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Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States

Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States Small Island Developing States (SIDS) share high burdens of nutrition-related conditions, including non-communicable diseases, associated with an increasing reliance on imported, processed foods. Improving health through increasing the production and consumption of local, nutritious foods is a policy objective of many SIDS governments. This study aimed to understand contemporary challenges and opportunities to strengthening local food systems in two case study settings, Fiji and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Fifty-two in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders involved in local food production. Interviews were analysed by both country teams using thematic analysis. Local food production networks in both settings included formal governance bodies as well as more informal connections through civil society and communities. Their main function was the sharing of resources and knowledge, but levels of trust and cooperation between the stakeholders varied in a market open to intense competition from imports. Local food production was hindered by few and slow investments by local governments, dated technology, and lack of knowledge. Stakeholders believed this marginalisa- tion was occurring against a background of rising preferences for imported foods in the population, and increasing disinterest in employment in the sector. Despite the challenges, strong narratives of resilience and opportunity were highlighted such as national pride in local produce for commercialisation and local diets. Efforts to support local food production in SIDS should focus on strengthening governance structures to prioritise local produce over corporate and import markets, assist collabora- tion and co-learning, and support alternative agro-food practices. Keywords Small-scale food production · Food systems · Food sovereignty · Nutritious diets · Caribbean · Pacific The members of the Community Food and Health (CFaH) team are listed in the Acknowledgements * Cornelia Guell University of Exeter, European Centre for Environment & c.guell@exeter.ac.uk Human Health, Truro, UK Catherine R. Brown The University of the West Indies, George Alleyne Chronic catherine.brown@cavehill.uwi.edu Disease Research Centre, Bridgetown, Barbados Otto W. Navunicagi Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable ottonavunicagi@gmail.com Development, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Viliamu Iese Department of Food Production, The University of the West viliamu.iese@usp.ac.fj Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago Neela Badrie Department of Geography, The University of the West Indies, neela.badrie@sta.uwi.edu St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago Morgan Wairiu Medical Research Council Epidemiology Unit, University morgan.wairiu@usp.ac.fj of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Arlette Saint Ville Arlette.SaintVille@sta.uwi.edu Nigel Unwin nigel.unwin@mrc-epid.cam.ac.uk Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 1228 C. Guell et al. and insufficient economic viability in regional and global 1 Introduction export markets, and therefore making SIDS' food systems highly vulnerable to natural disasters and economic down- Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a group of 58 turns (FAO, 2016b). More recently, food security in SIDS countries facing specific social, economic and environmental has been and continues to be negatively impacted by the vulnerabilities including complex food and nutrition-related COVID-19 pandemic, as mitigation strategies reduced challenges. SIDS were recognised as a distinct group at the access to land, labour, tools and markets, and therefore 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel- reduced agricultural production and household dietary opment. While overnutrition increasingly displaces under- diversity despite some uptake in home gardening (FAO & nutrition in most SIDS, access to quality food remains a ECLAC, 2020; Iese et al., 2021). This further exposed vul- critical issue for food security, population health and social nerabilities related to reliance on food imports, impover- and economic development (FAO, 2016b). SIDS have expe- ished local production, and for many countries an economic rienced a ‘nutrition transition’ over the past several decades; reliance on tourism (Hickey & Unwin, 2020). locally grown traditional foods have been replaced in the Policy responses to this challenge within SIDS include diet by imported, predominantly calorie-dense, processed the support of local food production to enable improved and ultra-processed foods (Tu'akoi et al., 2018). As a result, access and availability of less processed foods (IFPRI, 2015; obesity-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as UNSCN, 2016). The 2017 Global Action Programme on diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases have become Food Security and Nutrition in SIDS (FAO et al., 2017), for a serious burden in SIDS (FAO et al., 2017). For example, example, aims to strengthen enabling environments for food 33% of the Caribbean population are classified as obese, security and nutrition; improve sustainability, resilience and and nearly half of Pacific SIDS report an age-adjusted dia- nutrition-sensitivity of food systems; and empower people betes prevalence of > 20% (FAO et al., 2017; International and communities for food security and nutrition. Examples Diabetes Federation, 2019). While there are other important of regional policies include the 2010 Caribbean Community risk factors for NCDs, including smoking, physical inactivity (CARICOM) Regional Food and Nutrition Security Policy, and excess alcohol consumption, aspects of diet and their which seeks to promote healthy Caribbean diets through sequelae are the major contributors to NCD risk in the Carib- increasing the production and availability of regionally pro- bean and Pacific (Global Burden of Disease Collaborative duced foods, and the Regional Framework for Accelerat- Network, 2021). ing Action on Food Security and Nutrition in Pacific SIDS, SIDS rely largely on food imports over local food pro- which aims to strengthen the coherence and coordination duction, with over 60% of food imported in Caribbean and of development partner support for food security and nutri- Pacific countries, and over half of these countries importing tion in Pacific SIDS (CARICOM Secretariat, 2010; Pacific over 80% of food (FAO et al., 2017). Top foods imported Community, 2018). are processed foods, followed by wheat, corn, meat and While such commitments represent strong foundations dairy (FAO, 2019). This high food import dependency for reaching food and nutrition security goals, they are cast makes them vulnerable to global food price rises, as hap- broadly and generalised for all SIDS, and evidence from pened in 2006–2008, with the economic recession that fol- SIDS on key interventions that could support local food lowed the financial crisis of 2008 further impacting food production initiatives is minimal, including evidence on security in these vulnerable countries (FAO, 2016b; Mittal, the impact of local food production on population nutrition 2009). By 2017, food imports in SIDS had reached US$5 (Haynes et al., 2018). The state of local food production in billion dollars per year, a 50% increase in value since 2000 each SIDS is unique and dependent on its own historical, (FAO et al., 2017). While not all imported food is ultra- social, political, cultural and geographical context (such as processed and calorie-dense such as processed meats, bis- size and remoteness), and thus the effectiveness of com- cuits, ready meals like noodles and soft drinks, imported mitments in each SIDS depends on such (Connell et al., staples such as rice and fruit and vegetables are often 2020). For instance, a US study examining the facilitators more affordable and desirable than local produce (Connell and barriers of the development of local food markets found et al., 2020). The agricultural industry of SIDS tends to that the success of local markets depended on certain local be small scale, in particular at fresh food local markets conditions which are often not acknowledged during the where largely smallholder, high-cost producers with lim- development stages (Godette et al., 2015). These can include ited farmland compete against relatively cheap processed distribution systems, education and capacity for marketing and fresh imports from industrial agricultural systems in of local food, uncertainty of regulations, and food safety countries like Australia and the USA (Connell et al., 2020). requirements (Godette et al., 2015; Martinez et al., 2010). Small scale local food production results in limited invest- Likewise, Maples et al. explain that local food systems are ment, slow technological advancement, less diversification 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1229 influenced by characteristics of the population itself, includ- Table 2 Participants by sector and level of food chain involvement in Fiji and SVG ing socioeconomic demographics, food ideology and degree of civic engagement (Maples et al., 2013). Proportion of participants (%) In-depth understanding is needed of the political eco- Fiji (n = 32) SVG (n = 20) nomic and socio-cultural factors that shape the specific Sector contexts of local food systems and actors in SIDS to inform Civil society 1 (3) 3 (15) national policies on food and nutrition security (Barry et al., Private 26 (81) 18 (90) 2020; Singh-Peterson & Iranacolaivalu, 2018). To inform Government 5 (16) 0 (0) a wider project that aimed to develop methods to evaluate Level within food chain impact of local food production on local diets (Haynes et al., Production 26 (81) 9 (45) 2020), we investigated the contextual facilitators of and barriers Processing & transport 6 (19) 12 (60) to local community-based food production initiatives in two Marketing & retail 28 (88) 15 (75) case settings: the Pacific Island country Fiji and St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) in the Caribbean. Specifically, we sought –Note that some participants overlapped in their sector representa- to explore local food production networks and key stakeholders; tion and position in the food chain, so percentages do not necessarily the challenges and successes within and across each of the set- sum to 100. tings; and how barriers to success might be overcome. Including subsistence producers and smallholders populations forming smaller proportions. The Indigenous 2 Materials and methods Kalinagos or ‘Caribs’ tend to reside in the north of the island of St. Vincent; they are descendants of the island's original 2.1 Settings and participants Indigenous population, which have reduced significantly in number during colonisation in the eighteenth century (Minor- We conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders involved in local food production and its supply ity Rights Group International, 2007). In Fiji, the population is comprised mostly of Indigenous Fijians, also called iTaukei, chains in Fiji and SVG between August and November 2018. Fiji and SVG are both archipelagos of islands with similar who own about 89.75% of land in Fiji (iTaukei Land Trust Board, n.d.). Other major ethnicities in Fiji include Fijians of economic standings and NCD burdens (Table 1). Interviews in Fiji took place in its main island, Viti Levu. Indian and Chinese descent and Rotumans (Minority Rights Group International, 2017). SVG interviews took place in St. Vincent (its main island) and Bequia (smaller island in the Grenadines close to St. Vin- Stakeholders were purposively sampled from government, private and civil society sectors, including subsistence farm- cent). Populations of these two settings have diverse cultural backgrounds. In SVG, the population is mostly comprised of ers and fishers (Table  2). Recruitment followed a process of cascading through the food chain, starting with local African descendants, with White, East Indian and Indigenous Table 1 Selected demographic (CIA, 2020a, 2020b), economic (World Bank, 2019) and health (WHO, 2018) data on Fiji and SVG Fiji SVG Region South Pacific Caribbean Sub-region Melanesia Lower Antilles Population 883,480 110,210 World Bank economic group Upper middle income Upper middle income Major sectors Agriculture, tourism, sugar processing, textiles, Agriculture (starch), tourism, copra, gold mining, lumber food processing, cement, furniture, textiles GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) 11,004 12,307 GDP proportion from agriculture (%) 14 7 Labour force in agriculture (%) 44 26 Raised blood glucose, adults aged 18 + (%) 17 10 Obesity 30 24 Adults aged 18 + (%) 10 11 Adolescents aged 10–19 (%) Raised blood pressure, adults aged 18 + (%) 20 23 1 3 1230 C. Guell et al. producers and tracing how and where their produce is trans- to allow for multi-person analysis across teams and countries ported, stored, processed, marketed and retailed. Individuals (Dedoose Version 8.0.35, 2018). were identified through a combination of guidance from the local Ministries of Health, local contacts associated with the 2.3 Terminology project, and through snowballing based on guidance from interviewees and speaking with people in the communities The food systems in both settings largely included private who worked in the local food chain. home gardens producing food for own consumption (although The roles of the participants included production (farming also sharing, bartering and sometimes for market), smallhold- and fishing), processing (for example, producers of pepper ings that provide for subsistence and livelihoods, and com- sauce, coconut water, plantain/cassava/taro chips), transport, mercial farms (small in scale compared to import markets) marketing, and retail (food shops and restaurants). Govern- (Haynes et al., 2020), typical for similar settings (Galhena ment officials were only available to be interviewed in Fiji. et  al., 2013). We describe formal networks as formalised We also interviewed representatives of farming cooperatives, economic or legal based relationships such as cooperatives, exportation companies and non-governmental organisations associations and business partnerships, and informal social (NGOs) who support agriculture through funding, subsidising, networks as ad hoc, flexible and often opportunistic. We transport and training. Throughout the manuscript, participant refer to processed and ultra-processed foods according to the quotations are labelled as SVI# (for SVG) or FJI# (for Fiji). NOVA classification foods that distinguishes unprocessed and minimally processed foods in the lowest category (at most, 2.2 Data collection and analysis only fermented, pasteurised, boiled, dried etc.) to processed and ultra-processed meals, snacks and drinks partly or wholly The semi-structured interview guides (see Online Resource) produced using industrial techniques processes (Monteiro focused on livelihoods through local food systems; factors et al., 2016). that affect the operations of the local food system; keys and threats to the success of the local food system; environmen- tal impacts of and on local food production; socioeconomic 3 Results and health benefits of local food production; initiatives that support the local food system; and resources for and barriers 3.1 Local food actors and interactions to these initiatives. Our question and analysis are particu- larly relevant to three of the four pillars of food security As we set out to explore local food production networks and (CFS, 2014), and contribution to them from local produc- key stakeholders, a first step in the analysis was to trace local tion. These are availability, accessibility and stability. Here, formal and informal networks of the food value chain. In this we considered less explicitly