential oils in both group of treatments. Conclusion: Abiotic and biotic factors may influence the different mechanisms and limit the interactions between plant and beneficial bacteria, resulting in less-than-acceptable performance in plant growth promotion and manage - ment of diseases. In this context, the results revealed that the application of PGPRs can help improve the essential oil yield in R. officinalis even in salinity conditions. Keywords: Bacteria, Essential oils, Rosemary, Medicinal plant, Salt stress, GC/MS Introduction have stimulatory effects [ 34]. Rosemary oils have been Medicinal plants species and aromatic plants have been widely used for centuries as an ingredient in cosmetics, used by the ancestors around the world since ancient soaps, perfumes, deodorants, both for flavoring and for times [32]. Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) belongs preservation of food products [2], and they have also to the family Labiatae or Lamiaceae and occurs as a many therapeutics and help the distribution of drugs and shrub, under the shrub or herbaceous [3]. It is a dense antiseptics [35]. Rosemary is used for treating different aromatic plant with dark green lavender-like leaves and diseases in traditional medicine, including depression, insomniac and arthritic pains [28, 47]. is a native of the Mediterranean region. The flowering According to Beattie [6], bacteria that reduce the inci tops and the rosemary leaves mainly contain flavonoids, - phenolic acids, especially rosmarinic acid (choleretic dence or severity of plant diseases are often referred to as activities), and an essential oil (containing pinene, cam- biocontrol agents, whereas those that exhibit antagonistic phene, cineole, borneol and camphor) to which it must activity toward a pathogen are defined as antagonists. The idea of using bacteria to sustain land productive for future generations is not new, and the utilization of bacteria to *Correspondence: dehghanir@kashanu.ac.ir 1 stimulate plant growth in agriculture has been practiced Department of Rangeland Management, College of Natural Resources and Earth Sciences, University of Kashan, Isfahan, Iran for millennia. There is increasing evidence that beneficial Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/ publi cdoma in/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 2 of 7 microbes can enhance plants’ tolerance to adverse environ- lasted 4 months in salinity stress either alone or in combi- mental stresses such as salinity stress [18], drought stress nation with PGPR. For all treatments, all planted seedlings [46], weed infestation [4], nutrient deficiency and heavy were harvested and aerial parts of seedlings were dried and metal contaminations [42]. PGPR, as biocontrol agents, can powdered as standard. The essential oils were separately act through various mechanisms, regardless of their role in extracted by the Clevenger device. Isolation and identifica - direct growth promotion, such as by the known production tion of rosemary essential oil compounds were performed of auxin phytohormone [38], a decrease in plant ethylene by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) levels [21] or nitrogen-fixing associated with roots [13]. machine in the laboratory. Statistical analyses were per- Studies on the effect of salinity and PGPR on a plant have formed with mean comparison of Duncan’s multiple range been neglected. Therefore, the present study aims to deter - method using SPSS software version 24.0. mine the changes in amount and performance of essential oils under the salinity stress either alone or in combination Results and discussion with PGPR bacteria in R. officinalis. Based on the analysis of variance, the percentage of essential oils in R. officinalis showed a significant rela - Materials and methods tionship (p < 0.01) with increasing salinity either alone To investigate the effects of different levels of salinity stress or in composition with PGPR inoculation treatments along with the induction of bacterial growth stimulation on (Table 2). The results showed that the amount of essential the amount of essential oils composition of R. officinalis, oils increases with increasing salinity levels to treatment an experiment was conducted in a completely randomized 4 (T4, 10 g/L NaCl) but decreased with further increases block design with 12 treatments and five replications in the in salinity levels (Table  3, Figs.  1 and 2). These results greenhouse of the Natural Resources Faculty at the Uni- were confirmed by Ghorbani et al. [20] studying