Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Merging the Biological and Cognitive Processes of Sleep and Screens

Merging the Biological and Cognitive Processes of Sleep and Screens Purpose of Review Screens are a permanent feature of life today and we have reached an interesting juncture with different research agendas investigating the biological and cognitive aspects of screen use separately. This review argues that it is timely and indeed essential that we bring together these research areas to fully understand both positive and negative aspects of screen use. Recent Findings More recent work is starting to take a more cohesive approach to understanding how device use pre-bedtime can impact our sleep by including both light and content in their experimental protocols which is a welcome development leading to a more nuanced understanding of both biological and cognitive processes. Summary We call for an open and collaborative approach to gain momentum in this direction of acknowledging both biological and cognitive factors enabling us to understand the relative impacts of both whilst using screens with regard to both light and content. . . . . . Keywords Sleep Blue light Circadian rhythm Screens Social Melatonin Introduction research where we can recognise the complexities and sophis- tication of this online social interaction. This, along with re- Screens are a permanent feature of lives today as a gateway to search into the impact of blue light exposure on the biological browsing and sharing information and social interaction. processes involved in sleep, will enable us to include light as Research to date has attempted to understand the impact of one of a range of relevant factors on how we consume media screens on our sleep and wellbeing by either looking at the with the broader range of factors inclusive of social interaction impact of blue light isolated from content or content isolated and cognitive arousal from content. It is essential that we have from the physiological impact of blue light. The aim of this a full appreciation of the holistic nature of interactions with review is to pull together these two areas of sleep research screens, inclusive of all biological, social and cognitive as- which have been investigated separately, with a recent excep- pects, to enable us to make informed decisions in policy and tion, where we will argue that it is a misrepresentation to practice on screens and sleep. Sleep is known to change with consider them as separate entities. Blue light has been age and adolescence is a developmental stage where circadian highlighted as having a significant negative effect on sleep phase is vulnerable to change [1]aswellashavinghighscreen within the past decade in the discussion around screen time; and social media use [2]. This provides an interesting profile however, we aim to show that more recent work into the social to understand the interactions between these factors so this aspects of online engagement has led us to understand the review will predominantly focus on research from the sleep, interactive nature of social media use and therefore bringing circadian and social media fields working with adolescents. us to an important reflection point in sleep and technology The Perfect Storm Online This article is part of the Topical Collection on Sleep and Technology The generic term “screen time” has been widely discussed in * Heather Cleland Woods Heather.Woods@glasgow.ac.uk the adolescent sleep field, where it has also been established for a significant time that adolescents experience a circadian delay [3]. In relation to screen use, Carskadon [4]proposed School of Psychology, University of Glasgow, 62 Hillhead Street, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK that development of bioregulatory mechanisms alongside Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 151 psychosocial factors (such as seeking increased independence which provides external input for this circadian process is and bedtime autonomy, which can provide opportunity for light. When light is absent or extended, as documented in pre-sleep activities such as social media use) resulted in a experimental protocols, the circadian rhythm of melatonin, a ‘perfect storm’ of short, ill-timed and inadequate sleep in hormone produced by the pineal gland which follows a circa- many teens. There is tension between two biological systems dian rhythm with low levels during the day and high levels at during adolescence. The sleep/wake homeostatic process, night, free-runs. This means that, as it is no longer synchro- with which the “pressure” for sleep builds across the day, nized with the environmental light-dark cycle, it becomes out and the circadian system which dictates the timing of many of phase with this environmental cycle [8, 9]. Light is impor- physiological and behavioural rhythms, including alertness. tant in melatonin production as cells within the retina called Findings indicated that for more mature adolescents, the re- intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) covery process did not accelerate, whereas the sleep pressure contain melanopsin that is expressed in a small subset of cells accumulation process decelerated, from which Carskadon [4] representing 1–2% of all retinal ganglion cells. Melanopsin is inferred an ease of staying awake longer. Findings reviewed sensitive to blue light (i.e. wavelengths ranging from 460 to by Carskadon [4] and colleagues indicated a delay in this 480 nm) and that is fundamental for the functioning of the internal clock and a slowing down of the sleep pressure accu- circadian system and for SCN entrainment. The light signal mulation as adolescents mature resulting in alertness and bed- received by the retina is transmitted to the SCN ending up at times later into the evening and night and rising later into the the pineal gland which secretes melatonin [9]. morning when possible. This has led to the phrase social jet In terms of media use, this blue light-sensitive melanopsin lag with sleep being out of sync with this internal rhythm and photoreceptor has received a lot of attention as handheld de- that sleep debt being paid at weekends [5]. Crowley et al. [3] vices such as smartphones which emit light will include blue offer a conclusion that evening light from devices with screens light as part of the light spectrum. White light includes light may activate this sleep phase-delaying component of the in- from across the spectrum (including blue between 460 and ternal clock which highlights the need for a pause for thought 480 nm) but as we know the arousing effects of blue light in relation to this field to enable a robust research basis for a exposure, it is essential to examine the effects of sources of topic of concern and prolific discussion for our adolescents, these wavelengths on this bioregulatory system which is re- parents, teachers as well as policymakers. We have a situation sponsible for our sleep onset and may be disrupted by our use where parents, teachers and public bodies are voicing concern of devices. Light-emitting diode (LED) screens, which hand- about adolescents and children getting enough sleep [6�� ]and held devices such as smartphones and tablets have, are report- the perception that this resulting deficit is impacting their abil- ed to emit a high level of this blue light and evidence has been ity to be alert and effective in school. By trying to regulate and provided suggesting that this has a negative impact on sleep which may be particularly relevant for adolescents who are maintain control over adolescents who are not ready for sleep provides an ideal opportunity for screen-based media use vulnerable to circadian developmental delay. opening up the potential for further delay to sleep onset resulting from exposure to stimulating blue light and content. Current Understanding Bookend this delayed sleep onset due to changes in homeo- static pressure and circadian phase with school start times The research on the impact of light on sleep is prevalent and earlier than suited to adolescent sleep then we have a pressur- great