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U. Rashid, F. Anwar, G. Knothe (2009)
Evaluation of biodiesel obtained from cottonseed oilFuel Processing Technology, 90
E. Giakoumis (2013)
A statistical investigation of biodiesel physical and chemical properties, and their correlation with the degree of unsaturationRenewable Energy, 50
Jennifer Lafont, nuel Páez, Alfonso Portacio (2011)
Extracción y Caracterización Fisicoquímica del Aceite de la Semilla (Almendra) del Marañón (Anacardium occidentale L), 22
A. Bamgboye, A. Hansen (2008)
PREDICTION OF CETANE NUMBER OF BIODIESEL FUEL FROM THE FATTY ACID METHYL ESTER (FAME) COMPOSITIONInternational Agrophysics, 22
A. Murugesan, C. Umarani, T. Chinnusamy, M. Krishnan, R. Subramanian, N. Neduzchezhain (2009)
Production and analysis of bio-diesel from non-edible oils-A reviewRenewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13
Xiangmei Meng, Guanyi Chen, Yonghong Wang (2008)
Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil via alkali catalyst and its engine testFuel Processing Technology, 89
V. Borugadda, V. Goud (2012)
Biodiesel production from renewable feedstocks: Status and opportunitiesRenewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16
Jingcan Sun, B. Yu, P. Curran, Shaoquan Liu (2011)
Quantitative analysis of volatiles in transesterified coconut oil by headspace-solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography–mass spectrometryFood Chemistry, 129
C. Goering, A. Schwab, M. Daugherty, E. Pryde, A. Heakin (1982)
Fuel properties of eleven vegetable oilsTransactions of the ASABE, 25
A. Refaat (2009)
Correlation between the chemical structure of biodiesel and its physical propertiesInternational Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, 6
CE Goering, AW Schwab, MJ Daugherty, EH Pryde, AJ Heakin (1982)
Fuel properties of eleven oilsTrans ASAE, 25
A. Demirbaş (2003)
Biodiesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transesterifications and other methods: a surveyEnergy Conversion and Management, 44
D. Leung, Xuan Wu, M. Leung (2010)
A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed transesterificationApplied Energy, 87
Pakorn Winayanuwattikun, Chutima Kaewpiboon, Kingkaew Piriyakananon, Supalak Tantong, Weerasak Thakernkarnkit, W. Chulalaksananukul, Tikamporn Yongvanich (2008)
Potential plant oil feedstock for lipase-catalyzed biodiesel production in ThailandBiomass & Bioenergy, 32
E. Adeyeye (2011)
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF ZONOCERUS VARIEGATUS, MACROTERMES BELLICOSUS AND ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE KERNELInternational journal of pharma and bio sciences
Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 DOI 10.1007/s40243-014-0041-6 OR IGINAL PAPER Potential vegetable sources for biodiesel production: cashew, coconut and cotton • • Jennifer Judith Lafont Amelia Andrea Espitia Jose ´ Ricardo Sodre ´ Received: 26 April 2014 / Accepted: 19 December 2014 / Published online: 27 January 2015 The Author(s) 2015. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract This work presents a study on crude oil and increase of global warming gases and particles suspension biodiesel obtained from the seeds of the tropical plants in the atmosphere. The main reason is the use of fossil fuels Anacardium occidentale L (cashew), Cocos nucifera as energy source for the development of industrial, tech- (coconut palm) and Gossypium hirsutum (upland cotton). nological, economical, transport and agricultural activities, The following crude oil and biodiesel physical–chemical among others [1]. This situation produced the search for properties were determined: acid number, iodine value, alternative and renewable energy sources, such as biodie- copper corrosivity, density and viscosity at different tem- sel. Biodiesel is a biofuel, the chemical composition of peratures. Also, the chemical composition of the fatty acid which is a blend of alkyl esters produced together with methyl esters was measured using gas chromatography and glycerin from esterification or transesterification reactions a comparison was made with biodiesel from other sources of free fatty acids and triglycerides present in vegetable oils reported in the literature. The analysis pointed out that or animal fat [2]. cashew, coconut palm and upland cotton are potential Vegetable oils are the