the fourth pillar, utilisation. context, we define networks as relationships between multi- However, in previous publications from the same project we ple individuals and organisations that involve the exchange have described aspects of utilisation in both settings (Guell of information, infrastructure, finances or goods in relation et al., 2021; Haynes et al., 2020). to the production, supply and retail of foods. In both settings, This was a collaborative research project between smallholder farmers represent the largest producer numbers researchers from the Pacific Islands, the Caribbean region in the network for local food production, and serve a role in and the UK. All interviews were conducted by local research- subsistence consumption, for sale within the local market, ers at interviewee farms, households and business establish- and regional and international export. Fresh produce, includ- ments and lasted between 40 to 90 min. Interviews were ing main staples like yam, sweet potato, cassava, taro (Fiji) audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were and dasheen (SVG), is grown in private backyard gardens for analysed using a pragmatic approach of (a) initial deduc- own consumption, on smallholdings that provide for subsist- tive coding according to a predefined coding frame based ence and livelihoods, and on commercial farms. The local on study objectives, and then (b) opened up for more induc- private sector of hotels, supermarkets and restaurants help to tive insights in reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, maintain demand for local fresh products, and farmers would 2019). Each country team at the University of the South try to diversify their produce, for example by growing toma- Pacific and the University of the West Indies analysed their toes, cucumbers and lettuce, to meet demand, but imported own transcripts as the main researchers in the first instance, produce would often be considered more varied, visually identifying emerging relevant themes and salient quotations desirable or cheaper. Local food processing is a grow- for illustration. Initial findings and unexpected insights were ing industry, although mostly small in scale, and includes then discussed with the whole project team, including from minimally processed foods such as flours, milk, nuts, fresh the Universities of Cambridge and Exeter in the UK, in a fruit juices and culinary ingredients such as oils and dried group workshop. The analysis team used Dedoose software herbs. Local processed food production includes salted nuts, 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1231 sweetened juices, fried and salted chips, confectionaries reciprocity and collective community efforts are important (such as tamarind balls in SVG), pepper sauces, jams and Indigenous values and approaches. Stakeholders in both set- chutneys. Depending on actual ingredients and methods of tings stressed that those working in local food production in production, most of these would classify as ‘processed’ not both formal and informal networks must look at each other ‘ultra-processed’ foods (Monteiro et al., 2016), but are often not as competitors but as partners. This necessitates under- high in salt, sugar or fat content. standing and appreciating everyone’s role in the food chain The Ministry of Agriculture is the main entity oversee- as important: “we just have to work together […] so every- ing local food production in both countries, carrying out body gets something. Once we work together, it’s all good.” national programmes that include development and train- (Restaurant manager, SVI17) Maintaining good relationships ing, research, funding opportunities and veterinary services. with partners by committing to requirements or requests was Local and regional NGOs also play a major role in manag- considered key to maintaining each cog of the food chain. ing the supply and demand of products across production, Treating customers and workers with respect and “work[ing] processing and local and export consumer markets in both together with love” (Farmer, FJI01) was considered important, settings. Most organisations operate on a national level, with not least as ill-treated staff were thought to work slower and some regional (i.e. within the Caribbean) and international produce less output. involvement with respect to funding and exportation. In Fiji, stakeholders highlighted as a great facilitator In SVG, the Eastern Caribbean Trading Agriculture and of local food production the strong cultural value of ‘Na Development Organisation assists small farmers in produc- Solesolevaki’ underlying what was generally described as tion planning and training of agricultural workers. Invest a strong sense of community and comradery between local SVG, under the auspice of the Ministry of Finance, Eco- food producers. Na Solesolevaki, where Indigenous farmers nomic Planning and Sustainable Development, plays a major regularly come together to work on a particular farmer’s role in assisting farmers in project planning and funding. plantation as a group, was thought to bring joy in working as There are many farming cooperatives in SVG which work a team. They also believed this practice improved efficiency together in supplying national and regional demands for across farms, enabling them to share land and its produce, local produce. Non-profit civil society organisations such and share new and different ideas. The communal sharing of as Richmond Vale Academy work with communities on knowledge was commonplace and also a key cultural com- poverty reduction, environmental conservation and climate ponent of training workshops offered by the NGO FRIEND change awareness, including creating organic demonstra- to local farmers and gardeners who could then return to their tion farms and sustainable home gardens and contribute to village to teach others. Fiji producers and processors gener- national initiatives. ally described a positive relationship and a level of respect In Fiji, the Ministry of Agriculture offers a range of assis- for one another. Farmers took advantage of initiatives pro- tance to encourage production including consultations on vided by the agroprocessors and funded by government, proper farming procedures and soil assessments, subsidised which included providing steady, secure demand for crops tractor services, and provision and sharing of inputs such such as cassava, agro-marketing for cassava products, and on as new plant suckers. Agro Marketing Fiji Limited directly a very practical level travelling to rural farmers and minimis- purchases root crops from rural farmers and assists in find- ing their need for transport of produce to markets: “We are ing suitable markets for them in the hope of improving their going right to them [farmers] and buying from them. […] standards of living. Local NGOs, most prominently the The government wanted us to go into them rather than them Foundation for Rural Integrated Enterprises and Develop- spending money coming over to the urban areas. They pro- ment (FRIEND), play an important role by working directly vide us the grant for us to go.” (FJI20, Agroprocessor). with farming communities to understand their resources Government and key local food production partners in and products, and assist in incorporating them into the local Fiji had also established local village committees consisting value chain. They encourage traditional, Indigenous farm- of village headmen and representatives of women, farmers, ing practices, including integrated cropping, and promote a and fisherfolk who were trained on how to assess produce for backyard gardening programme. their quality for health and organic status. They were seen as a key driver for the establishment of village community 3.2 Local collaboration in a small market food production initiatives, and also operated as middlemen and quality control agents. Fiji stakeholders were generally A core function of formal and informal networks of local food pleased with the government-level commitment offered to producers, processors and vendors was to share resources and them. Farmers were appreciative of their consultations on lessons. Such collaboration was facilitated through local gov- the use of manure and other farming practices. ernance structures, through civil society or informally across Stakeholders’ experiences around sharing of knowledge communities. In Fiji, sharing of resources, interdependence, and practices among actors and institutions within the local 1 3 1232 C. Guell et al. food production network differed between sectors and actors, inability of people working in local food production to artic- but there was a particularly stark difference between Fiji ulate their needs meaningfully. and SVG. Although cooperation was highlighted as vital “The farmers lack the ability to articulate […] their for strengthening the local food system, SVG stakeholders situation. So a lot of the things that they need, they described a reluctance to work together. One participant can’t speak for it. […] I am, I'm lucky to be able to explained that farmers often did not attend meetings of their articulate my position. But, but a lot of them not able farming groups, and when they do, “they go home they’ll to do that.” (Farmer, SVI03). be like, ‘[sucks teeth] I don’t have time.’ [Laughs]. Or, ‘It’s too much work’” (Vendor, SVI11) This reluctance to work In support for greater collaboration, the civil society together was connected to lack of trust and fear of competi- organisation Richmond Vale Academy in SVG spearheaded tion between farmers. the concept of ‘model farming’. These demonstration farms were set up in communities with the aim to provide experi- “There’s this mistrust and I’m not quite sure where it ential training, sharing, co-learning and adapting practices, stems from. Because you always feel like you’re being, between smallholders, and aim to ensure that existing and they always give you the impression that, you know, new farmers work efficiently, innovatively and with little somebody’s going to cheat you.” (Farmer, SVI16) environmental impact through peer learning. This small Stakeholders indeed lamented that  buyers and sellers initiative resonated with local farmers. As one farmer sometimes did not stick to agreements made, whether formal explained: “Education is, is critical! We need to have model or informal, for example, if they found more attractive buy- farms […] And that’s what I’m trying to do myself. I’m try- ing or selling rates elsewhere. As an example for this lacking ing to set up a model that would encourage young farmers loyalty, one farmer in SVG attempted to increase business [to emulate practices].” (Farmer, SVI03). through supplying local hotels with a group of other small farms to meet the high demand, as neither farm could meet the demand alone. However, the project failed as other farm- 3.3 Seeking innovation in underinvested food ers did not meet their commitments. The farmer’s conclu- systems sion was that “They [other farmers] cut me out [by failing to provide sufficient quantities to meet the demand for the Cooperation with co-learning was seen as an important mech- collective agreement]. So I said what I can’t produce [on my anism for innovation for many stakeholders, and innovation own], I just not going to sell.” (Farmer, SVI16). was seen as a key factor and aspiration towards strengthened SVG stakeholders also reported more varied national- local food production. Stakeholders urged farmers to update level and governmental support. Some reported low levels their practices to improve efficiency and mitigate environmen- of trust and confidence in their government’s agricultural tal impacts from pests, diseases and erratic seasons causing advice as being outdated and unsuited to the local terrain flooding and draughts by using more greenhouses; by improv - and crops (likely due to inadequate training), but appreciated ing water management systems; by using green energy; and business-oriented support provided through one government implementing topsoil conservation techniques. Indigenous co- initiative and its willingness to address financial challenges farming through Na Solesolevaki and small-scale initiatives of local farmers and agroprocessors. Invest SVG, under such as demonstration farms and training programmes were the auspices of the Ministry of Finance, Economic Plan- seen as facilitating the sharing knowledge and skills, formally ning and Sustainable Development, stood out for engaging and informally. and supporting farmers and food processors in providing SVG stakeholders saw new technologies as particularly guidance and advice on operating within the local food pro- important for innovation. The owner of a processing com- duction network, and offering on-the-ground assistance for pany took pride in exemplifying sustainability through solar persons interested in or currently involved in agriculture power energy by making people ask themselves, “Hey can through grants, hosting trade shows, and opening dialogue I do that with my business somehow?” (Agroprocessor, on marketing,”and they come and help you.” (Farmer and SVI14) Likewise, a farmer felt rewarded when she found agroprocessor, SVI05). out that their organic farming techniques were being spread The poorer cooperation in SVG was also explained even inadvertently to their own workers: by farmers lacking the initiative for open discussion and “So, actually [a local initiative] is trying to be a model exchange. As one participant suggested, “like me and you of sustainability […] by showing that it’s possible to here sitting down and just having a conversation, talking do it. I think it’s a way of teaching. […] By hearing about issues. People don't want to do that. So I have to, us talking about how you should grow organic all the I have to blame the public as well.” (Butchery manager, time, […] they just tell us, like, ‘Yeah, so now I stopped SVI09) This disconnect was also seen to result from the 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1233 using pesticides,’ or ‘I stopped using the weed killer.’” viable and sustainable local food production, and that this (Teacher/farmer, SVI20) has led to inadequate practices among farmers. Stakehold- ers pointed to such inefficient and outdated practices such Stakeholders also recommended moving beyond the cur- as the extensive use of fertilisers and planting techniques rent print and word-of-mouth communication channels, and that are sometimes poorly suited for the terrain, leading to including social media as a platform for improving connec- lower yield, higher costs, and heavily impacting soil quality tions between different strata in the local food production and erosion, and identified a number of issues in relation to industry, helping to bring people together on local events, the role of agricultural extension officers. There were few of initiatives and opportunities. They also suggested that inno- them, there was a lack of trust in extension workers to ade- vation could be stimulated through finding new ways to quately train farmers, and those who trained farmers focused appeal to youth to encourage them to get involved in agri- on techniques that they had learnt overseas but were often culture, and in return reap benefits from their affinity to new not appropriate to the local geography and other contextual technologies to modernising farming practices. factors shaping small scale farming. Examples of such chal- “You have to, kind of, try and speak their language lenges requiring technical expertise not necessarily acquired […] There’s a lot of technology involved and that’s abroad included bush fires in rural areas of Fiji and uncon- what the young people like. They have Apps now […] trolled slash and burn farming in SVG, that would require We can’t just say, oh, that grass look a little yellow, it soil management and other mitigation strategies. going need some manure.” (Farmer, SVI16) Stakeholders therefore suggested that