care has been paid to the quality and precision in which ized situation with sleep paying the price. participants are exposed to the light and wavelengths of inter- est. Cajochen et al. [10] have shown that a 5-h exposure to a Media as a Source of Screen Light (white) light-emitting diode (LED) backlit computer screen significantly suppressed melatonin and enhanced performance The biological and physiological processes behind light and compared with a non-LED backlit screen. Their results the biological clock have been outlined in detail elsewhere [7] showed that although melatonin levels were still rising over so we shall focus on how light, screens and social media link the course of the night, they did not rise as steeply and were together before continuing onto outline the research profile. delayed compared with those exposed to a non-LED screen. It To translate circadian from Latin is about a day (circa = about, is highly relevant that simply the light from the LED source in dia = day) which represents the 24-h day cycle that most our screens can delay this biological process, but if we evalu- humans and other animals adhere to even when free running ate this study which asks a relevant question about the impact without external input. This circadian rhythm is governed by a of the strongest Zeitgeber, with regard to sleep there are a few group of cells in our anterior hypothalamus above the optic considerations. Firstly, the melatonin is delayed and not chiasm called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is our attenuated—it starts to rise later and is decreased at 4 time internal clock or internal pacemaker which entrains us to this points. It would be of interest to get a clearer handle on the 24-h cycle. The most influential synchronizer or Zeitgeber effect on melatonin in terms of effect size to enable 152 Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 contextualisation combined with cognitive factors and real- in both the Cajochen et al. [10]and Chang et al. [11]studies, life impact on sleep and wellbeing. With shift work being so understanding the effect size of this delay is important as highly prevalent in today’s society which is drawing attention well as the context within which these findings are discussed of governing bodies [11, 12], this work does have positive whilst addressing pre-sleep arousal related to content and con- implications in terms of keeping work force safe and alert with text leading to difficulty disengaging from social interaction. the other side of the argument focusing on a decrease in alert- ness facilitating sleep onset. Screen Light in the Context of Real World Social Media Timing and duration of screen exposure is an interesting Use aspect to consider. Studies such as Cajochen et al. [10]and Chang et al. [13] use a consolidated time for screen exposure Our understanding of the pressures building in adolescent’s pre-bedtime. The duration of exposure has been argued to be ‘perfect storm’ alongside evaluation of the impact of blue light modest with Cajochen et al. [10] using a 5-h screen exposure on sleep considers important aspects of media as a source of and Chang et al. [13] using 4-h exposure compared with a data disruption to sleep but requires us to reflect on social and from the USA which shows US 8- to 18-year-olds devote an cognitive aspects as we know that teenage social media use average of 7 h and 38 min to using entertainment media across has increased almost tenfold increase in recent years [17]. a typical day (more than 53 h/week) [14]. This leads us to the Currently, 95% 13–17-year-olds have access to smartphones time on screen aspect of the screen time debate. How repre- and 45% admit to being online almost constantly [2]. Recent sentative is a consolidated 5 h of screen viewing? Cajochen UK data has shown that 20% of the adolescents involved in et al. [10] acknowledge that many adolescents use multiple the Millennium Cohort Study used social media for 5 h or screens for different activities at any one time. For example, more and that this resulted in them being more likely than one may be writing on a laptop whilst communicating with comparable typical users (1–3 h per day, 31.6%) to report late friends on communication apps on different devices. sleep onset and wake times on school days and frequent dif- Effect size and ecological validity of these paradigms are ficulties with night-time awakenings [18]. To date, screen time also raised in Chang et al. [13] where participants with a mean has been used as a generic measure of use without explicitly age of 25 years passively read a self-selected text from an iPad stating which activity is being undertaken, for example in a for approx. 4 consolidated hours pre-bedtime which led to a group chat with friends, accessing homework assessments, 10-min mean difference in sleep onset and no difference in actively or passively browsing content. Social media is the total sleep time, sleep efficiency or duration of non-REM most prevalent activity when teens use screens and this has sleep. Again, melatonin level was delayed but still followed been linked to current increases in teenage mental health prob- same pattern as seen in Cajochen et al. [10]. It is interesting to lems, such as depression [19] and lowered self-esteem [20]. consider the extent to which a 10-min (yet statistically signif- Consequently, there has been a drive to understand the reason icant) sleep onset delay from consolidated pre-bedtime light for such high usage rates and the implications for young peo- exposure really impacts our teens’ wellbeing and health in the ple. In doing so, the term screen time is becoming less infor- long term compared with other relevant determinants of sleep mative as there is increasing recognition of the rich and di- time, e.g. school start times or pre-sleep cognitive arousal due verse nature of online experiences. Furthermore, there is still to fear of peer exclusion. This research area not only caught little consensus on what defines platforms as ‘social media’ the attention of the media and public which outlines the reach [21], since descriptions have evolved from including only of these findings but also highlighted the importance of pro- professional networking sites, such as LinkedIn (2005), to viding context around our findings. encompassing more personal sites, like Facebook (17). Orben and Przybylski [15] demonstrate the positive influ- Adolescents appear to engage with YouTube, Instagram and ence sleep has on adolescent wellbeing is significantly larger Snapchat most frequently (2) with the latter two being media that technology use alongside eating breakfast, fruit and veg- of a social nature enabling users to share images and interac- etables. Within this context, it is frustrating to see such pathol- tion with others. ogizing language as that used around technology use in the Bartel and Gradisar [22�� ] raise the highly relevant ques- literature where use of terms such as addiction and disorder tions of ‘how’ and ‘how much’ technology use impacts sleep immediately pathologizes all night-time online activity with- acknowledging the contributions of previous work on biolog- out acknowledging the diversity of cognitive factors behind ical and bedtime practices. They move this discussion on by engagement [16]. To link back to the previous effect size dis- acknowledging that there are a number of other factors rele- cussion, it would be an informative future research agenda to vant to this link between screens and sleep and propose a evaluate the impact of 10-min sleep onset delay compared revised model including moderating factors and potential with adolescents feeling excluded or anxious due to disen- mechanisms. These include developmental considerations gagement of continuing online interactions. Despite the delay such as risk taking as it is known not only that adolescents of melatonin production, we still see increases, albeit delayed, can evaluate and respond to risk in different ways from Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 153 younger children and adults especially when external