most studied ones for biodiesel sources for biodiesel production. Among the biodiesel production, among them palm, soybean, rapeseed and sun- types tested, cashew showed the highest oxidation stability. flower [3]. Other oleaginous plants have recently been con- sidered for biodiesel production, such as Anacardium Keywords Biodiesel Cashew Coconut Cotton Fatty occidentale L. This is popularly known as cashew, belonging acid to the Anacardiaceous group, typical from tropical zone, and it presents excellent nutritional and medical properties. Its fruit contains A and C vitamins and it is used to elaborate juices. Introduction The fruit is united to a pseudo fruit of gray color that has two types of oils, one of them, of black color, is viscous and cor- rosive due to the presence of anacardic acids, used as insect The world energy demand and environmental contamina- tion have both increased throughout the years from the repellent. The other is light amber, with high concentration of fatty acids, and it has started to be studied as a potential bio- diesel source [4]. The fatty acid composition of Anacardium J. J. Lafont A. A. Espitia occidentale L has previously been reported by [5, 6]. Department of Chemistry, University of Cordoba, Cocos nucifera is a palm tree commonly known as Carrera 6, N8 76-103, Monterı `a, Co ´ rdoba, Colombia coconut, belonging to the Arecaceae group. It grows in e-mail: jenniferlafontmendoza@gmail.com tropical climate and humid atmosphere. Its thin trunk can A. A. Espitia reach 20 m tall, and its large fruit can have 20–30 cm of e-mail: andreaespitia36@gmail.com diameter, with a fibrous skin, inside which is the fruit of nut J. R. Sodre (&) of oval shape, light brown color and hollow, that is filled Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pontifical Catholic with a juice during its growth. This fruit is used to obtain University of Minas Gerais, Av. Dom Jose Gaspar 500, Belo oil and its juice is used in refreshing drinks [7]. Previous Horizonte, MG 30535-901, Brazil work on coconut biodiesel has been presented by [5, 8]. e-mail: ricardo@pucminas.br 123 1 Page 2 of 7 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 The Gossypium hirsutum, known as upland cotton, is a Crude oil and biodiesel production bush belonging to the malvaceae group that can achieve 2 m tall. Its flowers are yellow and, when fecundated, The tested cashew and cotton seeds were peeled and change to pink. After withering they turn into fruits, which crunched by a milling machine. Then, they were dried at 105 C during 30 min in a micro processing muffle model are capsules of 3–5 pistils with 6–10 seeds in each of them. As the seeds are mature, their epidermis generates the Terrıgeno, of rated temperature 1,200 C, rated power 2.6 kW and maximum volume 8.8 L. After drying, the cellulosic fibers of cotton, which are important textile products. The seeds are also rich sources of oil and pro- crunched seeds were weighted and the drying procedure was repeated until the difference between the measured teins, with high industrial value [9]. From these biodiesel sources, cotton is the only one that has been extensively weights was below 0.05 %. studied by many researchers, among them [1, 2, 8, 10–13]. The dry sample (100 g) was submitted to an oil This paper presents an analysis of the physical–chemical extraction process using hexane as a solvent. The solvent properties of the crude oil and biodiesel produced from the was recovered by a rotary evaporator. The concentrations tropical plants Anacardium occidentale L, Cocos nucifera of crude oil obtained were 77.88 % for cashew and and Gossypium hirsutum. The properties evaluated are acid 75.63 % for cotton. The coconut seed was grated and the number, iodine value, copper corrosion, density and vis- cosity. The methyl esters present in each biodiesel type are also investigated to verify if those are real potential sources for high-quality biofuel production. This work aims at giving further insight on the quality of biodiesel produced from those sources, considering that there is still a lack of information particularly for cashew and coconut. Methodology Reactants and samples All solvents used in this work were of analytical grade, manufactured by Merck, distilled at reduced pressure before use. The tested samples were seeds of cashew (Fig. 1), upland cotton (Fig. 2) and coconut (Fig. 3), the plants of which were grown at the location of Monterı ´a, in Fig. 2 Upland cotton seeds Cordoba, Colombia. Fig. 1 Cashew seeds Fig. 3 Coconut seed interior 123 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 Page 3 of 7 1 oil was extracted at a warmed wet medium, from which determined according to ASTM D664 standard. The acid 76.78 % of crude oil was obtained. number is considered as an indicator of biodiesel degra- The biodiesel was obtained from an esterification reac- dation. A high acid number affects engine fuel injection tion in acid medium, followed by oil transesterification system and increases corrosion of engine components. using methanol with a molar ratio of 6:1 and potassium The peroxide index measures the initial oxidation of the hydroxide (KOH) as a catalyst. With this purpose, 50 mL of fresh oil or the rancidity grade in equivalents of active oil was used together with a solution of methanol and 1 % oxygen per unit mass of oil, allowing for oxidation of KOH, based on the oil amount. The solution was blended detection before organoleptic detection. The peroxide to the oil and the reaction was allowed to take place for 1-h index is a measure of the oil degree of rancidity evolution, at 210 rev/min and 328 K. This procedure was performed and was here determined according to AOAC Cd 8b-90 three times. Afterwards, the solvent was recovered and the standard. remaining substance was biodiesel–glycerol blend. This The saponification index is related to the molecular blend was taken to a separation funnel and remained still for weight through the total fatty acids (free and combined) 24 h to separate the biodiesel. The biodiesel was washed present in the oil sample. The saponification index was several times with hot deionized water to reach the neu- measured by the AOAC Cd 3–25 standard. trality. Finally, the biodiesel was warmed at 383 K during Humidity is an important oil factor that must be con- 10 min to eliminate humidity [12]. trolled. High humidity can generate a hydrolysis reaction of the triglycerides, forming free fatty acids that will con- Identification and quantification of fatty acid methyl tribute to a high acid value. Oil humidity was measured esters according to the AOAC 950.46 standard. Copper corrosion is a parameter that allows for predic- The identification and quantification of the fatty acid tion of biodiesel corrosive action and detection of corrosive methyl esters of all samples were performed using a gas components or acids that attack some copper leagues, such chromatograph Agilent model 6,890 N with flame ioniza- as bronze, which are present in some engine components. tion detector (FID) analyzer. A capillary column model Copper corrosion was determined following ASTM D130 Carbowax 20 M was used for separation of the sample standard. components. The column had a nominal bore of 0.32 mm Density is a property that can indicate the contamination and a length of 30 m, with 0.25 lm wall film thickness and degree of biodiesel. High biodiesel density can increase stationary phase poly ethylene glycol. The injected volume fuel consumption and generate higher amounts of gaseous amount was 1 lL. The methodology applied is described pollutant emissions and particulate matter to the atmo- sphere. Also, the biodiesel density is an important param- by EN14103 standard. Methyl heptadecanoate was used as an internal standard substance. The fatty acid methyl esters eter for storage and transportation as it can vary the fuel present in the samples were identified by comparison with volume with varying temperature at a given pressure. The the retention times of the fatty acids of the standard biodiesel viscosity must be minimized to avoid reduced substance. engine power due to difficult flow through the filters and injectors of the fuel system. The biodiesel density and Physical–chemical analysis of crude oil and biodiesel viscosity were determined according to ASTM D7042-12 standard. The iodine value is a chemical property that describes the The concentrations of total and free glycerin in biodiesel iodine mass absorbed by 100 g of sample. It is taken as a are important parameters to measure the biofuel quality. measure of the degree of unsaturation of the biodiesel. Low values of free glycerin reveal that high concentrations Once the iodine is