farmers were ill- equipped with the right skills, but stakeholders were also In Fiji, rather than focusing on new technologies for inno- worried that farmers were  not interested in or could not vation, stakeholders suggested that a young, climate change contribute to sustainable farming practices mitigating long- aware generation could be attracted by highlighting the need term harm to land and agriculture because of land tenure for more sustainable and ‘traditional’ farming practices with- challenges. Many farmers leased their farmland, so their out the heavy applications of fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides focus was on short-term profitability instead of long-term and other harmful chemicals. Stakeholders saw a specific soil quality and longevity. One SVG farmer explains that role for government in this, recommending that local food “a lot of people do not care [about the] land because production using alternative, regenerative or organic prac- they do not own land. […] The largest threat to the farmers tices instead of orthodox ‘industrial’ processes of farming themselves are farmers. Because they are the ones that are should be integrated more in the national school curricula really destroying the surface.” (Farmer, SVI03). In Fiji, one to attract a new generation of food producers. Stakeholders stakeholder highlighted the precarious situation of tenant also called for more capital investment to develop a more farmers: climate resilient food system to address challenges such as flooding and soil erosion form extreme weather events. “The land that I’m staying in is not considered to be Likewise, Fiji stakeholders believed that government had a under a formal village setting. When residential devel- role in supporting sustainable and organic farming through opments started to occur, I had to stop planting at the awards and incentives and this would improve the quality piece of land that I was using. So currently I’ve been of their produce. Instead of observing progress towards this buying food from the market”. (Farmer and fisherman, aim, Fijian stakeholders worried about a strong push from FJI32) agencies, funding bodies and therefore communities towards Finally, stakeholders in both settings connected vulner- mono-cropping of imported species of plants like potatoes, abilities in local food production to their weak national econ- peppers (capsicums) and broccoli instead of mixed cropping omies that hindered concerted investment. This included low of local food species such as yams, wild ferns and nuts. One incomes resulting in emigration of skilled workers, and fluc- stakeholder explained that “we are not sustaining enough of tuating availability of supplies, such as animal feed, making our own varieties” and “despite the aid, we don’t have cor- animal husbandry haphazard. One stakeholder explained porates looking into the potential of Fiji crops.” (Processor that the Fijian “agriculture department don’t even have and exporter, FJI09) Local bodies and stakeholders “don’t enough seeds or storage.” (Processor and exporter, FJI09) consider traditional agriculture as agriculture” (Processor Fijian villagers who travelled to the market to vend must and exporter, FJI09). Instead, local NGOs follow prescrip- travel by bus without adequate storage of their produce, lead- tion from international aid and fail to emphasise the range of ing to damaged produce. Lacking financial investment in staple Fijian root crops or leafy vegetables. good quality infrastructure to support local food production Stakeholders in Fiji and SVG felt that a key barrier to systems – from roads to shipping and airfreight between strengthening the local food system was insufficient techni- islands – was considered to be particularly problematic in cal knowledge in state institutions to support economically 1 3 1234 C. Guell et al. both settings and seen to restrict profitability and lead to use of chemicals in local food production, yet they also food wastage. attributed superior taste and viability of their local produce, for example connected to their rich, volcanic soil in SVG. “[In other countries] it is unthinkable that a farm One stakeholder stated that “You’ll, you forget a, a stick on doesn’t have a drivable road! It’s unthinkable they the ground, you come back it’s growing.” (Farmer, SVI03) don’t have road or water and electricity. But these are Similar sentiments were reported in Fiji. An owner of a large the same farmers we’re compare, competing with. As ginger farm believed that the healthy non-polluted environ- a matter of fact, they have subsidized fuel. […] The ment is an element of success of his ginger demand: “One agricultural policy in Europe, there’re heavy subsidies of the main reasons why our customers like our Fiji-grown going into farms!” (Farmer, SVI03) ginger is because Fiji enjoys a better reputation with the “They don’t have farm roads. […] Those are the kind environment, and with our great team and environment here, of infrastructure that should be there that will help us no pollution.” (Food exporter, FJI38) Healthiness was also reach out to the remote islands. […] We don’t go right connected to beliefs around nutritiousness, claiming that to the farm. We don’t send our guys right to the farm local foods score “really high on nutrition charts” (Proces- even if it’s a kilometre away. That’s a barrier to us eh.” sor and exporter, FJI09) with examples like rourou (taro leaf (Agromarketer, FJI20) stew) suggested to prevent anaemia in Fiji. In our compan- The latter quote showed that even initiatives like the ear- ion piece to this study, we also found ambiguous consumer lier mentioned scheme of Agro Marketing Fiji Limited to preferences in both settings, of highly valuing local foods directly buy from producers to overcome transport challenges “and yet increasingly consuming shop-bought, processed only made small inroads in addressing these structural bar- and imported foods […] making trade-offs between health riers. Similarly, agroprocessors of coconut oils, chips and and convenience, and navigating uncertainties over the risks sauces complained of the high costs of processing, particu- and benet fi s of die ff rent food types and sources”(Guell et al., larly the machinery required, which limits the expansion of 2021, p.7). their businesses. One SVG farmer claimed that instead of Stakeholders were keen to emphasise the importance of consuming imported processed foods, “we could process our understanding and harnessing the high social value placed own thing here and make it as tasty but, again, is the money on local produce—and its connection to land, people and to do it, you understand me?” (SVI05). A Fiji stakeholder country—as a symbol of national pride and therefore an interested in food processing also explained “I have been important strategy towards addressing the increasing con- to China a couple of times to see some big machines […] sumption of imports and strengthening local food production but it is expensive” (Exporter, FJI37), and has been unable and processing. A marketing agent explains “they trust it, to purchase any and upgrade his system. Stakeholders in it's their country, they trust their soil more than what may be SVG called for “concessions, fiscal incentives, you know, coming in. […] It's a, more of a sign of patriotism.” (SVI02) ten years, fifteen years, fiscal incentives” (Agroprocessor, Even processed foods such as pepper sauces, chips, oils and SVI07) that are commonplace in higher income countries. jams that are made from locally produced ingredients were While a drive for innovation and marketing local products described as preferred over imported ones. Stakeholders was clearly evident, these financial barriers seemed difficult felt that this support of “our own people” (Agroprocessor, to overcome. SVI07) is a key element of success for local food production. Promotion of local Fijian products is made through the use 3.4 Capitalising on local pride of conspicuous labels denoting that it is made in Fiji, and a major SVG supermarket has regular campaigns preferen- Despite the underfunded position of local food production, tially promoting local products. stakeholders felt that local foods were generally appreciated Although highlighting these benefits for and preferences and considered key to the resilience of the local economies of local populations, stakeholders suggested that commer- in both settings. Because Fiji and SVG are traditionally cialisation and ultimately export of locally produced food agricultural societies, stakeholders suggested that while the were paramount for success. Local producers hoped for their local population might well consume a high percentage of products to be marketable enough to be sold out of country, imported products, they nonetheless preferred local foods as noting that a “sustained profitable market” (NGO coordi- an act of patriotism and loyalty to their people. Stakehold- nator, SVI01) is a first step for a successful local food pro- ers also praised locally produced fresh produce as healthier duction industry. It is thought that available and sustained than imported produce on account of their assumed lower markets for local food production will encourage people to content of chemicals – be it fertilisers, pesticides, preserva- get involved in local food production and for those already tives, or appearance enhancers. In both settings, stakeholders involved, to improve product quality. Stakeholders in SVG appreciated that consumers might not be aware of ubiquitous called for their Ministry of Tourism to engage in local food 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1235 production by marketing this unique industry to visitors. In national economies, insufficient technical knowledge, and Fiji, the continued empowerment of farmers to commit to lacking political will and selective and slow financial com- shifting from small-scale subsistence to commercial produc- mitments have hampered investment opportunities and infra- tion to increase economic rewards was considered critical: structure development in local food production. While local produce was valued and marketed as a symbol of national “So, I look at that transition as a very important pride, increasing preference for imported foods, depreciating transition, you know, it’s the transition of a mind, ah attitudes towards farming as a way of life and little knowl- instead of looking at production purely from a sub- edge, technical and financial support for growing local crops sistence perspective, now they need to go one up, you and sustainable farming practices were cause for concern. know, ah for a more commercial perspective.” (Min- istry of Agriculture, FJI13) 4.2 Harnessing governance to strengthen local Despite this pride in the product and eagerness for capi- food systems talisation, stakeholders worried that local food production as a livelihood was less favourably regarded and increas- Many of the barriers highlighted by stakeholders in SVG and ingly seen as excessively hard work with little payoff. As one Fiji have been previously highlighted (Connell et al., 2020; stakeholder put it, “it’s no longer sexy to farm,” (Farmer, Guariguata et al., 2020; Saint Ville et al., 2015). SIDS’ geo- SVI03) and youth tended to view farmers unappealingly graphical isolation, limited land space, weak economies, and “as somebody with water boots and a hoe in their hand, a slow technological advancement in local food production crooked back.” (Farmer, SVI16) Instead, farming was seen undermine efforts to gain a foothold in export markets and as a transitional job, a “stepping stone” (Farmer, SVI16) to a compete against imported foods (FAO, 2014). The concern job or career of greater significance or easier work. Attracted for sustainability of local food production in SIDS is widely by professional careers, stakeholders feared young people acknowledged and the Food and Agricultural Organization is “rather go and adjust their collar and tie and go to work at actively involved in supporting their food security and agri- the bank, or work behind somebody desk.” (Restaurant man- culture (FAO, 2014). SIDS global vulnerabilities such as to ager, SVI19) Similarly, stakeholders appreciated that while impacts of climate change are often the focal theme in these consumers might voice preference for local fresh produce as discussions and efforts (FAO, 2016a), and global policy healthier than imports, the economic reality was that their efforts of the World Trade Organization’s Uruguay Round actual choice was limited when considering availability and (WTO, 2019b) and later Doha Round (Tu'akoi et al., 2018; affordability of certain products, in particular fresh produce WTO, 2019a) aimed to reduce trade-distorting agricultural that was often more expensive. A restaurant manager cau- subsidies and tariffs that placed developing countries at a tioned that even tourists were reluctant to buy from local disadvantage. Yet it is important to consider the local gov- vendors because of their high prices: “Yes, they [tourists] ernance forces at play which can counter these efforts. excited, you know, they see local produce, it’s locally grown Although there is substantial effort and investment of and thing, but then the prices are ridiculous. They feel like civil society actors and private enterprise to make local they’re being robbed.” (Restaurant manager, SVI08). food systems accessible and resilient, the role of the state seems crucial. Stakeholders in our study were particularly concerned about the significant policy marginalisation of the 4 Discussion domestic agricultural sector, with little funding, including investment in up-to-date knowledge of sustainable and cli- 4.1 Summary of findings mate change resilient agriculture and willingness to abandon outdated technologies and processes such as monocropping This study aimed to investigate the lessons that can be learned of imported species and the use of fertiliser, herbicides and for strengthening local food production in Fiji and SVG from pesticides. As Sonnino (2013, p.4) suggests, it is the “pres- the perspective of local food system actors. Imports of ultra- ence or absence of governance arrangements that can sus- processed foods are significant drivers of malnutrition and tain local food networks over space and time”, including its dietary change, and imports of fresh produce outcompete role “in constructing and supporting markets for local food local fresh food production and further exacerbate ill-health products”. While global trade and corporate power works due to poorly accessibly and unaffordable locally produced against such efforts and marginalises or even displaces local fruit and vegetables (FAO, 2019). Our stakeholders’ perspec- produce, government action can still act against such forces tives described a local food system operating within formal and dynamics. As our stakeholders suggested, this may be and informal networks of cooperation to share resources through investment in infrastructure, subsidisation, taxation and aim for innovative practices. However, stakeholders or developing knowledge and skills within government for described how competition within these networks,  weak innovative local production. Barriers to this are described in 1 3 1236 C. Guell et al. the literature across SIDS settings, including little political stakeholders with differing interests and access to resources appetite for regulation and market intervention at the back- operate in a highly open and underfunded market. As Saint drop of neo-liberal economic models (Connell, 2020). At the Ville and colleagues (2017) found in their exploration of stake- same time, non-state actors such as producers, processors holder engagement within the agri-food system in neighbour- and civil society may be marginalised, in particular in terms ing Saint Lucia, collaboration processes were often top down agenda or priority setting processes that could counter such and lacking representation of