factors positively associated with night-time social media use and such as the presence of peers has influence [23] but also that rumination tendency. In addition, rumination was highlighted teens are more impulsive to positive social cues [24]. It is as a significant mediator of the relationship between social therefore important that we acknowledge this social nature comparison behaviour and poor sleep—suggesting that the of technology use alongside the exposure to light. behaviours we engage in online may influence sleep through a cognitive pathway. A Holistic Approach Moving Forward Pre-sleep arousal is a cognitive aspect of sleep and insom- nia which has been recognised for a number of years [29]and More recent work has attempted to bring a more holistic ap- has relevance to understanding the cognitive aspects of social proach to the field by investigating both light and content with media’s impact on sleep. Scott and Cleland Woods [30]high- the argument that light and stimulating content may be work- light two parallel pathways that predict shorter sleep duration ing on biological and cognitive mechanisms simultaneously. stemming from a shared underlying cognitive driver; fear of Bowler and Bourke [25] ran a 4-night study with 30 partici- missing out (FOMO). We saw separate behavioural and cog- pants browsing own or mock Facebook pages on iPads over nitive components, with FOMO driving adolescents to active- two conditions with a blue filter or an amber filter. The mock ly engage more in social media behaviours at night (the be- Facebook page consisted of liked pages of companies that havioural component) and also feel more alert in bed (the were not targeted to the participant’s age range, e.g. Fisher- cognitive component). This work highlights the social nature Price toys. Significant interactions on arousal and light with of media use at night and can account for delayed disengage- blue filter and low arousal on the mock Facebook page ment from devices which is important to acknowledge along showed better sleep through longer sleep duration, shorter with the effects of blue light from screens as biological inter- sleep onset latency and better daytime dysfunction. This study ference with ideal sleep onset. This work also highlights the highlights the impact that both light and content simultaneous- importance of taking a step back from placing the screen at the ly can have on sleep and related outcomes following a short centre of the issue and addressing the content displayed on the duration of exposure as participants were instructed to only screen and the resulting interactions which result in behav- 15- to 30-min exposure in the hour before bed. Showing blue iours such as night-time social media use leading to delayed light filtering only had an effect when the content being bedtimes and restricted sleep opportunity for those school- viewed was not personally relevant and low arousing further aged adolescents needing to get to school on time [22�� , 31, strengthens the argument, through a new experimental proto- 32]. Sleep onset and therefore duration can also be impacted col, that both biological and cognitive aspects need to be by the cognitive arousal from reluctance and potentially fear considered. of missing out on group communication and sharing of infor- This more recent light exposure paradigm was significantly mation which is not necessarily related to time spent on social shorter than that in the previous studies. Bowler and Burke media in bed [30]. This reluctance to be the group member [25] exposed the participants to the devices and therefore light missing out is not a new phenomenon as peer acceptance is an and content for 15 to 30 min and cite Horne, Donlon and important part of adolescent development, but social media Arendt [26] as having seen such fast effects previously. This takes this out of school and into the bedroom and the possi- raises the question about the length of exposure—are the ef- bility of delayed disengagement at bedtime. Bartel and fects we see in Cajochen and Chang due to prolonged expo- Gradisar [22�� ] also raise the point that work to date had per- sure to blue light as they use pre-sleep paradigms lasting 4 h haps focused on the unidirectional relationship between [13]and5h [10]. Also, the activities seen in all these studies screens and sleep on the premise of screens cause poor sleep are very passive with participants being exposed to light or and it is time we acknowledge that our adolescents may be passively being presented with information rather than being using screens due to sleep issues or timing differences with active and posting, liking and communicating along with their families already established. This again highlights that browsing content. McNee and Cleland Woods [27]have re- we are at a point in time where we can bring together what is cently started to pursue this line of thought around activities seen in clinic with our research questions and practices to pull online rather than just time on screen which highlights an a comprehensive research agenda together to support our association between social comparison orientation, individ- teens. uals driven to evaluate their progress and standing on various We need to bring biological and social factors which im- aspects of their lives against similar peers [28], night-time pact sleep together by understanding the limitations within social media use, mental wellbeing, and sleep in female users this complex field. The combination of biological and psycho- of Facebook and Instagram (N = 60). Social comparison ori- social factors continues from Carskadon’s model as it is not entation, rumination tendency, sleep health and night-time so- only the light from these devices that needs to be considered cial media use were examined using online questionnaire but also the content and context of viewing material on the measures. Social comparison orientation was found to be devices. Chang et al. [13] had participants looking at relaxing 154 Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative reading material but this picture may be unrealistic as our Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// research suggests that communication with peers is a signifi- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, cant factor in delaying disengagement from devices at night. distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- Our model addresses both behavioural and cognitive factors priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. of night-time social media use [30] as it demonstrates that FOMO is the cognitive driver for night-time social media use and impacts sleep onset latency (subjectively reported) negatively via pre-sleep cognitive arousal. This model suggests that looking at light from devices is References only part of the story as cognitive factors are essential to be considered within the recognition of device use as often a Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been social interaction rather than passive browsing. When we re- highlighted as: late this to Carskadon’smodel [3, 4]withpsychosocial factors �� Of major importance such as social networking and bedtime autonomy recognised as pressures on sleep in adolescents, we can build a sophisti- 1. Jenni OG, Achermann P, Carskadon MA. Homeostatic sleep regu- lation in adolescents. Sleep. 2005;28(11):1446–54. cated model of night-time pressures on adolescent sleep that 2. Anderson M, Jiang J. Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018. builds on the impact of blue light on the biological processes 2018. https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/05/31/teens-social- and includes the social opportunities felt by our teens which media-technology-2018/. may now present within the bedroom. Content and context 3. Crowley SJ, Wolfson AR, Tarokh L, Carskadon MA. An update on influencing cognitions and behaviours are just as relevant as adolescent sleep: new evidence informing the perfect storm model. J Adolesc. 2018;67:55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence. light influencing the biology of circadian phase. 