added to the fatty acid double bonds, the of methyl esters have been produced. On the other hand, iodine value is increased as the double bonds are increased. the presence of glycerin with higher values than the stan- As a consequence, the biodiesel with high concentration of dard limits indicates low conversion of the crude oil in saturated fatty acids presents low iodine value, which is biodiesel and poor fuel purification. The total and free increased with mono-, di- and triunsaturates. When the glycerin content was measured by the AOCS Ca 14–56 biodiesel iodine value is high and the engine temperature is standard. increased, the fuel is degraded faster and forms solid Methanol content is another parameter that refers to the deposits in the engine. The iodine value was determined biodiesel purification degree. Low amounts of free meth- according to EN 14111 standard. anol can reduce the fuel flammability index, oxidize the The acid number describes the amount of KOH required aluminum and zinc engine parts and cause damage to the to neutralize the free fatty acids and other acid compounds fuel injection system. Methanol content was determined present in a mass unit of biodiesel. The acid number was using EN14111 standard. 123 1 Page 4 of 7 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 The cetane number measures the biodiesel ignition qual- Table 1 Chemical composition of cashew biodiesel ity, and is determined by ASTM D613 standard. To calculate Fatty acid CC:DB Cashew biodiesel composition (%) its value, the correlation developed by Bamgboye and This work [6][5] Hansen [14] from fatty acid profiles has been employed: Lauric C 12:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 NC ¼ 61:1 þ 0:088x þ 0:133x þ 0:152x 0:101x 1 2 3 4 0:039x 0:243x 0:395x Myristic C 14:0 0.00 0.00 0.07 5 6 7 Palmitic C 16:0 10.43 10.5 10.36 ð1Þ Palmitoleic C 16:1 0.00 0.00 0.19 where x is the concentration of myristic acid (%), x is the 1 2 Stearic C 18:0 8.21 7.2 9.04 concentration of palmitic acid (%), x is the concentration Oleic C 18:1 61.36 65.4 63.38 of stearic acid (%), x is the concentration of palmitoleic Linoleic C 18:2 19.48 16.0 16.17 acid (%), x is the concentration of oleic acid (%), x is the 5 6 Linolenic C 18:3 0.52 0.00 0.29 concentration of linoleic acid (%) x is the concentration of Arachidic C 20:0 0.00 0.00 0.67 linolenic acid (%). Eicosenoic C 20:1 0.00 0.00 0.00 Behenic C 22:0 0.00 0.00 0.07 Erucic C 22:1 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lignoceric C 24:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 Results and discussion Carbon content (CC) per double bonds (DB) The fatty acid profile of cashew biodiesel here measured is compared with the ones reported by [5, 6] (Table 1). The Table 2 Chemical composition of coconut biodiesel biodiesel chemical composition makes cashew a potential Fatty acid CC:DB Coconut biodiesel composition (%) source for high-quality biodiesel production. A predomi- nant concentration of oleic acid (C18:1) is observed. The This work [8][5] oleic is a monounsaturated fatty acid that is favorable to Caprylic C 8:0 6.10 6.46 0.00 oxidation stability, reducing degradation and polymeriza- Capric C 10:0 5.93 5.62 0.00 tion. The oxidation process is favored by high number of Lauric C 12:0 47.20 46.91 64.44 double bonds to form the epoxides responsible for oil aging Myristic C 14:0 18.50 18.74 20.45 and it is typical of the oil types that present high concen- Palmitic C 16:0 8.90 9.69 7.71 trations of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid Palmitoleic C 16:1 0.00 0.00 0.09 (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3). Stearic C 18:0 3.10 2.83 1.73 Cashew biodiesel shows high concentration of oleic acid Oleic C 18:1 7.30 6.83 4.61 (C18:1) and low concentrations of linoleic acid (C18:2), Linoleic C 18:2 1.50 2.21 0.96 linolenic acid (C18:3) and palmitic acid (C16:0), which is a Linolenic C 18:3 0.00 0.00 0.00 saturated fatty acid not recommended as fuel for cold cli- Arachidic C 20:0 0.00 0.10 0.04 mate (Table 1). The results here found for cashew biodiesel Eicosenoic C 20:1 0.00 0.00 0.00 are in close agreement with those found by [5, 6]. In Erucic C 22:1 0.00 0.00 0.00 general, oleic acid (C18:1) was the component that showed the highest concentration (61.36–65.4 %), followed by linoleic acid (C18:2) (16–19.48 %), palmitic acid (C16:0) results here obtained closely resemble those by [8]. Both (10.36–10.5 %) and stearic acid (C18:0) (7.2–9.04 %). show the highest quantitative difference from the concen- Small concentrations of linolenic acid (C18:3) tration of lauric acid (C12:0) found by [5]. (0.29–0.52 %) have also been identified by this work and Cotton biodiesel presents a chemical composition with by [5]. Those authors also reported low concentrations of high concentration of linoleic acid (C18:2) (53.14 % to myristic (14:0), palmitoleic (16:1), arachidic (C21:0) and behenic acids (C22:0), all varying from 0.07–0.67 %. 