smallholder farmers, and there- politics and would foster inclusive and socially just agri- fore fostering distrust, and would require explicit structures food governance (Siegel & Bastos Lima, 2020). Moreover, to govern greater co-learning and collective action. Similarly, an underfunded or unsupported food system creates further Lowitt and colleagues (2015a, p.1367) found “a systemic barriers for non-state actors for knowledge exchange and lack of access to finance, markets, and knowledge networks” cooperation for resource mobilisation or greater participa- that was compounded by “a pervasive lack of trust reported tion (Saint Ville et al., 2017). between actors and institutions throughout the agricultural Concerted state support is also increasingly required to innovation system […] in the Caribbean.” They suggest that address climate change adaptation. Stakeholders mentioned enabling ‘communities of practice’ with shared values, needs inadequate investment in water management systems, and and priorities could provide such structures to foster social and water insecurity is an important challenge in rain-fed small- collaborative relationships and collective action in smallholder holder farming systems in SIDS (FAO, 2019). It is likely in famers (Lowitt et al., 2015a, 2015b). the future, with climate change, that both extreme rainfall One shared social value stakeholders in both settings events and periods of drought, will increase in importance. highlighted was an appreciation of ‘local’ produce by local Local governance mechanisms such as traditional govern- populations, speaking to a literature that highlights that local ance systems in Fiji need to be considered as vital levers food produce captures a range of values from environmental in strengthening local food systems and sharing knowledge sustainability to social embeddedness and healthy nutrition about climate resilient food production practices. In Fiji, (Sonnino, 2013). This pride was less seen in appreciation most the lands and fishing areas (qoliqoli) are owned by of the agricultural sector itself, and its important role for iTaukei through the customary ownership in Fiji (iTaukei local nutrition and health, despite some regional and inter- Land Trust Board, n.d.), and the Indigenous Na Solesolevaki national policy efforts (FAO, 2019), and there seems to be a practice of working together and sharing resources (includ- need to extend national ‘pride in local produce’ campaigns ing land with landless) and experience and expertise might to government ministries, agri-food organisations and fund- at least fill some of the more formal national governance ing agencies in supporting local species and sustainable gaps. Such culturally and communally embedded govern- growing practices rather than placing the onus solely on the ance structures seemed missing in SVG and thus unable to consumer. compensate for the lack of state attention. In tourism-dependent SIDS, a further value that could be harnessed could be around presenting ‘local food culture’ 4.3 Harnessing social values to strengthen local to tourists. However, perhaps more important here is the food systems monetary value of local produce for local hotels and restau- rants as well as for export markets. Pride in ‘local’ then has Stakeholders across our study sites identified meaningful coop- a commercial benefit to local producers to strengthen their eration between food systems actors as an important mecha- business viability in a marginalised market. Agro-tourism is nism towards innovation and resilience, including through a well-regarded industry that can synergise the agricultural self-started farming cooperatives, demonstration farms in and tourism markets in countries like Fiji and SVG, and ulti- SVG and the spirit of working together Na Solesolevaki in Fiji mately lead to increased development of both industries while (which has proven vital during the COVID-19 pandemic (Iese also increasing foreign reserve (FAO, 2012). In SVG, local et al., 2021)). However, stakeholders also shared experiences value chains of coconut water, cassava and sweet potato have of fractured relationships, distrust and conifl ct between dif - already experienced increased market demand and such local ferent food producers, processors and vendors, particularly in agricultural diversification is supported by the 2016–2019 SVG, and as also reported in other Caribbean settings (Lowitt FAO Country Programming Framework (FAO, 2018). How- et al., 2015a, 2015b; Saint Ville et al., 2017). Lacking trust ever, production for a tourist market may render such pro- might need to be at least partially understood in the historical duce unao ff rdable for local populations when willingness and context of indentured labour and slave agro-economies that capacity to pay is much higher by tourist businesses. It may underlie the emphasis on self-sufficiency and individualism in also divert high quality fresh produce away from local con- Caribbean smallholder farmers (Lowitt et al., 2015a, 2015b). sumption, particularly when production volumes are small, Contemporary political economic factors that may explain plant scheduling systems are ad-hoc and there is low infor- distrust include that formal and informal networks of diverse mation exchange to enhance coordination between relevant 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1237 National Food and Nutrition Centre in Fiji, the University of the South actors. Production for the tourist market then has little benefit Pacific (USP) and University of the West Indies (UWI), with particular to the food security and nutrition of local populations. Stake- thanks to Sairusi Bosenaqali in Fiji and Nzinga Sergeant in SVG for holders also warned that tourism encourages the production their instrumental role in the logistics of field work, support in recruit- of produce of little environmental value to their countries, as ing for and transcribing and translating the interviews. We thank the Foundation for Rural Integrated Enterprises & Development (FRIEND) hotels and restaurants also would like resource-intense pro- Fiji, particularly its Director Sashi Kiran for assistance in establishing duce such as lettuce or broccoli on their menus and under- the project. We thank the rest of the CFaH team, which also included mining their own efforts to develop resilience in their food T. Alafia Samuels and Ian Hambleton (George Alleyne Chronic Dis - systems. Nonetheless, ‘going local’ can also be a political ease Research Centre, Bridgetown, Barbados); Colin Tukuitonga and Connie Donato-Hunt (Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia); endeavour of small scale producers and organisation against Florian Kroll (University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South corporate practices and large scale production, and alternative Africa); Rachel Nugent (Research Triangle International, Durham, models such as farm-to-table establishments could emphasise North Carolina, United States); Nita G. Forouhi (MRC Epidemiol- sustainable practices and the importance of relationships with ogy Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England) and Sara Benjamin-Neelon (John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, local consumers (Beingessner & Fletcher, 2020). In Fiji, the Baltimore, Maryland, United States). NGO FRIEND runs a commercially successful restaurant with healthy local dishes cooked in traditional ways that is Authors’ contributions NU, CG, NB and MW wrote the original design very popular with the local population. Stakeholders’ appeal for the study, with CRB, VI and OWN contributing to the detailed devel- to engage more with young people and harness creativity and opment of the data collection methods. VI, MW and OWN undertook and oversaw the research in Fiji; CRB undertook and oversaw the innovation in a new generation also points towards opportuni- research in SVG. CRB and CG jointly led the writing of the manuscript. ties in this direction. All authors contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the findings, critical revision of the manuscript and approved its final version. Funding The project is funded by a Foundation Award from the Global 5 Conclusion Challenges Research Fund (Wiltshire, England), through the United Kingdom Medical Research Council (Cambridge, England); Grant No. There are multiple social, economic and political factors MR/P025250/1. The funders had no role in the study design, data col- lection or analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript that challenge local food production in Fiji and SVG, from limited investment in weak economies to mistrust of actors Data Availability This is qualitative data collected in small settings, in the local food production network and dominant import and is therefore not fully anonymous. The corresponding author can markets. Community and civil society efforts such as dem- be contacted to discuss limited access to the transcripts. onstration farms, Indigenous shared farming practices and governance structures, and informal networking between Declarations local food producers and processors might make small inroads in strengthening local food systems. However, this Ethics approval Ethical approval was granted by local ethics boards at The University West Indies (Cave Hill campus) and The University of needs to be considered against the backdrop of agri-food the South Pacific (Laucala campus). Ethical oversight was provided by systems that use predominantly top–down approaches, with the Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee. In addition, minimal participation from consumers, farmers and NGOs, permission for the work was provided from the Ministries of Health of and a growing dominance of food imports and supermar- SVG and Fiji. All participants provided written consent to participate. kets (Lowitt et al., 2016). The COVID-19 pandemic has, of Consent for publication Not applicable. course, underscored the precarious nature of food security in many SIDS and the desirability of greater self-suc ffi iency Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing and local food security and local food markets even further interests. (FAO & ECLAC, 2020; Hickey & Unwin, 2020). While diverse stakeholders work towards strengthening local food Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- production in SIDS, strong governance structures are needed bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long that prioritise local produce over corporate and import mar- as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, kets, assist collaboration and co-learning, and support alter- provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes native approaches to agro-food practices. were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s12571- 022- 01281-0 . the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Acknowledgements We would like to thank our participants and the copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . researchers in Fiji and SVG, including graduate students and staff at the 1 3 1238 C. Guell et al. Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. (2021). Global Bur- References den of Disease Study 2019 (GBD 2019) In. Seattle, United States of America: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). Barry, T., Gahman, L., Greenidge, A., & Mohamed, A. (2020). Wres- Godette, S. K., Beratan, K., & Nowell, B. (2015). 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Addressing food researcher with experience in quali- and nutrition insecurity in the Caribbean through domestic small- tative and quantitative methodol- holder farming system innovation. Regional Environmental Change, ogy. She has conducted numerous 15(7), 1325–1339. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10113- 015- 0770-9 systematic reviews, focusing on Saint Ville, A. S., Hickey, G. M., & Phillip, L. E. (2017). How do social determinants of health, nutri- stakeholder interactions influence national food security policy in tion, and food security, and has the Caribbean? The case of Saint Lucia. Food Policy, 68, 53–64. managed quantitative and qualita- https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foodp ol. 2017. 01. 002 tive data collection in several coun- Siegel, K. M., & Bastos Lima, M. G. (2020). When international sus- tries the Caribbean. tainability frameworks encounter domestic politics: The sustain- able development goals and agri-food governance in South Amer- ica. World Development, 135, 105053. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. world dev. 2020. 105053 Singh-Peterson, L., & Iranacolaivalu, M. (2018). Barriers to market for subsistence farmers in Fiji – A gendered perspective. Journal of Rural Studies, 60, 11–20. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jrurs tud. 2018. 03. 001 Sonnino, R. (2013). Local foodscapes: place and power in the agri-food Otto Navunicagi is an early career system. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B — Soil & Plant social science researcher in the Science, 63(sup1), 2–7. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 09064 710. 2013. area of Climate Change, Food Security and Food Systems. Otto Tu’akoi, S., Vickers, M. H., Tairea, K., Aung, Y. Y. M., Tamarua- is currently pursuing a Master of Herman, N., Ofanoa, M., & Bay, J. L. (2018). The significance of Science in Climate Change by the- DOHaD for Small Island Developing States. Journal of Develop- sis at the University of the South mental Origins of Health and Disease, 9(5), 487–491. https://doi. Pacific in Fiji. He is evaluating the org/ 10. 1017/ s2040 17441 80004 66 impacts of Community Food Pro- UNSCN. (2016). Investments for healthy food systems: a framework duction Initiatives on Food Secu- analysis and review of evidence on food system investments for rity Resilience. improving nutrition. Retrieved from https://www .unscn. or g/files/ ICN2_TPM/ EN_ final_ In vestments_ f or_Healt h y_F ood_Sy stems_ UNSCN. pdf WHO. (2018). Noncommunicable diseases country profiles 2018. In. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Bank. (2019). GDP per capita, PPP (current international $). Viliamu (Vili) Iese is a Senior Lec- Retrieved from https:// dat a. wor ld bank . org/ indic at or/ NY . GDP . turer at the Pacific Centre for Envi- PCAP. PP. CD ronment and Sustainable Develop- WTO. (2019a). The Doha Round. Retrieved from https://www .wt o.or g/ ment, at the University of the engli sh/ tratop_ e/ dda_e/ dda_e. htm South Pacific (USP). Vili has con- WTO. (2019b). The Uruguay Round. Retrieved from https://w ww.w to. ducted research and published org/ engli sh/ thewto_ e/ whatis_ e/ tif_e/ fact5_e. htm widely in the field of risk resil- ience in agriculture, food security, climate change loss and damage, and evaluation of adaptations in Pacific Island Countries. 1 3 1240 C. Guell et al. Neela Badrie is a professor and Arlette Saint Ville is a lecturer in researcher in the Faculty of Food the Geography Department, at and Agriculture, University of the The University of the West Indies, West Indies, St. Augustine, Trini- St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad dad and Tobago, West Indies. She and Tobago. Her research centers is also an attorney-at-law, qualified around food security, and explores to practice law at the bar of the the interplay between food insecu- Supreme Court of Trinidad and rity, natural resource governance Tobago. Her areas of specialisation and social capital. are in food microbiology and safety, food science and technol- ogy, bio-threat agents, bioethics, agri-food and environmental law.  Nigel Unwin is a Director of Research in Global Public Health at the MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge, a Professor of Public Health and Morgan Wairiu is a Natural Resource Epidemiology at the Univer- and Climate Adaptation Specialist, sity of Exeter, and an honorary and currently a Coordinating Lead Professor of Population Health Author of the Small Islands Chapter Sciences at Caribbean Institute of the IPCC Working Group 2 Sixth for Health Research, University Assessment Report. He has over 30 of the West Indies (UWI). He is years of work experience in agricul- currently interested in investi- ture, forestry, land use and the envi- gating how food systems in the ronment including climate change Caribbean are related to the high adaptation and risk resilience in the burdens of nutrition related dis- Pacific regions. His research interest eases, and is collaborating on and leading research that aims to inform is in food security and climate and evaluate interventions to improve nutrition in the Caribbean and change. Pacific. 1 3 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Food Security Springer Journals

Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States

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Springer Journals
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Copyright © The Author(s) 2022
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1876-4517
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1876-4525
DOI
10.1007/s12571-022-01281-0
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Abstract

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) share high burdens of nutrition-related conditions, including non-communicable diseases, associated with an increasing reliance on imported, processed foods. Improving health through increasing the production and consumption of local, nutritious foods is a policy objective of many SIDS governments. This study aimed to understand contemporary challenges and opportunities to strengthening local food systems in two case study settings, Fiji and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Fifty-two in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders involved in local food production. Interviews were analysed by both country teams using thematic analysis. Local food production networks in both settings included formal governance bodies as well as more informal connections through civil society and communities. Their main function was the sharing of resources and knowledge, but levels of trust and cooperation between the stakeholders varied in a market open to intense competition from imports. Local food production was hindered by few and slow investments by local governments, dated technology, and lack of knowledge. Stakeholders believed this marginalisa- tion was occurring against a background of rising preferences for imported foods in the population, and increasing disinterest in employment in the sector. Despite the challenges, strong narratives of resilience and opportunity were highlighted such as national pride in local produce for commercialisation and local diets. Efforts to support local food production in SIDS should focus on strengthening governance structures to prioritise local produce over corporate and import markets, assist collabora- tion and co-learning, and support alternative agro-food practices. Keywords Small-scale food production · Food systems · Food sovereignty · Nutritious diets · Caribbean · Pacific The members of the Community Food and Health (CFaH) team are listed in the Acknowledgements * Cornelia Guell University of Exeter, European Centre for Environment & c.guell@exeter.ac.uk Human Health, Truro, UK Catherine R. Brown The University of the West Indies, George Alleyne Chronic catherine.brown@cavehill.uwi.edu Disease Research Centre, Bridgetown, Barbados Otto W. Navunicagi Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable ottonavunicagi@gmail.com Development, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Viliamu Iese Department of Food Production, The University of the West viliamu.iese@usp.ac.fj Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago Neela Badrie Department of Geography, The University of the West Indies, neela.badrie@sta.uwi.edu St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago Morgan Wairiu Medical Research Council Epidemiology Unit, University morgan.wairiu@usp.ac.fj of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Arlette Saint Ville Arlette.SaintVille@sta.uwi.edu Nigel Unwin nigel.unwin@mrc-epid.cam.ac.uk Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 1228 C. Guell et al. and insufficient economic viability in regional and global 1 Introduction export markets, and therefore making SIDS' food systems highly vulnerable to natural disasters and economic down- Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a group of 58 turns (FAO, 2016b). More recently, food security in SIDS countries facing specific social, economic and environmental has been and continues to be negatively impacted by the vulnerabilities including complex food and nutrition-related COVID-19 pandemic, as mitigation strategies reduced challenges. SIDS were recognised as a distinct group at the access to land, labour, tools and markets, and therefore 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel- reduced agricultural production and household dietary opment. While overnutrition increasingly displaces under- diversity despite some uptake in home gardening (FAO & nutrition in most SIDS, access to quality food remains a ECLAC, 2020; Iese et al., 2021). This further exposed vul- critical issue for food security, population health and social nerabilities related to reliance on food imports, impover- and economic development (FAO, 2016b). SIDS have expe- ished local production, and for many countries an economic rienced a ‘nutrition transition’ over the past several decades; reliance on tourism (Hickey & Unwin, 2020). locally grown traditional foods have been replaced in the Policy responses to this challenge within SIDS include diet by imported, predominantly calorie-dense, processed the support of local food production to enable improved and ultra-processed foods (Tu'akoi et al., 2018). As a result, access and availability of less processed foods (IFPRI, 2015; obesity-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as UNSCN, 2016). The 2017 Global Action Programme on diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases have become Food Security and Nutrition in SIDS (FAO et al., 2017), for a serious burden in SIDS (FAO et al., 2017). For example, example, aims to strengthen enabling environments for food 33% of the Caribbean population are classified as obese, security and nutrition; improve sustainability, resilience and and nearly half of Pacific SIDS report an age-adjusted dia- nutrition-sensitivity of food systems; and empower people betes prevalence of > 20% (FAO et al., 2017; International and communities for food security and nutrition. Examples Diabetes Federation, 2019). While there are other important of regional policies include the 2010 Caribbean Community risk factors for NCDs, including smoking, physical inactivity (CARICOM) Regional Food and Nutrition Security Policy, and excess alcohol consumption, aspects of diet and their which seeks to promote healthy Caribbean diets through sequelae are the major contributors to NCD risk in the Carib- increasing the production and availability of regionally pro- bean and Pacific (Global Burden of Disease Collaborative duced foods, and the Regional Framework for Accelerat- Network, 2021). ing Action on Food Security and Nutrition in Pacific SIDS, SIDS rely largely on food imports over local food pro- which aims to strengthen the coherence and coordination duction, with over 60% of food imported in Caribbean and of development partner support for food security and nutri- Pacific countries, and over half of these countries importing tion in Pacific SIDS (CARICOM Secretariat, 2010; Pacific over 80% of food (FAO et al., 2017). Top foods imported Community, 2018). are processed foods, followed by wheat, corn, meat and While such commitments represent strong foundations dairy (FAO, 2019). This high food import dependency for reaching food and nutrition security goals, they are cast makes them vulnerable to global food price rises, as hap- broadly and generalised for all SIDS, and evidence from pened in 2006–2008, with the economic recession that fol- SIDS on key interventions that could support local food lowed the financial crisis of 2008 further impacting food production initiatives is minimal, including evidence on security in these vulnerable countries (FAO, 2016b; Mittal, the impact of local food production on population nutrition 2009). By 2017, food imports in SIDS had reached US$5 (Haynes et al., 2018). The state of local food production in billion dollars per year, a 50% increase in value since 2000 each SIDS is unique and dependent on its own historical, (FAO et al., 2017). While not all imported food is ultra- social, political, cultural and geographical context (such as processed and calorie-dense such as processed meats, bis- size and remoteness), and thus the effectiveness of com- cuits, ready meals like noodles and soft drinks, imported mitments in each SIDS depends on such (Connell et al., staples such as rice and fruit and vegetables are often 2020). For instance, a US study examining the facilitators more affordable and desirable than local produce (Connell and barriers of the development of local food markets found et al., 2020). The agricultural industry of SIDS tends to that the success of local markets depended on certain local be small scale, in particular at fresh food local markets conditions which are often not acknowledged during the where largely smallholder, high-cost producers with lim- development stages (Godette et al., 2015). These can include ited farmland compete against relatively cheap processed distribution systems, education and capacity for marketing and fresh imports from industrial agricultural systems in of local food, uncertainty of regulations, and food safety countries like Australia and the USA (Connell et al., 2020). requirements (Godette et al., 2015; Martinez et al., 2010). Small scale local food production results in limited invest- Likewise, Maples et al. explain that local food systems are ment, slow technological advancement, less diversification 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1229 influenced by characteristics of the population itself, includ- Table 2 Participants by sector and level of food chain involvement in Fiji and SVG ing socioeconomic demographics, food ideology and degree of civic engagement (Maples et al., 2013). Proportion of participants (%) In-depth understanding is needed of the political eco- Fiji (n = 32) SVG (n = 20) nomic and socio-cultural factors that shape the specific Sector contexts of local food systems and actors in SIDS to inform Civil society 1 (3) 3 (15) national policies on food and nutrition security (Barry et al., Private 26 (81) 18 (90) 2020; Singh-Peterson & Iranacolaivalu, 2018). To inform Government 5 (16) 0 (0) a wider project that aimed to develop methods to evaluate Level within food chain impact of local food production on local diets (Haynes et al., Production 26 (81) 9 (45) 2020), we investigated the contextual facilitators of and barriers Processing & transport 6 (19) 12 (60) to local community-based food production initiatives in two Marketing & retail 28 (88) 15 (75) case settings: the Pacific Island country Fiji and St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) in the Caribbean. Specifically, we sought –Note that some participants overlapped in their sector representa- to explore local food production networks and key stakeholders; tion and position in the food chain, so percentages do not necessarily the challenges and successes within and across each of the set- sum to 100. tings; and how barriers to success might be overcome. Including subsistence producers and smallholders populations forming smaller proportions. The Indigenous 2 Materials and methods Kalinagos or ‘Caribs’ tend to reside in the north of the island of St. Vincent; they are descendants of the island's original 2.1 Settings and participants Indigenous population, which have reduced significantly in number during colonisation in the eighteenth century (Minor- We conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders involved in local food production and its supply ity Rights Group International, 2007). In Fiji, the population is comprised mostly of Indigenous Fijians, also called iTaukei, chains in Fiji and SVG between August and November 2018. Fiji and SVG are both archipelagos of islands with similar who own about 89.75% of land in Fiji (iTaukei Land Trust Board, n.d.). Other major ethnicities in Fiji include Fijians of economic standings and NCD burdens (Table 1). Interviews in Fiji took place in its main island, Viti Levu. Indian and Chinese descent and Rotumans (Minority Rights Group International, 2017). SVG interviews took place in St. Vincent (its main island) and Bequia (smaller island in the Grenadines close to St. Vin- Stakeholders were purposively sampled from government, private and civil society sectors, including subsistence farm- cent). Populations of these two settings have diverse cultural backgrounds. In SVG, the population is mostly comprised of ers and fishers (Table  2). Recruitment followed a process of cascading through the food chain, starting with local African descendants, with White, East Indian and Indigenous Table 1 Selected demographic (CIA, 2020a, 2020b), economic (World Bank, 2019) and health (WHO, 2018) data on Fiji and SVG Fiji SVG Region South Pacific Caribbean Sub-region Melanesia Lower Antilles Population 883,480 110,210 World Bank economic group Upper middle income Upper middle income Major sectors Agriculture, tourism, sugar processing, textiles, Agriculture (starch), tourism, copra, gold mining, lumber food processing, cement, furniture, textiles GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) 11,004 12,307 GDP proportion from agriculture (%) 14 7 Labour force in agriculture (%) 44 26 Raised blood glucose, adults aged 18 + (%) 17 10 Obesity 30 24 Adults aged 18 + (%) 10 11 Adolescents aged 10–19 (%) Raised blood pressure, adults aged 18 + (%) 20 23 1 3 1230 C. Guell et al. producers and tracing how and where their produce is trans- to allow for multi-person analysis across teams and countries ported, stored, processed, marketed and retailed. Individuals (Dedoose Version 8.0.35, 2018). were identified through a combination of guidance from the local Ministries of Health, local contacts associated with the 2.3 Terminology project, and through snowballing based on guidance from interviewees and speaking with people in the communities The food systems in both settings largely included private who worked in the local food chain. home gardens producing food for own consumption (although The roles of the participants included production (farming also sharing, bartering and sometimes for market), smallhold- and fishing), processing (for example, producers of pepper ings that provide for subsistence and livelihoods, and com- sauce, coconut water, plantain/cassava/taro chips), transport, mercial farms (small in scale compared to import markets) marketing, and retail (food shops and restaurants). Govern- (Haynes et al., 2020), typical for similar settings (Galhena ment officials were only available to be interviewed in Fiji. et  al., 2013). We describe formal networks as formalised We also interviewed representatives of farming cooperatives, economic or legal based relationships such as cooperatives, exportation companies and non-governmental organisations associations and business partnerships, and informal social (NGOs) who support agriculture through funding, subsidising, networks as ad hoc, flexible and often opportunistic. We transport and training. Throughout the manuscript, participant refer to processed and ultra-processed foods according to the quotations are labelled as SVI# (for SVG) or FJI# (for Fiji). NOVA classification foods that distinguishes unprocessed and minimally processed foods in the lowest category (at most, 2.2 Data collection and analysis only fermented, pasteurised, boiled, dried etc.) to processed and ultra-processed