2018.06.001. 4. Carskadon MA. Sleep in adolescents: the perfect storm. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2011;58(3):637–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl. 2011.03.003. Conclusions 5. Wittmann M, Dinich J, Merrow M, Roenneberg T. Social jetlag: misalignment of biological and social time. Chronobiol Int. 2006;23(1 –2):497 –509. https://doi.org/10.1080/ In summary, our field is at an interesting juncture where we can acknowledge and integrate two highly relevant 6.�� UK House of Committee Select Committee. Impact of social media and important research strands addressing the underlying and screen-use on young people’s health. 2018. This UK govern- ment report does not react to popular media portrayal of the and complex biological sleep and circadian processes screentime debate but outlines a sensible overview of the evi- alongside, rather than in isolation from, the social and dence presented with acheiveable recommendations. interactive processes where communication is an impor- 7. Souman JL, Tinga AM, te Pas SF, van Ee R, Vlaskamp BNS. Acute tant driver and motivator for use, which can have partic- alerting effects of light: a systematic literature review. Behav Brain ular impact at night. We know from our work that FOMO Res. 2018;337:228–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.016. 8. Reinberg AE, Touitou Y. Synchronization and dyschronism of hu- [30] and exclusion, vigilance and obligation [33�� ]are all man circadian rhythms. Pathologie-biologie. 1996;44(6):487–95. drivers for our adolescents to engage in night-time social 9. Touitou Y. Internal clock desynchronization, light and melatonin. media use and therefore we must acknowledge these cog- Bull Acad Natl Med. 2011;195(7):1527–46 discussion 47-9. nitive factors alongside the physiological processes to un- 10. Cajochen C, Frey S, Anders D, Spati J, Bues M, Pross A, et al. derstand the effect of light within the context of real Evening exposure to a light-emitting diodes (LED)-backlit comput- er screen affects circadian physiology and cognitive performance. J world device use. Moving forward in the current research Appl Physiol. 2011;110(5):1432–8. https://doi.org/10.1152/ climate, we can meet these obligations through collabora- japplphysiol.00165.2011. tions across research specialities and share data, skills and 11. Executive HaS. (2011) Changes in shift work patterns over the last knowledge to build a comprehensive model of adolescent ten 464 years (1999 to 2009). http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/ sleep and social interaction. rrpdf/rr887.pdf 12. Technology TPOoSa. (2018) Shift work, sleep and health: Houses of Parliament. https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ Compliance with Ethical Standards ResearchBriefing/Summary/POST-PN-0586 13. Chang A-M, Aeschbach D, Duffy JF, Czeisler CA. Evening use of Human and Animal Rights Informed Consent This article does not con- light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, tain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the and next-morning alertness. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2015;112(4): authors. 1232–7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1418490112. 14. Rideout, V., Foehr, U., Roberts, D. (2010) Generation M2: media in Conflict of Interest Heather Cleland Woods and Holly Scott each de- the lives 472 of 8 to 18-year-olds.: Kaiser Family Foundation Study. clare no conflict of interest. https://www.kff.org/other/poll-finding/report-generation-m2- media-in-the-lives/ Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 155 15. Orben A, Przybylski AK. The association between adolescent well- Cogn Neurosci. 2011;23(9):2123–34. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn. 2010.21572. being and digital technology use. Nat Hum Behav. 2019;3(2):173– 82. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1. 25. Bowler J, Bourke P. Facebook use and sleep quality: light interacts 16. Touitou Y, Touitou D, Reinberg A. Disruption of adolescents’ cir- with socially induced alertness. Br J Psychol. 2018. https://doi.org/ cadian clock: the vicious circle of media use, exposure to light at 10.1111/bjop.12351. night, sleep loss and risk behaviors. J Physiol Paris. 2016;110(4 Pt 26. Horne JA, Donlon J, Arendt J. Green light attenuates melatonin B):467–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphysparis.2017.05.001. output and sleepiness during sleep deprivation. Sleep. 1991;14(3): 17. Greenwood S, Perrin A, Duggan M. Social Media Update. (2016) 233–40. Pew Research Center. http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/ 27. McNee, S and Woods, H.C. (2019) Pre-sleep cognitive influence of uploads/sites/14/2016/11/10132827/PI_2016.11.11_Social-Media- night-time social media use and social comparison behaviour in Update_FINAL.pdf young women. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/n9txa 18. Scott, H., Biello, S.M., Woods, H.C. (2019) Social media use and 28. Festinger L. A theory of social comparison processes. Hum Relat. adolescent sleep outcomes: cross-sectional findings from the mil- 1954;7(2):117–40. lennium cohort study. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/z7kpf 29. Nicassio PM, Mendlowitz DR, Fussell JJ, Petras L. The phenome- 19. Avenevoli S, Swendsen J, He JP, Burstein M, Merikangas KR. nology of the pre-sleep state - the development of the pre-sleep Major depression in the national comorbidity survey-adolescent arousal scale. Behav Res Ther. 1985;23(3):263–71. https://doi. supplement: prevalence, correlates, and treatment. J Am Acad org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90004-X. Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015;54(1):37–44 e2. https://doi.org/ 30. Scott H, Woods HC. Fear of missing out and sleep: cognitive be- 10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.010. havioural factors in adolescents’ nighttime social media use. J 20. Kelly Y, Zilanawala A, Booker C, Sacker A. Social media use and Adolesc. 2018;68:61–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence. adolescent mental health: findings from the UK millennium cohort 2018.07.009. study. EClinicalMedicine. 2018;6:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 31. Owens J. Insufficient sleep in adolescents and young adults: an eclinm.2018.12.005. update on causes and consequences. Pediatrics. 2014;134(3): 21. Carr CT, Hayes RA. Social media: defining, developing, and divin- E921–E32. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1696. ing. Atl J Commun. 2015;23(1):46–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 32. Tavernier R, Willoughby T. Sleep problems: predictor or outcome 15456870.2015.972282. of media use among emerging adults at university? J Sleep Res. 22.�� Bartel K, Gradisar M. New directions in the link between technol- 2014;23(4):389–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12132. ogy use and sleep in young people. In: Nevšímalová S, Bruni O, 33. Scott, H., Biello, S. M., Woods, H.C. (2018) Identifying drivers for editors. Sleep disorders in children. Cham: Springer International bedtime social media use despite sleep costs: the adolescent per- Publishing; 2017. p. 69–80. This review introduces a new per- spective. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2xb36 spective on the screens at night debate achnowledging the need to appreciate all influencing factors that can impact sleep espe- cially in our adolescents. Publisher’sNote Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- 23. Chein J, Albert D, O’Brien L, Uckert K, Steinberg L. Peers increase tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry. Dev Sci. 2011;14(2):F1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1467-7687.2010.01035.x. 24. Somerville LH, Hare T, Casey BJ. Frontostriatal maturation pre- dicts cognitive control failure to appetitive cues in adolescents. J http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Current Sleep Medicine Reports Springer Journals

Merging the Biological and Cognitive Processes of Sleep and Screens

Loading next page...