58 %), followed by palmitic acid (C16:0) (24.90–28.70 %) and oleic acid (C18:1) (13–18.93 %) These components have not been reported by [6]. Coconut biodiesel composition shows a predominant (Table 3). Thus, this biodiesel type is more likely to be oxidized and degraded, requiring storage with high con- concentration of lauric acid (C12:0) (46.91–64.44 %), centrations of antioxidant additives. The component followed by myristic acid (C14:0) (18.50–20.45 %) and concentrations found in this work are in close agreement palmitic acid (C16:0) (7.71–8.90 %) (Table 2). The pre- with those found by [8, 13] and in reasonable agreement sence of high concentrations of saturated fatty acids limits with the results found by [10, 11]. the use of coconut biodiesel at low temperatures. The 123 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 Page 5 of 7 1 The physical–chemical properties obtained for cashew, viscosity here determined is also in agreement with the coconut and cotton crude oil and biodiesel attend ASTM value presented by [5] (Table 5). However, the iodine D6751-12 specifications (Tables 4, 5, 6). The acid number value here found for coconut biodiesel is higher than that of all crude oil studies was higher than that of the corre- reported by [5], which is probably a consequence from the sponding biodiesel. No significant change of biodiesel different compositions found for the saturated fatty acids iodine value was observed in comparison with the corre- (see Table 2). sponding crude oil. The iodine value was coherent with the All properties of cotton biodiesel here determined fatty acid methyl ester chemical composition, showing the resemble those found in the literature (Table 6). In general, lowest value for coconut biodiesel (saturated), followed by the properties of cotton crude oil here found are in good cashew (monounsaturated) and cotton (diunsaturated). agreement with the results obtained by [1], with exception Copper corrosion tests showed low values for all crude oils of a much higher acid number, which may be a reflection of and biodiesel tested. the storage process of the crude oil. Both this work and the Cashew biodiesel density and viscosity here obtained one by [1] show cotton crude oil viscosity much higher have close values to the ones presented by [5] (Table 4). than that presented by [2], and much lower than the one The properties of cashew crude oil have not been found in described by [12]. the literature for comparison purpose. Coconut biodiesel One of the most important biodiesel properties is kine- matic viscosity, as it affects fuel injection in the engine. Table 3 Chemical composition of upland cotton biodiesel The viscosity of the studied biodiesel types was much lower than that of the corresponding crude oils, thanks to Fatty acid CC:DB Cotton biodiesel composition (%) the transesterification process. The high viscosity of crude This work [8][13][11][10] oils is the main obstacle for their direct use in diesel engines [15]. The viscosity of all biodiesel types tested Caprylic C 8:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 attended ASTM D6751-12 standard (Tables 4, 5, 6). Capric C 10:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Increasing temperature causes the fuel to flow more easily, Lauric C 12:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 being favorable to fuel injection efficiency and atomiza- Myristic C 14:0 0.00 0.72 0.00 0.00 0.00 tion. Low temperatures reduce fuel fluidity, as fuel vis- Palmitic C 16:0 25.43 25.93 24.90 28.70 28.00 cosity is increased (Fig. 4). Palmitoleic C 16:1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 The density of the biodiesel types tested presented a Stearic C 18:0 2.21 1.74 2.63 0.90 1.00 slight reduction