meals, snacks and drinks partly or wholly The semi-structured interview guides (see Online Resource) produced using industrial techniques processes (Monteiro focused on livelihoods through local food systems; factors et al., 2016). that affect the operations of the local food system; keys and threats to the success of the local food system; environmen- tal impacts of and on local food production; socioeconomic 3 Results and health benefits of local food production; initiatives that support the local food system; and resources for and barriers 3.1 Local food actors and interactions to these initiatives. Our question and analysis are particu- larly relevant to three of the four pillars of food security As we set out to explore local food production networks and (CFS, 2014), and contribution to them from local produc- key stakeholders, a first step in the analysis was to trace local tion. These are availability, accessibility and stability. Here, formal and informal networks of the food value chain. In this we considered less explicitly the fourth pillar, utilisation. context, we define networks as relationships between multi- However, in previous publications from the same project we ple individuals and organisations that involve the exchange have described aspects of utilisation in both settings (Guell of information, infrastructure, finances or goods in relation et al., 2021; Haynes et al., 2020). to the production, supply and retail of foods. In both settings, This was a collaborative research project between smallholder farmers represent the largest producer numbers researchers from the Pacific Islands, the Caribbean region in the network for local food production, and serve a role in and the UK. All interviews were conducted by local research- subsistence consumption, for sale within the local market, ers at interviewee farms, households and business establish- and regional and international export. Fresh produce, includ- ments and lasted between 40 to 90 min. Interviews were ing main staples like yam, sweet potato, cassava, taro (Fiji) audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were and dasheen (SVG), is grown in private backyard gardens for analysed using a pragmatic approach of (a) initial deduc- own consumption, on smallholdings that provide for subsist- tive coding according to a predefined coding frame based ence and livelihoods, and on commercial farms. The local on study objectives, and then (b) opened up for more induc- private sector of hotels, supermarkets and restaurants help to tive insights in reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, maintain demand for local fresh products, and farmers would 2019). Each country team at the University of the South try to diversify their produce, for example by growing toma- Pacific and the University of the West Indies analysed their toes, cucumbers and lettuce, to meet demand, but imported own transcripts as the main researchers in the first instance, produce would often be considered more varied, visually identifying emerging relevant themes and salient quotations desirable or cheaper. Local food processing is a grow- for illustration. Initial findings and unexpected insights were ing industry, although mostly small in scale, and includes then discussed with the whole project team, including from minimally processed foods such as flours, milk, nuts, fresh the Universities of Cambridge and Exeter in the UK, in a fruit juices and culinary ingredients such as oils and dried group workshop. The analysis team used Dedoose software herbs. Local processed food production includes salted nuts, 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1231 sweetened juices, fried and salted chips, confectionaries reciprocity and collective community efforts are important (such as tamarind balls in SVG), pepper sauces, jams and Indigenous values and approaches. Stakeholders in both set- chutneys. Depending on actual ingredients and methods of tings stressed that those working in local food production in production, most of these would classify as ‘processed’ not both formal and informal networks must look at each other ‘ultra-processed’ foods (Monteiro et al., 2016), but are often not as competitors but as partners. This necessitates under- high in salt, sugar or fat content. standing and appreciating everyone’s role in the food chain The Ministry of Agriculture is the main entity oversee- as important: “we just have to work together […] so every- ing local food production in both countries, carrying out body gets something. Once we work together, it’s all good.” national programmes that include development and train- (Restaurant manager, SVI17) Maintaining good relationships ing, research, funding opportunities and veterinary services. with partners by committing to requirements or requests was Local and regional NGOs also play a major role in manag- considered key to maintaining each cog of the food chain. ing the supply and demand of products across production, Treating customers and workers with respect and “work[ing] processing and local and export consumer markets in both together with love” (Farmer, FJI01) was considered important, settings. Most organisations operate on a national level, with not least as ill-treated staff were thought to work slower and some regional (i.e. within the Caribbean) and international produce less output. involvement with respect to funding and exportation. In Fiji, stakeholders highlighted as a great facilitator In SVG, the Eastern Caribbean Trading Agriculture and of local food production the strong cultural value of ‘Na Development Organisation assists small farmers in produc- Solesolevaki’ underlying what was generally described as tion planning and training of agricultural workers. Invest a strong sense of community and comradery between local SVG, under the auspice of the Ministry of Finance, Eco- food producers. Na Solesolevaki, where Indigenous farmers nomic Planning and Sustainable Development, plays a major regularly come together to work on a particular farmer’s role in assisting farmers in project planning and funding. plantation as a group, was thought to bring joy in working as There are many farming cooperatives in SVG which work a team. They also believed this practice improved efficiency together in supplying national and regional demands for across farms, enabling them to share land and its produce, local produce. Non-profit civil society organisations such and share new and different ideas. The communal sharing of as Richmond Vale Academy work with communities on knowledge was commonplace and also a key cultural com- poverty reduction, environmental conservation and climate ponent of training workshops offered by the NGO FRIEND change awareness, including creating organic demonstra- to local farmers and gardeners who could then return to their tion farms and sustainable home gardens and contribute to village to teach others. Fiji producers and processors gener- national initiatives. ally described a positive relationship and a level of respect In Fiji, the Ministry of Agriculture offers a range of assis- for one another. Farmers took advantage of initiatives pro- tance to encourage production including consultations on vided by the agroprocessors and funded by government, proper farming procedures and soil assessments, subsidised which included providing steady, secure demand for crops tractor services, and provision and sharing of inputs such such as cassava, agro-marketing for cassava products, and on as new plant suckers. Agro Marketing Fiji Limited directly a very practical level travelling to rural farmers and minimis- purchases root crops from rural farmers and assists in find- ing their need for transport of produce to markets: “We are ing suitable markets for them in the hope of improving their going right to them [farmers] and buying from them. […] standards of living. Local NGOs, most prominently the The government wanted us to go into them rather than them Foundation for Rural Integrated Enterprises and Develop- spending money coming over to the urban areas. They pro- ment (FRIEND), play an important role by working directly vide us the grant for us to go.” (FJI20, Agroprocessor). with farming communities to understand their resources Government and key local food production partners in and products, and assist in incorporating them into the local Fiji had also established local village committees consisting value chain. They encourage traditional, Indigenous farm- of village headmen and representatives of women, farmers, ing practices, including integrated cropping, and promote a and fisherfolk who were trained on how to assess produce for backyard gardening programme. their quality for health and organic status. They were seen as a key driver for the establishment of village community 3.2 Local collaboration in a small market food production initiatives, and also operated as middlemen and quality control agents. Fiji stakeholders were generally A core function of formal and informal networks of local food pleased with the government-level commitment offered to producers, processors and vendors was to share resources and them. Farmers were appreciative of their consultations on lessons. Such collaboration was facilitated through local gov- the use of manure and other farming practices. ernance structures, through civil society or informally across Stakeholders’ experiences around sharing of knowledge communities. In Fiji, sharing of resources, interdependence, and practices among actors and institutions within the local 1 3 1232 C. Guell et al. food production network differed between sectors and actors, inability of people working in local food production to artic- but there was a particularly stark difference between Fiji ulate their needs meaningfully. and SVG. Although cooperation was highlighted as vital “The farmers lack the ability to articulate […] their for strengthening the local food system, SVG stakeholders situation. So a lot of the things that they need, they described a reluctance to work together. One participant can’t speak for it. […] I am, I'm lucky to be able to explained that farmers often did not attend meetings of their articulate my position. But, but a lot of them not able farming groups, and when they do, “they go home they’ll to do that.” (Farmer, SVI03). be like, ‘[sucks teeth] I don’t have time.’ [Laughs]. Or, ‘It’s too much work’” (Vendor, SVI11) This reluctance to work In support for greater collaboration, the civil society together was connected to lack of trust and fear of competi- organisation Richmond Vale Academy in SVG spearheaded tion between farmers. the concept of ‘model farming’. These demonstration farms were set up in communities with the aim to provide experi- “There’s this mistrust and I’m not quite sure where it ential training, sharing, co-learning and adapting practices, stems from. Because you always feel like you’re being, between smallholders, and aim to ensure that existing and they always give you the impression that, you know, new farmers work efficiently, innovatively and with little somebody’s going to cheat you.” (Farmer, SVI16) environmental impact through peer learning. This small Stakeholders indeed lamented that  buyers and sellers initiative resonated with local farmers. As one farmer sometimes did not stick to agreements made, whether formal explained: “Education is, is critical! We need to have model or informal, for example, if they found more attractive buy- farms […] And that’s what I’m trying to do myself. I’m try- ing or selling rates elsewhere. As an example for this lacking ing to set up a model that would encourage young farmers loyalty, one farmer in SVG attempted to increase business [to emulate practices].” (Farmer, SVI03). through supplying local hotels with a group of other small farms to meet the high demand, as neither farm could meet the demand alone. However, the project failed as other farm- 3.3 Seeking innovation in underinvested food ers did not meet their commitments. The farmer’s conclu- systems sion was that “They [other farmers] cut me out [by failing to provide sufficient quantities to meet the demand for the Cooperation with co-learning was seen as an important mech- collective agreement]. So I said what I can’t produce [on my anism for innovation for many stakeholders, and innovation own], I just not going to sell.” (Farmer, SVI16). was seen as a key factor and aspiration towards strengthened SVG stakeholders also reported more varied national- local food production. Stakeholders urged farmers to update level and governmental support. Some reported low levels their practices to improve efficiency and mitigate environmen- of trust and confidence in their government’s agricultural tal impacts from pests, diseases and erratic seasons causing advice as being outdated and unsuited to the local terrain flooding and draughts by using more greenhouses; by improv - and crops (likely due to inadequate training), but appreciated ing water management systems; by using green energy; and business-oriented support provided through one government implementing topsoil conservation techniques. Indigenous co- initiative and its willingness to address financial challenges farming through Na Solesolevaki and small-scale initiatives of local farmers and agroprocessors. Invest SVG, under such as demonstration farms and training programmes were the auspices of the Ministry of Finance, Economic Plan- seen as facilitating the sharing knowledge and skills, formally ning and Sustainable Development, stood out for engaging and informally. and supporting farmers and food processors in providing SVG stakeholders saw new technologies as particularly guidance and advice on operating within the local food pro- important for innovation. The owner of a processing com- duction network, and offering on-the-ground assistance for pany took pride in exemplifying sustainability through solar persons interested in or currently involved in agriculture power energy by making people ask themselves, “Hey can through grants, hosting trade shows, and opening dialogue I do that with my business somehow?” (Agroprocessor, on marketing,”and they come and help you.” (Farmer and SVI14) Likewise, a farmer felt rewarded when she found agroprocessor, SVI05). out that their organic farming techniques were being spread The poorer cooperation in SVG was also explained even inadvertently to their own workers: by farmers lacking the initiative for open discussion and “So, actually [a local initiative] is trying to be a model exchange. As one participant suggested, “like me and you of sustainability […] by showing that it’s possible to here sitting down and just having a conversation, talking do it. I think it’s a way of teaching. […] By hearing about issues. People don't want to do that. So I have to, us talking about how you should grow organic all the I have to blame the public as well.” (Butchery manager, time, […] they just tell us, like, ‘Yeah, so now I stopped SVI09) This disconnect was also seen to result from the 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1233 using pesticides,’ or ‘I stopped using the weed killer.’” viable and sustainable local food production, and that this (Teacher/farmer, SVI20) has led to inadequate practices among farmers. Stakehold- ers pointed to such inefficient and outdated practices such Stakeholders also recommended moving beyond the cur- as the extensive use of fertilisers and planting techniques rent print and word-of-mouth communication channels, and that are sometimes poorly suited for the terrain, leading to including social media as a platform for improving connec- lower yield, higher costs, and heavily impacting soil quality tions between different strata in the local food production and erosion, and identified a number of issues in relation to industry, helping to bring people together on local events, the role of agricultural extension officers. There were few of initiatives and opportunities. They also suggested that inno- them, there