 
/lp/springer-journals/merging-the-biological-and-cognitive-processes-of-sleep-and-screens-Os0ZvBaTk4

References (32)

Publisher
Springer Journals
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 by The Author(s)
Subject
Medicine & Public Health; Internal Medicine; General Practice / Family Medicine; Otorhinolaryngology; Neurology; Cardiology; Psychiatry
eISSN
2198-6401
DOI
10.1007/s40675-019-00149-8
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Purpose of Review Screens are a permanent feature of life today and we have reached an interesting juncture with different research agendas investigating the biological and cognitive aspects of screen use separately. This review argues that it is timely and indeed essential that we bring together these research areas to fully understand both positive and negative aspects of screen use. Recent Findings More recent work is starting to take a more cohesive approach to understanding how device use pre-bedtime can impact our sleep by including both light and content in their experimental protocols which is a welcome development leading to a more nuanced understanding of both biological and cognitive processes. Summary We call for an open and collaborative approach to gain momentum in this direction of acknowledging both biological and cognitive factors enabling us to understand the relative impacts of both whilst using screens with regard to both light and content. . . . . . Keywords Sleep Blue light Circadian rhythm Screens Social Melatonin Introduction research where we can recognise the complexities and sophis- tication of this online social interaction. This, along with re- Screens are a permanent feature of lives today as a gateway to search into the impact of blue light exposure on the biological browsing and sharing information and social interaction. processes involved in sleep, will enable us to include light as Research to date has attempted to understand the impact of one of a range of relevant factors on how we consume media screens on our sleep and wellbeing by either looking at the with the broader range of factors inclusive of social interaction impact of blue light isolated from content or content isolated and cognitive arousal from content. It is essential that we have from the physiological impact of blue light. The aim of this a full appreciation of the holistic nature of interactions with review is to pull together these two areas of sleep research screens, inclusive of all biological, social and cognitive as- which have been investigated separately, with a recent excep- pects, to enable us to make informed decisions in policy and tion, where we will argue that it is a misrepresentation to practice on screens and sleep. Sleep is known to change with consider them as separate entities. Blue light has been age and adolescence is a developmental stage where circadian highlighted as having a significant negative effect on sleep phase is vulnerable to change [1]aswellashavinghighscreen within the past decade in the discussion around screen time; and social media use [2]. This provides an interesting profile however, we aim to show that more recent work into the social to understand the interactions between these factors so this aspects of online engagement has led us to understand the review will predominantly focus on research from the sleep, interactive nature of social media use and therefore bringing circadian and social media fields working with adolescents. us to an important reflection point in sleep and technology The Perfect Storm Online This article is part of the Topical Collection on Sleep and Technology The generic term “screen time” has been widely discussed in * Heather Cleland Woods Heather.Woods@glasgow.ac.uk the adolescent sleep field, where it has also been established for a significant time that adolescents experience a circadian delay [3]. In relation to screen use, Carskadon [4]proposed School of Psychology, University of Glasgow, 62 Hillhead Street, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK that development of bioregulatory mechanisms alongside Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 151 psychosocial factors (such as seeking increased independence which provides external input for this circadian process is and bedtime autonomy, which can provide opportunity for light. When light is absent or extended, as documented in pre-sleep activities such as social media use) resulted in a experimental protocols, the circadian rhythm of melatonin, a ‘perfect storm’ of short, ill-timed and inadequate sleep in hormone produced by the pineal gland which follows a circa- many teens. There is tension between two biological systems dian rhythm with low levels during the day and high levels at during adolescence. The sleep/wake homeostatic process, night, free-runs. This means that, as it is no longer synchro- with which the “pressure” for sleep builds across the day, nized with the environmental light-dark cycle, it becomes out and the circadian system which dictates the timing of many of phase with this environmental cycle [8, 9]. Light is impor- physiological and behavioural rhythms, including alertness. tant in melatonin production as cells within the retina called Findings indicated that for more mature adolescents, the re- intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) covery process did not accelerate, whereas the sleep pressure contain melanopsin that is expressed in a small subset of cells accumulation process decelerated, from which Carskadon [4] representing 1–2% of all retinal ganglion cells. Melanopsin is inferred an ease of staying awake longer. Findings reviewed sensitive to blue light (i.e. wavelengths ranging from 460 to by Carskadon [4] and colleagues indicated a delay in this 480 nm) and that is fundamental for the functioning of the internal clock and a slowing down of the sleep pressure accu- circadian system and for SCN entrainment. The light signal mulation as adolescents mature resulting in alertness and bed- received by the retina is transmitted to the SCN ending up at times later into the evening and night and rising later into the the pineal gland which secretes melatonin [9]. morning when possible. This has led to the phrase social jet In terms of media use, this blue light-sensitive melanopsin lag with sleep being out of sync with this internal rhythm and photoreceptor has received a lot of attention as handheld de- that sleep debt being paid at weekends [5]. Crowley et al. [3] vices such as smartphones which emit light will include blue offer a conclusion that evening light from devices with screens light as part of the light spectrum. White light includes light may activate this sleep phase-delaying component of the in- from across the spectrum (including blue between 460 and ternal clock which highlights the need for a pause for thought 480 nm) but as we know the arousing effects of blue light in relation to this field to enable a robust research basis for a exposure, it is essential to examine the effects of sources of topic of concern and prolific discussion for our adolescents, these wavelengths on this bioregulatory system which is re- parents, teachers as well as policymakers. We have a situation sponsible for our sleep onset and may be disrupted by our use where parents, teachers and public bodies are voicing concern of devices. Light-emitting diode (LED) screens, which hand- about adolescents and children getting enough sleep [6�� ]and held devices such as smartphones and tablets have, are report- the perception that this resulting deficit is impacting their abil- ed to emit a high level of this blue light and evidence has been ity to be alert and effective in school. By trying to regulate and provided suggesting that this has a negative impact on sleep which may be particularly relevant for adolescents who are maintain control over adolescents who are not ready for sleep provides an ideal opportunity for screen-based media use vulnerable to circadian developmental delay. opening up the potential for further delay to sleep onset resulting from exposure to stimulating blue light and content. Current Understanding Bookend this delayed