in comparison with the corresponding Oleic C 18:1 15.36 15.98 18.93 13.00 13.00 crude oils, and is within the recommended range by ASTM Linoleic C 18:2 54.48 55.12 53.14 57.40 58.00 D6751-12 standard (Tables 4, 5, 6). In general, biodiesel Linolenic C 18:3 0.52 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 density is decreased with increasing temperature (Fig. 5). Arachidic C 20:0 0.10 0.22 0.29 0.00 0.00 High fuel density causes increased fuel consumption and Eicosenoic C 20:1 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 exhaust emissions of particulate matter, unburned hydro- Erucic C 22:1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 carbons and carbon dioxide. Table 4 Physical–chemical properties of cashew crude oil and biodiesel Property Cashew crude oil Cashew biodiesel ASTM D6751 This work This work [5] Density @ 20 C (kg/m ) 920 890 – 850–900 Viscosity @ 40 C (mm /s) 27.23 4.32 3.69 1.9–6.0 Acid number (mg KOH/g) 1.60 0.50 – B0.50 Iodine value (g I /100 g) 83.0 82.50 86.65 – Copper corrosion strip 1b 1b – Max 3 Peroxide index (meqO /Kg) 1.39 0.92 – – Saponification index (mgKOH/g) 175.4 145.2 201 – Water content (mg/Kg) 536 312.35 – Max 500 Free glycerin (% wt/wt) – 0.01 . 0.02 Total glycerin (% wt/wt) – 0.12 . 0.24 Methanol content (% wt/wt) – 0.1 – 0.2 Cetane number – 56.40 54.03 Min 47 123 1 Page 6 of 7 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 Table 5 Physical–chemical properties of coconut crude oil and biodiesel Property Coconut crude oil Coconut biodiesel ASTM D6751 This work This work [5] Density @ 20 C (kg/m ) 910 870 – 850–900 Viscosity @ 40 C (mm /s) 28.80 2.80 2.30 1.9–6.0 Acid number (mg KOH/g) 2.22 0.19 – B0.50 Iodine value (g I /100 g) 8.10 10.12 5.98 – Copper corrosion strip 1b 1b – Max 3 Peroxide index (meqO /Kg) 1.05 0.86 – – Saponification index (mgKOH/g) 155.4 151.2 262 – Water content (mg/Kg) 487 230.25 – Max 500 Free glycerin (% wt/wt) – 0.018 – 0.02 Total glycerin (% wt/wt) – 0.11 – 0.24 Methanol content (% wt/wt) – 0.1 – 0.2 Cetane number – 63.73 65.80 Min 47 Table 6 Physical–chemical properties of upland cotton crude oil and biodiesel Property Cotton crude oil Cotton biodiesel ASTM D6751 This work [1][2][12] This work [13] Density @ 20 C (kg/m ) 930 915 910 912 880 875 850–900 Viscosity @ 40 C (mm /s) 35.20 33.5 18.20 50.00 4.75 4.07 1.9–6.0 Acid number (mg KOH/g) 8.20 0.16 – 0.11 0.35 0.16 B0.50 Iodine value (g I /100 g) 108.80 104.7 – – 112.40 – – Copper corrosion strip 1b –––1b 1a Max3 10.0 1.80 BIODIESEL BIODIESEL CASHEW 9.0 CASHEW COCONUT COCONUT 1.60 8.0 COTTON COTTON 7.0 1.40 6.0 1.20 5.0 4.0 1.00 3.0 2.0 0.80 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315 TEMPERATURE (K) TEMPERATURE (K) Fig. 4 Decrease of biodiesel viscosity with increasing temperature Fig. 5 Decrease of biodiesel density with increasing temperature The other physical–chemical properties that indicate Conclusions coconut and cashew biodiesel quality, such as water con- tent, total and free glycerin content, methanol content and The potential biodiesel sources studied––cashew (Anacar- cetane number, shown in Tables 4 and 5, attend the ASTM dium occidentale L), coconut (Cocos nucifera) and upland 6751 standard for biodiesel quality. These results indicate cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)––are all rich in fatty acids and that both materials, coconut and cashew, are potential allows for fast biodiesel production processes. The physical– sources to obtain high-quality biofuels. chemical properties of the biodiesel produced from those VISCOSITY (mm /s) -3 3 DENSITY × 10 (kg/m ) Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2015) 4:1 Page 7 of 7 1 5. Winayanuwattikun, P., Kaewpiboon, C., Piriyakananon, K., Tan- sources attend the ASTM D6751-12 standard (ASTM, tong, S., Thakernkarnkit, W., Chulalaksananukul, W., Yongvanich, 2012c) for biodiesel specification. From the chemical com- T.: Potential plant oil feedstock for lipase-catalyzed biodiesel pro- position of the fatty acid methyl esters, cashew biodiesel duction in Thailand. Biomass Bioenergy 32, 1279–1286 (2008) presented the highest oleic acid concentration, being an 6. 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Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy – Springer Journals
Published: Jan 27, 2015
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