was a lack of trust in extension workers to ade- vation could be stimulated through finding new ways to quately train farmers, and those who trained farmers focused appeal to youth to encourage them to get involved in agri- on techniques that they had learnt overseas but were often culture, and in return reap benefits from their affinity to new not appropriate to the local geography and other contextual technologies to modernising farming practices. factors shaping small scale farming. Examples of such chal- “You have to, kind of, try and speak their language lenges requiring technical expertise not necessarily acquired […] There’s a lot of technology involved and that’s abroad included bush fires in rural areas of Fiji and uncon- what the young people like. They have Apps now […] trolled slash and burn farming in SVG, that would require We can’t just say, oh, that grass look a little yellow, it soil management and other mitigation strategies. going need some manure.” (Farmer, SVI16) Stakeholders therefore suggested that farmers were ill- equipped with the right skills, but stakeholders were also In Fiji, rather than focusing on new technologies for inno- worried that farmers were  not interested in or could not vation, stakeholders suggested that a young, climate change contribute to sustainable farming practices mitigating long- aware generation could be attracted by highlighting the need term harm to land and agriculture because of land tenure for more sustainable and ‘traditional’ farming practices with- challenges. Many farmers leased their farmland, so their out the heavy applications of fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides focus was on short-term profitability instead of long-term and other harmful chemicals. Stakeholders saw a specific soil quality and longevity. One SVG farmer explains that role for government in this, recommending that local food “a lot of people do not care [about the] land because production using alternative, regenerative or organic prac- they do not own land. […] The largest threat to the farmers tices instead of orthodox ‘industrial’ processes of farming themselves are farmers. Because they are the ones that are should be integrated more in the national school curricula really destroying the surface.” (Farmer, SVI03). In Fiji, one to attract a new generation of food producers. Stakeholders stakeholder highlighted the precarious situation of tenant also called for more capital investment to develop a more farmers: climate resilient food system to address challenges such as flooding and soil erosion form extreme weather events. “The land that I’m staying in is not considered to be Likewise, Fiji stakeholders believed that government had a under a formal village setting. When residential devel- role in supporting sustainable and organic farming through opments started to occur, I had to stop planting at the awards and incentives and this would improve the quality piece of land that I was using. So currently I’ve been of their produce. Instead of observing progress towards this buying food from the market”. (Farmer and fisherman, aim, Fijian stakeholders worried about a strong push from FJI32) agencies, funding bodies and therefore communities towards Finally, stakeholders in both settings connected vulner- mono-cropping of imported species of plants like potatoes, abilities in local food production to their weak national econ- peppers (capsicums) and broccoli instead of mixed cropping omies that hindered concerted investment. This included low of local food species such as yams, wild ferns and nuts. One incomes resulting in emigration of skilled workers, and fluc- stakeholder explained that “we are not sustaining enough of tuating availability of supplies, such as animal feed, making our own varieties” and “despite the aid, we don’t have cor- animal husbandry haphazard. One stakeholder explained porates looking into the potential of Fiji crops.” (Processor that the Fijian “agriculture department don’t even have and exporter, FJI09) Local bodies and stakeholders “don’t enough seeds or storage.” (Processor and exporter, FJI09) consider traditional agriculture as agriculture” (Processor Fijian villagers who travelled to the market to vend must and exporter, FJI09). Instead, local NGOs follow prescrip- travel by bus without adequate storage of their produce, lead- tion from international aid and fail to emphasise the range of ing to damaged produce. Lacking financial investment in staple Fijian root crops or leafy vegetables. good quality infrastructure to support local food production Stakeholders in Fiji and SVG felt that a key barrier to systems – from roads to shipping and airfreight between strengthening the local food system was insufficient techni- islands – was considered to be particularly problematic in cal knowledge in state institutions to support economically 1 3 1234 C. Guell et al. both settings and seen to restrict profitability and lead to use of chemicals in local food production, yet they also food wastage. attributed superior taste and viability of their local produce, for example connected to their rich, volcanic soil in SVG. “[In other countries] it is unthinkable that a farm One stakeholder stated that “You’ll, you forget a, a stick on doesn’t have a drivable road! It’s unthinkable they the ground, you come back it’s growing.” (Farmer, SVI03) don’t have road or water and electricity. But these are Similar sentiments were reported in Fiji. An owner of a large the same farmers we’re compare, competing with. As ginger farm believed that the healthy non-polluted environ- a matter of fact, they have subsidized fuel. […] The ment is an element of success of his ginger demand: “One agricultural policy in Europe, there’re heavy subsidies of the main reasons why our customers like our Fiji-grown going into farms!” (Farmer, SVI03) ginger is because Fiji enjoys a better reputation with the “They don’t have farm roads. […] Those are the kind environment, and with our great team and environment here, of infrastructure that should be there that will help us no pollution.” (Food exporter, FJI38) Healthiness was also reach out to the remote islands. […] We don’t go right connected to beliefs around nutritiousness, claiming that to the farm. We don’t send our guys right to the farm local foods score “really high on nutrition charts” (Proces- even if it’s a kilometre away. That’s a barrier to us eh.” sor and exporter, FJI09) with examples like rourou (taro leaf (Agromarketer, FJI20) stew) suggested to prevent anaemia in Fiji. In our compan- The latter quote showed that even initiatives like the ear- ion piece to this study, we also found ambiguous consumer lier mentioned scheme of Agro Marketing Fiji Limited to preferences in both settings, of highly valuing local foods directly buy from producers to overcome transport challenges “and yet increasingly consuming shop-bought, processed only made small inroads in addressing these structural bar- and imported foods […] making trade-offs between health riers. Similarly, agroprocessors of coconut oils, chips and and convenience, and navigating uncertainties over the risks sauces complained of the high costs of processing, particu- and benet fi s of die ff rent food types and sources”(Guell et al., larly the machinery required, which limits the expansion of 2021, p.7). their businesses. One SVG farmer claimed that instead of Stakeholders were keen to emphasise the importance of consuming imported processed foods, “we could process our understanding and harnessing the high social value placed own thing here and make it as tasty but, again, is the money on local produce—and its connection to land, people and to do it, you understand me?” (SVI05). A Fiji stakeholder country—as a symbol of national pride and therefore an interested in food processing also explained “I have been important strategy towards addressing the increasing con- to China a couple of times to see some big machines […] sumption of imports and strengthening local food production but it is expensive” (Exporter, FJI37), and has been unable and processing. A marketing agent explains “they trust it, to purchase any and upgrade his system. Stakeholders in it's their country, they trust their soil more than what may be SVG called for “concessions, fiscal incentives, you know, coming in. […] It's a, more of a sign of patriotism.” (SVI02) ten years, fifteen years, fiscal incentives” (Agroprocessor, Even processed foods such as pepper sauces, chips, oils and SVI07) that are commonplace in higher income countries. jams that are made from locally produced ingredients were While a drive for innovation and marketing local products described as preferred over imported ones. Stakeholders was clearly evident, these financial barriers seemed difficult felt that this support of “our own people” (Agroprocessor, to overcome. SVI07) is a key element of success for local food production. Promotion of local Fijian products is made through the use 3.4 Capitalising on local pride of conspicuous labels denoting that it is made in Fiji, and a major SVG supermarket has regular campaigns preferen- Despite the underfunded position of local food production, tially promoting local products. stakeholders felt that local foods were generally appreciated Although highlighting these benefits for and preferences and considered key to the resilience of the local economies of local populations, stakeholders suggested that commer- in both settings. Because Fiji and SVG are traditionally cialisation and ultimately export of locally produced food agricultural societies, stakeholders suggested that while the were paramount for success. Local producers hoped for their local population might well consume a high percentage of products to be marketable enough to be sold out of country, imported products, they nonetheless preferred local foods as noting that a “sustained profitable market” (NGO coordi- an act of patriotism and loyalty to their people. Stakehold- nator, SVI01) is a first step for a successful local food pro- ers also praised locally produced fresh produce as healthier duction industry. It is thought that available and sustained than imported produce on account of their assumed lower markets for local food production will encourage people to content of chemicals – be it fertilisers, pesticides, preserva- get involved in local food production and for those already tives, or appearance enhancers. In both settings, stakeholders involved, to improve product quality. Stakeholders in SVG appreciated that consumers might not be aware of ubiquitous called for their Ministry of Tourism to engage in local food 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1235 production by marketing this unique industry to visitors. In national economies, insufficient technical knowledge, and Fiji, the continued empowerment of farmers to commit to lacking political will and selective and slow financial com- shifting from small-scale subsistence to commercial produc- mitments have hampered investment opportunities and infra- tion to increase economic rewards was considered critical: structure development in local food production. While local produce was valued and marketed as a symbol of national “So, I look at that transition as a very important pride, increasing preference for imported foods, depreciating transition, you know, it’s the transition of a mind, ah attitudes towards farming as a way of life and little knowl- instead of looking at production purely from a sub- edge, technical and financial support for growing local crops sistence perspective, now they need to go one up, you and sustainable farming practices were cause for concern. know, ah for a more commercial perspective.” (Min- istry of Agriculture, FJI13) 4.2 Harnessing governance to strengthen local Despite this pride in the product and eagerness for capi- food systems talisation, stakeholders worried that local food production as a livelihood was less favourably regarded and increas- Many of the barriers highlighted by stakeholders in SVG and ingly seen as excessively hard work with little payoff. As one Fiji have been previously highlighted (Connell et al., 2020; stakeholder put it, “it’s no longer sexy to farm,” (Farmer, Guariguata et al., 2020; Saint Ville et al., 2015). SIDS’ geo- SVI03) and youth tended to view farmers unappealingly graphical isolation, limited land space, weak economies, and “as somebody with water boots and a hoe in their hand, a slow technological advancement in local food production crooked back.” (Farmer, SVI16) Instead, farming was seen undermine efforts to gain a foothold in export markets and as a transitional job, a “stepping stone” (Farmer, SVI16) to a compete against imported foods (FAO, 2014). The concern job or career of greater significance or easier work. Attracted for sustainability of local food production in SIDS is widely by professional careers, stakeholders feared young people acknowledged and the Food and Agricultural Organization is “rather go and adjust their collar and tie and go to work at actively involved in supporting their food security and agri- the bank, or work behind somebody desk.” (Restaurant man- culture (FAO, 2014). SIDS global vulnerabilities such as to ager, SVI19) Similarly, stakeholders appreciated that while impacts of climate change are often the focal theme in these consumers might voice preference for local fresh produce as discussions and efforts (FAO, 2016a), and global policy healthier than imports, the economic reality was that their efforts of the World Trade Organization’s Uruguay Round actual choice was limited when considering availability and (WTO, 2019b) and later Doha Round (Tu'akoi et al., 2018; affordability of certain products, in particular fresh produce WTO, 2019a) aimed to reduce trade-distorting agricultural that was often more expensive. A restaurant manager cau- subsidies and tariffs that placed developing countries at a tioned that even tourists were reluctant to buy from local disadvantage. Yet it is important to consider the local gov- vendors because of their high prices: “Yes, they [tourists] ernance forces at play which can counter these efforts. excited, you know, they see local produce, it’s locally grown Although there is substantial effort and investment of and thing, but then the prices are ridiculous. They feel like civil society actors and private enterprise to make local they’re being robbed.” (Restaurant manager, SVI08). food systems accessible and resilient, the role of the state seems crucial. Stakeholders in our study were particularly concerned about the significant policy marginalisation of the 4 Discussion domestic agricultural sector, with little funding, including investment in up-to-date knowledge of sustainable and cli- 4.1 Summary of findings mate change resilient agriculture and willingness to abandon outdated technologies and processes such as monocropping This study aimed to investigate the lessons that can be learned of imported species and the use of fertiliser, herbicides and for strengthening local food production in Fiji and SVG from pesticides. As Sonnino (2013, p.4) suggests, it is the “pres- the perspective of local food system actors. Imports of ultra- ence or absence of governance arrangements that can sus- processed foods are significant drivers of malnutrition and tain local food networks over space and time”, including its dietary change, and imports of fresh produce outcompete role “in constructing and supporting markets for local food local fresh food production and further exacerbate ill-health products”. While global trade and corporate power works due to poorly accessibly and unaffordable locally produced against such efforts and marginalises or even displaces local fruit and vegetables (FAO, 2019). Our stakeholders’ perspec- produce, government action can still act against such forces tives described a local food system operating within formal and dynamics. As our stakeholders suggested, this may be and informal networks of cooperation