sleep onset due to changes in homeo- static pressure and circadian phase with school start times The research on the impact of light on sleep is prevalent and earlier than suited to adolescent sleep then we have a pressur- great care has been paid to the quality and precision in which ized situation with sleep paying the price. participants are exposed to the light and wavelengths of inter- est. Cajochen et al. [10] have shown that a 5-h exposure to a Media as a Source of Screen Light (white) light-emitting diode (LED) backlit computer screen significantly suppressed melatonin and enhanced performance The biological and physiological processes behind light and compared with a non-LED backlit screen. Their results the biological clock have been outlined in detail elsewhere [7] showed that although melatonin levels were still rising over so we shall focus on how light, screens and social media link the course of the night, they did not rise as steeply and were together before continuing onto outline the research profile. delayed compared with those exposed to a non-LED screen. It To translate circadian from Latin is about a day (circa = about, is highly relevant that simply the light from the LED source in dia = day) which represents the 24-h day cycle that most our screens can delay this biological process, but if we evalu- humans and other animals adhere to even when free running ate this study which asks a relevant question about the impact without external input. This circadian rhythm is governed by a of the strongest Zeitgeber, with regard to sleep there are a few group of cells in our anterior hypothalamus above the optic considerations. Firstly, the melatonin is delayed and not chiasm called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is our attenuated—it starts to rise later and is decreased at 4 time internal clock or internal pacemaker which entrains us to this points. It would be of interest to get a clearer handle on the 24-h cycle. The most influential synchronizer or Zeitgeber effect on melatonin in terms of effect size to enable 152 Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 contextualisation combined with cognitive factors and real- in both the Cajochen et al. [10]and Chang et al. [11]studies, life impact on sleep and wellbeing. With shift work being so understanding the effect size of this delay is important as highly prevalent in today’s society which is drawing attention well as the context within which these findings are discussed of governing bodies [11, 12], this work does have positive whilst addressing pre-sleep arousal related to content and con- implications in terms of keeping work force safe and alert with text leading to difficulty disengaging from social interaction. the other side of the argument focusing on a decrease in alert- ness facilitating sleep onset. Screen Light in the Context of Real World Social Media Timing and duration of screen exposure is an interesting Use aspect to consider. Studies such as Cajochen et al. [10]and Chang et al. [13] use a consolidated time for screen exposure Our understanding of the pressures building in adolescent’s pre-bedtime. The duration of exposure has been argued to be ‘perfect storm’ alongside evaluation of the impact of blue light modest with Cajochen et al. [10] using a 5-h screen exposure on sleep considers important aspects of media as a source of and Chang et al. [13] using 4-h exposure compared with a data disruption to sleep but requires us to reflect on social and from the USA which shows US 8- to 18-year-olds devote an cognitive aspects as we know that teenage social media use average of 7 h and 38 min to using entertainment media across has increased almost tenfold increase in recent years [17]. a typical day (more than 53 h/week) [14]. This leads us to the Currently, 95% 13–17-year-olds have access to smartphones time on screen aspect of the screen time debate. How repre- and 45% admit to being online almost constantly [2]. Recent sentative is a consolidated 5 h of screen viewing? Cajochen UK data has shown that 20% of the adolescents involved in et al. [10] acknowledge that many adolescents use multiple the Millennium Cohort Study used social media for 5 h or screens for different activities at any one time. For example, more and that this resulted in them being more likely than one may be writing on a laptop whilst communicating with comparable typical users (1–3 h per day, 31.6%) to report late friends on communication apps on different devices. sleep onset and wake times on school days and frequent dif- Effect size and ecological validity of these paradigms are ficulties with night-time awakenings [18]. To date, screen time also raised in Chang et al. [13] where participants with a mean has been used as a generic measure of use without explicitly age of 25 years passively read a self-selected text from an iPad stating which activity is being undertaken, for example in a for approx. 4 consolidated hours pre-bedtime which led to a group chat with friends, accessing homework assessments, 10-min mean difference in sleep onset and no difference in actively or passively browsing content. Social media is the total sleep time, sleep efficiency or duration of non-REM most prevalent activity when teens use screens and this has sleep. Again, melatonin level was delayed but still followed been linked to current increases in teenage mental health prob- same pattern as seen in Cajochen et al. [10]. It is interesting to lems, such as depression [19] and lowered self-esteem [20]. consider the extent to which a 10-min (yet statistically signif- Consequently, there has been a drive to understand the reason icant) sleep onset delay from consolidated pre-bedtime light for such high usage rates and the implications for young peo- exposure really impacts our teens’ wellbeing and health in the ple. In doing so, the term screen time is becoming less infor- long term compared with other relevant determinants of sleep mative as there is increasing recognition of the rich and di- time, e.g. school start times or pre-sleep cognitive arousal due verse nature of online experiences. Furthermore, there is still to fear of peer exclusion. This research area not only caught little consensus on what defines platforms as ‘social media’ the attention of the media and public which outlines the reach [21], since descriptions have evolved from including only of these findings but also highlighted the importance of pro- professional networking sites, such as LinkedIn (2005), to viding context around our findings. encompassing more personal sites, like Facebook (17). Orben and Przybylski [15] demonstrate the positive influ- Adolescents appear to engage with YouTube, Instagram and ence sleep has on adolescent wellbeing is significantly larger Snapchat most frequently (2) with the latter two being media that technology use alongside eating breakfast, fruit and veg- of a social nature enabling users to share images and interac- etables. Within this context, it is frustrating to see such pathol- tion with others. ogizing language as that used around technology use in the Bartel and Gradisar [22�� ] raise the highly relevant ques- literature where use of terms such as addiction and disorder tions of ‘how’ and ‘how much’ technology use impacts sleep immediately pathologizes all night-time online activity with- acknowledging the contributions of previous work on biolog- out acknowledging the diversity of cognitive factors behind ical and bedtime practices. They move this discussion on by engagement [16]. To link back to the previous effect size dis- acknowledging that there are a number of other factors rele- cussion, it would be an informative future research agenda to vant to this link between screens and sleep and propose a evaluate the impact of 10-min sleep onset delay compared revised model including moderating factors and potential with adolescents feeling excluded or anxious due to disen- mechanisms. These include developmental considerations gagement of continuing online interactions. Despite the delay such as risk taking as it is known not only that adolescents of melatonin production, we still see increases, albeit