Nitraria versity of Kashan. Salinity treatments in this experiment schoberi and Panahi et al. [36] studying Salsola orientalis, included 0 (control), 2.5 (T1), 5 (T2), 7.5 (T3), 10 (T4) and explaining that the moderate salinity levels can improve 12.5 (T5) gram NaCl per liter. A fresh culture of bacteria the growth parameters and the plant will be injured by was used to prepare the suspension or inoculum. The bac - increasing salinity levels. terium in this experiment was Pseudomonas fluorescens, a In the other side, the results of treatments along with strain of CHAO; nutrient broth medium was required to PGPR inoculation showed that the amount of essen- prepare the CHAO suspension. In the Soil Laboratory of tial oils increases with increasing salinity levels to treat- the University of Tehran, the pure bacteria of CHAO were ment 4 (T4, 10 g/L NaCl) and it is constant with further cultured in a solid nutrient agar medium and were located increases in salinity levels (Table  3, Figs.  1 and 2). The at a laboratory normal temperature for 36–48 h. Then, sev - highest amount of essential oils in R. officinalis is 0.882 eral lobes were removed from the new bacteria and cul- and 0.784 in treatment 4 (T4) without using PGPR and in tivated in Nb (nutrient broth) fluid medium for 48 h on a treatment 4 and 5 (T4, T5) with using PGPR, respectively shaker at 150–250 rpm and then were centrifuged at 4500 g (Table 3). The synergistic effects of combined inoculation for 10 min. The white cells of bacteria accumulated at the of PGPRs have also been reported in various medicinal bottom of tubes were removed from the nutrient environ- ment in this way, and they were mixed with distilled water. Some of the bacterial suspensions were placed into the Table 2 Analysis of  variance for  the  impact of  salinity spectrophotometer (Model 2100-UV) at 600  nm with the either  alone or  in  composition with  PGPR on  percentage absorption of one (OD600 = 1) resulted in a concentra- of essential oils in Rosmarinus officinalis tion of 109  cfu/ml [44]. The cuttings of R. officinalis were S.O.V. df M.S transferred to plastic pots after 6  months when they were Treatment Treatment with PGPR deployed and rooted. Soil characteristics were examined without PGPR before starting the treatments presented in Table  1. Then, Salinity 5 0.219** 0.285** all plants (in the PGPR and salinity treatments) were inocu- −6 −6 Error 24 1.833 × 10 3.433 × 10 lated with PGPR growth-stimulating bacteria and after that salinity stress was applied to the plants. The time of stress ** Significant in p < 0.01 Table 1 Characteristics of soil used in the study pH EC (dS/m) O.C (%) SP (%) Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Texture class N (%) P (mg/kg) K (mg/kg) 8.1 2.73 0.27 25.3 11 13 76 S.L. 0.025 39.5 192 Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 3 of 7 Table 3 Average percentage of  essential oils of  Rosmarinus officinalis in  different treatments of  salinity alone and in composition with PGPR Treatment Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 With PGPR 0.294 0.294 0.392 0.686 0.784 0.784 Without PGPR 0.294 0.392 0.392 0.588 0.882 0.490 Fig. 1 Percentage of essential oils of Rosmarinus officinalis without PGPR (A) and with PGPR (B) and aromatic plants (MAPs), for example in Azadirachta results showed an increasing trend in phellandrene indica [43], Saracaasoca [25], Phyllanthus amarus [14], content with increasing salinity levels (Fig.  3b). The Alpinia galanga and Coleus amboinicus [31], Ocimum highest amount of phellandrene is 57.48 in treatment basilicum [23], Calendula officinalis [24] and Silybum 5 (T5, 12.5  g NaCl per liter) with using PGPR inocu- marianum [15]. Beneficial rhizosphere bacteria are of lation. Trends of other compounds are shown in Fig.  3 two general types, those forming a symbiotic relation- and Tables  4 and 5. Nevertheless, the application of ship with the plant and those that are free-living in the PGPR has specifically shown a significant positive effect soil and root [5, 7, 27]. On the other hand, various PGPR on essential oil production in R. officinalis. strains have been also proven to be able to increase nutri- Dehydration, salinity, low- and high-temperature ent availability in the rhizosphere [8]. stresses and other abiotic stresses lead to metabolic tox- Based on the analysis of variance, the percent- icity, generation of ROS, membrane disorganization, pre- age of main compounds of essential oils in R. offici - vention of photosynthesis, reduced nutrient acquisition