to share resources through investment in infrastructure, subsidisation, taxation and aim for innovative practices. However, stakeholders or developing knowledge and skills within government for described how competition within these networks,  weak innovative local production. Barriers to this are described in 1 3 1236 C. Guell et al. the literature across SIDS settings, including little political stakeholders with differing interests and access to resources appetite for regulation and market intervention at the back- operate in a highly open and underfunded market. As Saint drop of neo-liberal economic models (Connell, 2020). At the Ville and colleagues (2017) found in their exploration of stake- same time, non-state actors such as producers, processors holder engagement within the agri-food system in neighbour- and civil society may be marginalised, in particular in terms ing Saint Lucia, collaboration processes were often top down agenda or priority setting processes that could counter such and lacking representation of smallholder farmers, and there- politics and would foster inclusive and socially just agri- fore fostering distrust, and would require explicit structures food governance (Siegel & Bastos Lima, 2020). Moreover, to govern greater co-learning and collective action. Similarly, an underfunded or unsupported food system creates further Lowitt and colleagues (2015a, p.1367) found “a systemic barriers for non-state actors for knowledge exchange and lack of access to finance, markets, and knowledge networks” cooperation for resource mobilisation or greater participa- that was compounded by “a pervasive lack of trust reported tion (Saint Ville et al., 2017). between actors and institutions throughout the agricultural Concerted state support is also increasingly required to innovation system […] in the Caribbean.” They suggest that address climate change adaptation. Stakeholders mentioned enabling ‘communities of practice’ with shared values, needs inadequate investment in water management systems, and and priorities could provide such structures to foster social and water insecurity is an important challenge in rain-fed small- collaborative relationships and collective action in smallholder holder farming systems in SIDS (FAO, 2019). It is likely in famers (Lowitt et al., 2015a, 2015b). the future, with climate change, that both extreme rainfall One shared social value stakeholders in both settings events and periods of drought, will increase in importance. highlighted was an appreciation of ‘local’ produce by local Local governance mechanisms such as traditional govern- populations, speaking to a literature that highlights that local ance systems in Fiji need to be considered as vital levers food produce captures a range of values from environmental in strengthening local food systems and sharing knowledge sustainability to social embeddedness and healthy nutrition about climate resilient food production practices. In Fiji, (Sonnino, 2013). This pride was less seen in appreciation most the lands and fishing areas (qoliqoli) are owned by of the agricultural sector itself, and its important role for iTaukei through the customary ownership in Fiji (iTaukei local nutrition and health, despite some regional and inter- Land Trust Board, n.d.), and the Indigenous Na Solesolevaki national policy efforts (FAO, 2019), and there seems to be a practice of working together and sharing resources (includ- need to extend national ‘pride in local produce’ campaigns ing land with landless) and experience and expertise might to government ministries, agri-food organisations and fund- at least fill some of the more formal national governance ing agencies in supporting local species and sustainable gaps. Such culturally and communally embedded govern- growing practices rather than placing the onus solely on the ance structures seemed missing in SVG and thus unable to consumer. compensate for the lack of state attention. In tourism-dependent SIDS, a further value that could be harnessed could be around presenting ‘local food culture’ 4.3 Harnessing social values to strengthen local to tourists. However, perhaps more important here is the food systems monetary value of local produce for local hotels and restau- rants as well as for export markets. Pride in ‘local’ then has Stakeholders across our study sites identified meaningful coop- a commercial benefit to local producers to strengthen their eration between food systems actors as an important mecha- business viability in a marginalised market. Agro-tourism is nism towards innovation and resilience, including through a well-regarded industry that can synergise the agricultural self-started farming cooperatives, demonstration farms in and tourism markets in countries like Fiji and SVG, and ulti- SVG and the spirit of working together Na Solesolevaki in Fiji mately lead to increased development of both industries while (which has proven vital during the COVID-19 pandemic (Iese also increasing foreign reserve (FAO, 2012). In SVG, local et al., 2021)). However, stakeholders also shared experiences value chains of coconut water, cassava and sweet potato have of fractured relationships, distrust and conifl ct between dif - already experienced increased market demand and such local ferent food producers, processors and vendors, particularly in agricultural diversification is supported by the 2016–2019 SVG, and as also reported in other Caribbean settings (Lowitt FAO Country Programming Framework (FAO, 2018). How- et al., 2015a, 2015b; Saint Ville et al., 2017). Lacking trust ever, production for a tourist market may render such pro- might need to be at least partially understood in the historical duce unao ff rdable for local populations when willingness and context of indentured labour and slave agro-economies that capacity to pay is much higher by tourist businesses. It may underlie the emphasis on self-sufficiency and individualism in also divert high quality fresh produce away from local con- Caribbean smallholder farmers (Lowitt et al., 2015a, 2015b). sumption, particularly when production volumes are small, Contemporary political economic factors that may explain plant scheduling systems are ad-hoc and there is low infor- distrust include that formal and informal networks of diverse mation exchange to enhance coordination between relevant 1 3 Perspectives on strengthening local food systems in Small Island Developing States 1237 National Food and Nutrition Centre in Fiji, the University of the South actors. Production for the tourist market then has little benefit Pacific (USP) and University of the West Indies (UWI), with particular to the food security and nutrition of local populations. Stake- thanks to Sairusi Bosenaqali in Fiji and Nzinga Sergeant in SVG for holders also warned that tourism encourages the production their instrumental role in the logistics of field work, support in recruit- of produce of little environmental value to their countries, as ing for and transcribing and translating the interviews. We thank the Foundation for Rural Integrated Enterprises & Development (FRIEND) hotels and restaurants also would like resource-intense pro- Fiji, particularly its Director Sashi Kiran for assistance in establishing duce such as lettuce or broccoli on their menus and under- the project. We thank the rest of the CFaH team, which also included mining their own efforts to develop resilience in their food T. Alafia Samuels and Ian Hambleton (George Alleyne Chronic Dis - systems. Nonetheless, ‘going local’ can also be a political ease Research Centre, Bridgetown, Barbados); Colin Tukuitonga and Connie Donato-Hunt (Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia); endeavour of small scale producers and organisation against Florian Kroll (University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South corporate practices and large scale production, and alternative Africa); Rachel Nugent (Research Triangle International, Durham, models such as farm-to-table establishments could emphasise North Carolina, United States); Nita G. Forouhi (MRC Epidemiol- sustainable practices and the importance of relationships with ogy Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England) and Sara Benjamin-Neelon (John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, local consumers (Beingessner & Fletcher, 2020). In Fiji, the Baltimore, Maryland, United States). NGO FRIEND runs a commercially successful restaurant with healthy local dishes cooked in traditional ways that is Authors’ contributions NU, CG, NB and MW wrote the original design very popular with the local population. Stakeholders’ appeal for the study, with CRB, VI and OWN contributing to the detailed devel- to engage more with young people and harness creativity and opment of the data collection methods. VI, MW and OWN undertook and oversaw the research in Fiji; CRB undertook and oversaw the innovation in a new generation also points towards opportuni- research in SVG. CRB and CG jointly led the writing of the manuscript. ties in this direction. All authors contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the findings, critical revision of the manuscript and approved its final version. Funding The project is funded by a Foundation Award from the Global 5 Conclusion Challenges Research Fund (Wiltshire, England), through the United Kingdom Medical Research Council (Cambridge, England); Grant No. There are multiple social, economic and political factors MR/P025250/1. The funders had no role in the study design, data col- lection or analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript that challenge local food production in Fiji and SVG, from limited investment in weak economies to mistrust of actors Data Availability This is qualitative data collected in small settings, in the local food production network and dominant import and is therefore not fully anonymous. The corresponding author can markets. Community and civil society efforts such as dem- be contacted to discuss limited access to the transcripts. onstration farms, Indigenous shared farming practices and governance structures, and informal networking between Declarations local food producers and processors might make small inroads in strengthening local food systems. However, this Ethics approval Ethical approval was granted by local ethics boards at The University West Indies (Cave Hill campus) and The University of needs to be considered against the backdrop of agri-food the South Pacific (Laucala campus). Ethical oversight was provided by systems that use predominantly top–down approaches, with the Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee. In addition, minimal participation from consumers, farmers and NGOs, permission for the work was provided from the Ministries of Health of and a growing dominance of food imports and supermar- SVG and Fiji. All participants provided written consent to participate. kets (Lowitt et al., 2016). The COVID-19 pandemic has, of Consent for publication Not applicable. course, underscored the precarious nature of food security in many SIDS and the desirability of greater self-suc ffi iency Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing and local food security and local food markets even further interests. (FAO & ECLAC, 2020; Hickey & Unwin, 2020). While diverse stakeholders work towards strengthening local food Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- production in SIDS, strong governance structures are needed bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long that prioritise local produce over corporate and import mar- as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, kets, assist collaboration and co-learning, and support alter- provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes native approaches to agro-food practices. were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s12571- 022- 01281-0 . the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Acknowledgements We would like to thank our participants and the copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . researchers in Fiji and SVG, including graduate students and staff at the 1 3 1238 C. Guell et al. Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. (2021). Global Bur- References den of Disease Study 2019 (GBD 2019) In. Seattle, United States of America: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). Barry, T., Gahman, L., Greenidge, A., & Mohamed, A. (2020). Wres- Godette, S. K., Beratan, K., & Nowell, B. (2015). 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Journal of Develop- sis at the University of the South mental Origins of Health and Disease, 9(5), 487–491. https://doi. Pacific in Fiji. He is evaluating the org/ 10. 1017/ s2040 17441 80004 66 impacts of Community Food Pro- UNSCN. (2016). Investments for healthy food systems: a framework duction Initiatives on Food Secu- analysis and review of evidence on food system investments for rity Resilience. improving nutrition. Retrieved from https://www .unscn. or g/files/ ICN2_TPM/ EN_ final_ In vestments_ f or_Healt h y_F ood_Sy stems_ UNSCN. pdf WHO. (2018). Noncommunicable diseases country profiles 2018. In. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Bank. (2019). GDP per capita, PPP (current international $). Viliamu (Vili) Iese is a Senior Lec- Retrieved from https:// dat a. wor ld bank . org/ indic at or/ NY . GDP . turer at the Pacific Centre for Envi- PCAP. PP. CD ronment and Sustainable Develop- WTO. (2019a). The Doha Round. Retrieved from https://www .wt o.or g/ ment, at the University of the engli sh/ tratop_ e/ dda_e/ dda_e. htm South Pacific (USP). Vili has con- WTO. (2019b). The Uruguay Round. Retrieved from https://w ww.w to. ducted research and published org/ engli sh/ thewto_ e/ whatis_ e/ tif_e/ fact5_e. htm widely in the field of risk resil- ience in agriculture, food security, climate change loss and damage, and evaluation of adaptations in Pacific Island Countries. 1 3 1240 C. Guell et al. Neela Badrie is a professor and Arlette Saint Ville is a lecturer in researcher in the Faculty of Food the Geography Department, at and Agriculture, University of the The University of the West Indies, West Indies, St. Augustine, Trini- St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad dad and Tobago, West Indies. She and Tobago. Her research centers is also an attorney-at-law, qualified around food security, and explores to practice law at the bar of the the interplay between food insecu- Supreme Court of Trinidad and rity, natural resource governance Tobago. Her areas of specialisation and social capital. are in food microbiology and safety, food science and technol- ogy, bio-threat agents, bioethics, agri-food and environmental law.  Nigel Unwin is a Director of Research in Global Public Health at the MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge, a Professor of Public Health and Morgan Wairiu is a Natural Resource Epidemiology at the Univer- and Climate Adaptation Specialist, sity of Exeter, and an honorary and currently a Coordinating Lead Professor of Population Health Author of the Small Islands Chapter Sciences at Caribbean Institute of the IPCC Working Group 2 Sixth for Health Research, University Assessment Report. He has over 30 of the West Indies (UWI). He is years of work experience in agricul- currently interested in investi- ture, forestry, land use and the envi- gating how food systems in the ronment including climate change Caribbean are related to the high adaptation and risk resilience in the burdens of nutrition related dis- Pacific regions. His research interest eases, and is collaborating on and leading research that aims to inform is in food security and climate and evaluate interventions to improve nutrition in the Caribbean and change. Pacific. 1 3

Journal

Food SecuritySpringer Journals

Published: Oct 1, 2022

Keywords: Small-scale food production; Food systems; Food sovereignty; Nutritious diets; Caribbean; Pacific

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