delayed, can evaluate and respond to risk in different ways from Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 153 younger children and adults especially when external factors positively associated with night-time social media use and such as the presence of peers has influence [23] but also that rumination tendency. In addition, rumination was highlighted teens are more impulsive to positive social cues [24]. It is as a significant mediator of the relationship between social therefore important that we acknowledge this social nature comparison behaviour and poor sleep—suggesting that the of technology use alongside the exposure to light. behaviours we engage in online may influence sleep through a cognitive pathway. A Holistic Approach Moving Forward Pre-sleep arousal is a cognitive aspect of sleep and insom- nia which has been recognised for a number of years [29]and More recent work has attempted to bring a more holistic ap- has relevance to understanding the cognitive aspects of social proach to the field by investigating both light and content with media’s impact on sleep. Scott and Cleland Woods [30]high- the argument that light and stimulating content may be work- light two parallel pathways that predict shorter sleep duration ing on biological and cognitive mechanisms simultaneously. stemming from a shared underlying cognitive driver; fear of Bowler and Bourke [25] ran a 4-night study with 30 partici- missing out (FOMO). We saw separate behavioural and cog- pants browsing own or mock Facebook pages on iPads over nitive components, with FOMO driving adolescents to active- two conditions with a blue filter or an amber filter. The mock ly engage more in social media behaviours at night (the be- Facebook page consisted of liked pages of companies that havioural component) and also feel more alert in bed (the were not targeted to the participant’s age range, e.g. Fisher- cognitive component). This work highlights the social nature Price toys. Significant interactions on arousal and light with of media use at night and can account for delayed disengage- blue filter and low arousal on the mock Facebook page ment from devices which is important to acknowledge along showed better sleep through longer sleep duration, shorter with the effects of blue light from screens as biological inter- sleep onset latency and better daytime dysfunction. This study ference with ideal sleep onset. This work also highlights the highlights the impact that both light and content simultaneous- importance of taking a step back from placing the screen at the ly can have on sleep and related outcomes following a short centre of the issue and addressing the content displayed on the duration of exposure as participants were instructed to only screen and the resulting interactions which result in behav- 15- to 30-min exposure in the hour before bed. Showing blue iours such as night-time social media use leading to delayed light filtering only had an effect when the content being bedtimes and restricted sleep opportunity for those school- viewed was not personally relevant and low arousing further aged adolescents needing to get to school on time [22�� , 31, strengthens the argument, through a new experimental proto- 32]. Sleep onset and therefore duration can also be impacted col, that both biological and cognitive aspects need to be by the cognitive arousal from reluctance and potentially fear considered. of missing out on group communication and sharing of infor- This more recent light exposure paradigm was significantly mation which is not necessarily related to time spent on social shorter than that in the previous studies. Bowler and Burke media in bed [30]. This reluctance to be the group member [25] exposed the participants to the devices and therefore light missing out is not a new phenomenon as peer acceptance is an and content for 15 to 30 min and cite Horne, Donlon and important part of adolescent development, but social media Arendt [26] as having seen such fast effects previously. This takes this out of school and into the bedroom and the possi- raises the question about the length of exposure—are the ef- bility of delayed disengagement at bedtime. Bartel and fects we see in Cajochen and Chang due to prolonged expo- Gradisar [22�� ] also raise the point that work to date had per- sure to blue light as they use pre-sleep paradigms lasting 4 h haps focused on the unidirectional relationship between [13]and5h [10]. Also, the activities seen in all these studies screens and sleep on the premise of screens cause poor sleep are very passive with participants being exposed to light or and it is time we acknowledge that our adolescents may be passively being presented with information rather than being using screens due to sleep issues or timing differences with active and posting, liking and communicating along with their families already established. This again highlights that browsing content. McNee and Cleland Woods [27]have re- we are at a point in time where we can bring together what is cently started to pursue this line of thought around activities seen in clinic with our research questions and practices to pull online rather than just time on screen which highlights an a comprehensive research agenda together to support our association between social comparison orientation, individ- teens. uals driven to evaluate their progress and standing on various We need to bring biological and social factors which im- aspects of their lives against similar peers [28], night-time pact sleep together by understanding the limitations within social media use, mental wellbeing, and sleep in female users this complex field. The combination of biological and psycho- of Facebook and Instagram (N = 60). Social comparison ori- social factors continues from Carskadon’s model as it is not entation, rumination tendency, sleep health and night-time so- only the light from these devices that needs to be considered cial media use were examined using online questionnaire but also the content and context of viewing material on the measures. Social comparison orientation was found to be devices. Chang et al. [13] had participants looking at relaxing 154 Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative reading material but this picture may be unrealistic as our Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// research suggests that communication with peers is a signifi- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, cant factor in delaying disengagement from devices at night. distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- Our model addresses both behavioural and cognitive factors priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. of night-time social media use [30] as it demonstrates that FOMO is the cognitive driver for night-time social media use and impacts sleep onset latency (subjectively reported) negatively via pre-sleep cognitive arousal. This model suggests that looking at light from devices is References only part of the story as cognitive factors are essential to be considered within the recognition of device use as often a Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been social interaction rather than passive browsing. When we re- highlighted as: late this to Carskadon’smodel [3, 4]withpsychosocial factors �� Of major importance such as social networking and bedtime autonomy recognised as pressures on sleep in adolescents, we can build a sophisti- 1. Jenni OG, Achermann P, Carskadon MA. Homeostatic sleep regu- lation in adolescents. Sleep. 2005;28(11):1446–54. cated model of night-time pressures on adolescent sleep that 2. Anderson M, Jiang J. Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018. builds on the impact of blue light on the biological processes 2018. https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/05/31/teens-social- and includes the social opportunities felt by our teens which media-technology-2018/. may now present within the bedroom. Content and context 3. Crowley SJ, Wolfson AR, Tarokh L, Carskadon MA. An update on influencing cognitions and behaviours are just as relevant as adolescent sleep: new evidence informing the perfect storm model. J Adolesc. 