nalis showed a significant relationship (p < 0.01) with and altered hormones levels [9]. Accumulation of osmo- increasing salinity either alone or in composition with protectants, production of superoxide radical scavenging PGPR inoculation treatments (Tables  4 and 5). The mechanisms, exclusion or compartmentation of ions by results showed that the amount of phellandrene con- the efficient transporter and symporter systems and pro - tent increases with increasing salinity levels to treat- duction of specific enzymes involved in the regulation of ment 4 (T4, 10  g/L NaCl) but decreased with further plant hormones are among the mechanisms that plants increases in salinity levels (Fig.  3a) in treatments with- have evolved for adaptation to abiotic stresses [12, 29, out PGPR inoculation. But in another group (treat- 37, 40, 41]. Similar to these, findings of PGPR have been ments with both salinity and PGPR inoculation), the reported by some other workers [19, 26]. Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 4 of 7 Fig. 2 Diagram of salinity alone and in composition with PGPR Table 4 Results of  analysis of  variance for  the  impact of  salinity without  PGPR on  the  rate of  main compounds of essential oils in Rosmarinus officinalis S.O.V. df M.S. Phellandrene Limonene Dill ether Dihydrocarvone Thymol Myristicin Dillapiole Salinity 5 345.444** 35.975** 9.921** 2.441** 0.136** 0.159** 13.312** −5 −5 −5 Error 24 0.000 7.667 × 10 8.000 × 10 0.000 0.010 7.667 × 10 0.000 ** Significant in p < 0.01 Table 5 Results of  analysis of  variance for  the  impact of  salinity with  PGPR on  percentage of  main compounds of essential oils in Rosmarinus officinalis S.O.V. df M.S. Phellandrene Limonene Dill ether Dihydrocarvone Thymol Myristicin Dillapiole Salinity 5 442.204** 37.009** 11.647** 2.057** 0.024** 0.348** 10.338** −5 −5 −5 −5 −5 Error 24 0.000 0.000 667 × 10 7.667 × 10 7.667 × 10 7.000 × 10 5.000 × 10 ** Significant in p < 0.01 Essential oil yield can be increased by plant in asso- development, yield, leaf area, shoot and root weights, ciation with mycorrhiza and humic substances, which chlorophyll content, protein content, hydraulic activity benefit root ramification, improving water absorp - and nutrient uptake (including phosphorus and nitro- tion and phosphorus uptake. Furthermore, they can gen). The bacteria, with their physiological adaptation also influence the chemical composition of EOs [10, and genetic potential for increased tolerance to drought, 22]. Adesemoye and Kloepper [1] compiled the benefits increasing salt concentration and high temperatures, derivable from plant–PGPR interactions to include the could improve plant production in degraded sites [30, 45] following: improvements in seed germination rate, root (Tables 6 and 7). Dehghani Bidgoli et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:2 Page 5 of 7 Conclusion literature clearly demonstrates that PGPR induces plant The plant growth-promoting microorganisms were found growth and development through their numerous direct to have a great potential for use as bioinoculants to increase and indirect mechanisms of action [33]. In this work, syn- production of medicinal and aromatic plants [11]. The thesis of herbal organs for essential oils of R. officinalis was Fig. 3 Main compounds of essential oils Rosmarinus officinalis without PGPR (A) and with PGPR (B) Table 6 Amount of the different compounds of essential oils in salinity treatment without PGPR in Rosmarinus officinalis Compounds Retention time Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Phellandrene 15.41 30.31 30.31 43.98 44.40 49.75 45.54 Limonene 16.60 27.86 28.14 29.66 23.17 29.85 30.59 Dill ether 24.12 7.13 6.04 6.62 5.95 5.67 3.08 Dihydrocarvone 24.91 1.71 1.85 1.26 0.52 1.35 0.06 Thymol 29.41 0.42 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.37 0.25 Myristicin 38.87 0.35 0.36 0.45 0.00 0.20 0.07 Dillapiole 43.28 4.43 1.44 1.74 0.00 0.41 0.38 Table 7 Amount of the different compounds of essential oils in salinity treatment with PGPR in Rosmarinus officinalis Compounds Retention time Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Phellandrene 15.41 31.09 40.34 50.24 43.69 49.22 58.48 Limonene 16.60 31.04 29.42 26.11 33.33 26.79 28.11 Dill ether 24.12 5.95 7.63 6.48 6.88 4.44 3.61 Dihydrocarvone 24.91 1.51 1.59 1.18 1.46 0.02 0.50 Thymol 29.41 0.29 0.16 0.25 0.29 0.12 0.25 Myristicin 38.87 0.30 0.47 0.66 0.10 0 0.57 Dillapiole 43.28 3.35 3.50 1.52 0.52 0 1.45 Dehghani Bidgoli et al. 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