2018;67:55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence. light influencing the biology of circadian phase. 2018.06.001. 4. Carskadon MA. Sleep in adolescents: the perfect storm. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2011;58(3):637–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl. 2011.03.003. Conclusions 5. Wittmann M, Dinich J, Merrow M, Roenneberg T. Social jetlag: misalignment of biological and social time. Chronobiol Int. 2006;23(1 –2):497 –509. https://doi.org/10.1080/ In summary, our field is at an interesting juncture where we can acknowledge and integrate two highly relevant 6.�� UK House of Committee Select Committee. Impact of social media and important research strands addressing the underlying and screen-use on young people’s health. 2018. This UK govern- ment report does not react to popular media portrayal of the and complex biological sleep and circadian processes screentime debate but outlines a sensible overview of the evi- alongside, rather than in isolation from, the social and dence presented with acheiveable recommendations. interactive processes where communication is an impor- 7. Souman JL, Tinga AM, te Pas SF, van Ee R, Vlaskamp BNS. Acute tant driver and motivator for use, which can have partic- alerting effects of light: a systematic literature review. Behav Brain ular impact at night. We know from our work that FOMO Res. 2018;337:228–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.016. 8. Reinberg AE, Touitou Y. Synchronization and dyschronism of hu- [30] and exclusion, vigilance and obligation [33�� ]are all man circadian rhythms. Pathologie-biologie. 1996;44(6):487–95. drivers for our adolescents to engage in night-time social 9. Touitou Y. Internal clock desynchronization, light and melatonin. media use and therefore we must acknowledge these cog- Bull Acad Natl Med. 2011;195(7):1527–46 discussion 47-9. nitive factors alongside the physiological processes to un- 10. Cajochen C, Frey S, Anders D, Spati J, Bues M, Pross A, et al. derstand the effect of light within the context of real Evening exposure to a light-emitting diodes (LED)-backlit comput- er screen affects circadian physiology and cognitive performance. J world device use. Moving forward in the current research Appl Physiol. 2011;110(5):1432–8. https://doi.org/10.1152/ climate, we can meet these obligations through collabora- japplphysiol.00165.2011. tions across research specialities and share data, skills and 11. Executive HaS. (2011) Changes in shift work patterns over the last knowledge to build a comprehensive model of adolescent ten 464 years (1999 to 2009). http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/ sleep and social interaction. rrpdf/rr887.pdf 12. Technology TPOoSa. (2018) Shift work, sleep and health: Houses of Parliament. https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ Compliance with Ethical Standards ResearchBriefing/Summary/POST-PN-0586 13. Chang A-M, Aeschbach D, Duffy JF, Czeisler CA. Evening use of Human and Animal Rights Informed Consent This article does not con- light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, tain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the and next-morning alertness. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2015;112(4): authors. 1232–7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1418490112. 14. Rideout, V., Foehr, U., Roberts, D. (2010) Generation M2: media in Conflict of Interest Heather Cleland Woods and Holly Scott each de- the lives 472 of 8 to 18-year-olds.: Kaiser Family Foundation Study. clare no conflict of interest. https://www.kff.org/other/poll-finding/report-generation-m2- media-in-the-lives/ Curr Sleep Medicine Rep (2019) 5:150–155 155 15. Orben A, Przybylski AK. The association between adolescent well- Cogn Neurosci. 2011;23(9):2123–34. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn. 2010.21572. being and digital technology use. Nat Hum Behav. 2019;3(2):173– 82. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1. 25. Bowler J, Bourke P. Facebook use and sleep quality: light interacts 16. Touitou Y, Touitou D, Reinberg A. Disruption of adolescents’ cir- with socially induced alertness. Br J Psychol. 2018. https://doi.org/ cadian clock: the vicious circle of media use, exposure to light at 10.1111/bjop.12351. night, sleep loss and risk behaviors. J Physiol Paris. 2016;110(4 Pt 26. Horne JA, Donlon J, Arendt J. Green light attenuates melatonin B):467–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphysparis.2017.05.001. output and sleepiness during sleep deprivation. Sleep. 1991;14(3): 17. Greenwood S, Perrin A, Duggan M. Social Media Update. (2016) 233–40. Pew Research Center. http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/ 27. McNee, S and Woods, H.C. (2019) Pre-sleep cognitive influence of uploads/sites/14/2016/11/10132827/PI_2016.11.11_Social-Media- night-time social media use and social comparison behaviour in Update_FINAL.pdf young women. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/n9txa 18. Scott, H., Biello, S.M., Woods, H.C. (2019) Social media use and 28. Festinger L. A theory of social comparison processes. Hum Relat. adolescent sleep outcomes: cross-sectional findings from the mil- 1954;7(2):117–40. lennium cohort study. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/z7kpf 29. Nicassio PM, Mendlowitz DR, Fussell JJ, Petras L. The phenome- 19. Avenevoli S, Swendsen J, He JP, Burstein M, Merikangas KR. nology of the pre-sleep state - the development of the pre-sleep Major depression in the national comorbidity survey-adolescent arousal scale. Behav Res Ther. 1985;23(3):263–71. https://doi. supplement: prevalence, correlates, and treatment. J Am Acad org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90004-X. Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015;54(1):37–44 e2. https://doi.org/ 30. Scott H, Woods HC. Fear of missing out and sleep: cognitive be- 10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.010. havioural factors in adolescents’ nighttime social media use. J 20. Kelly Y, Zilanawala A, Booker C, Sacker A. Social media use and Adolesc. 2018;68:61–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence. adolescent mental health: findings from the UK millennium cohort 2018.07.009. study. EClinicalMedicine. 2018;6:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 31. Owens J. Insufficient sleep in adolescents and young adults: an eclinm.2018.12.005. update on causes and consequences. Pediatrics. 2014;134(3): 21. Carr CT, Hayes RA. Social media: defining, developing, and divin- E921–E32. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1696. ing. Atl J Commun. 2015;23(1):46–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 32. Tavernier R, Willoughby T. Sleep problems: predictor or outcome 15456870.2015.972282. of media use among emerging adults at university? J Sleep Res. 22.�� Bartel K, Gradisar M. New directions in the link between technol- 2014;23(4):389–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12132. ogy use and sleep in young people. In: Nevšímalová S, Bruni O, 33. Scott, H., Biello, S. M., Woods, H.C. (2018) Identifying drivers for editors. Sleep disorders in children. Cham: Springer International bedtime social media use despite sleep costs: the adolescent per- Publishing; 2017. p. 69–80. This review introduces a new per- spective. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2xb36 spective on the screens at night debate achnowledging the need to appreciate all influencing factors that can impact sleep espe- cially in our adolescents. Publisher’sNote Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- 23. Chein J, Albert D, O’Brien L, Uckert K, Steinberg L. Peers increase tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry. Dev Sci. 2011;14(2):F1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1467-7687.2010.01035.x. 24. Somerville LH, Hare T, Casey BJ. Frontostriatal maturation pre- dicts cognitive control failure to appetitive cues in adolescents. J

Journal

Current Sleep Medicine ReportsSpringer Journals

Published: Jul 31, 2019

There are no references for this article.