Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Men and women’s perception of yellow-root cassava among rural farmers in eastern Uganda

Men and women’s perception of yellow-root cassava among rural farmers in eastern Uganda Background: Global efforts are underway to develop staple crops with improved levels of provitamin A carotenoids to help combat dietary vitamin A deficiency, which has afflicted the health of resource-poor farmers in the develop - ing world. As a staple crop for more than 500 million people in sub-Saharan Africa, cassava enriched with provitamin A carotenoids could have a widespread nutritional impact. Because cassava is the second most important food crop in Uganda, a breeding programme was initiated to develop provitamin A varieties, with some clones already tested in advanced yield selection trials. Methods: A survey was conducted to understand gender-based constraints and opportunities governing farmers’ decisions to grow yellow-root cassava in Busia, a rural district in eastern Uganda. Logistic regression was computed to determine predictors of willingness to grow yellow-root cassava. Results: Men, women and youth involved in this study were all aware of a yellow-root cassava landrace popularly grown in eastern Uganda, with at least 85% of each group actively growing the cultivar at the time of this study. Interestingly, both men and women singled out early maturity and high fresh root yield as attributes influencing their preference for the yellow root. An assessment of household participation in cassava production and processing activi- ties showed that women performed the bulk of such activities, with men particularly involved in land preparation and selling of products. Nonetheless, both women and men showed strong indication of acceptance and willingness to cultivate yellow-root cassava, which is an incentive for potential uptake of such varieties in future. However, there was poor knowledge on the nutritional benefits of yellow-root cassava, suggesting need for nutritional education when disseminating improved provitamin A cassava varieties. Conclusions: The study provides strong motivation towards breeding provitamin A cassava varieties that have farmer-preferred traits in the background of disease resistance, an output that could be attained through undertaking participatory variety selection trials. Keywords: Biofortification, Gender, Manihot esculenta, Participatory breeding, Provitamin A carotenoids Introduction million people live in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [1, 2]. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a starchy crop Currently, cassava is grown on an estimated 17 million grown and consumed widely in tropical regions of Africa, hectares in SSA alone, making it the second most widely Asia and Latin America, where it dependably provides cultivated crop after maize in the region [3]. In fact, acre- food, non-food uses and income to the populace involved age under cassava is expected to increase [4], which testi- in its production and marketing. Globally, at least 800 fies the crop’s importance and leverage on the continent. million people derive the bulk of their dietary energy In Uganda, for example, a total cassava production of from cassava on a daily basis; of these, an estimated 500 3.42 MT in 1990 was obtained from 412,000  ha. Four- teen years later (2004), the production increased to 5.5 MT from 407,000 ha. As of this writing, area under cas- *Correspondence: esumawilliams@yahoo.co.uk 1 sava production in Uganda had increased to 850,000 ha, National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), 9 km Gayaza-Zirobwe Road, P.O. Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda but production decreased remarkably to 2.81 MT [3]. It Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 2 of 9 suffices to note that this trend of a declining production It is commonplace that men, women and youth par- reflects a myriad of production constraints occasioned by ticipate in cassava production to meet diverse needs; the complexity of pest and disease epidemics [5], rapid thus, preferences for varietal characteristics tend to vary changes in climatic conditions [6], limited agricultural among these social groups [21, 22]. Such variations in extension services [7] and slow commercialization and/or farmer perceptions and attitudes towards crop varie- mechanization development [8, 9]. Moreover, the starchy ties are critical considerations when targeting to deploy roots, though hugely popular for food, are inherently improved cultivars [23, 24]. Therefore, the current study deficient in micronutrients such as vitamin A [10]. For was undertaken to understand gender-based constraints example, Stephenson et  al. [11] reported that consum- and opportunities that govern farmers’ decisions to grow ing cassava as a staple food places children aged below yellow-root cassava in Busia, a rural district in east- 5  years at a risk of inadequate protein and vitamin A ern Uganda. Specifically, we answered the question on intake. Clearly, if the malnutrition challenge is allowed to whether or not differences existed among men, women continue, it will create room for a huge economic burden and youth in preference for traits in yellow-root cassava. for future generations. This information is critical for key stakeholders involved Accordingly, global efforts have been made to bio-for - in promotion and/or dissemination of improved cassava tify cassava, targeting the development of varieties with varieties. elevated levels of provitamin A carotenoids, primarily to help reduce prevalence of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) Materials and methods in subsistence-farming systems [12]. Consumption of Research design and data collection carotene-rich cassava would become home-grown thera- The study was conducted in Busia district, eastern pies for sustainably improving nutrition in communi- Uganda. Busia is located between latitudes 00°28′14″N ties whose dietary needs heavily depend on the crop [13, and longitudes 34°05′31″E. Busia is a major cassava- 14]. Similar interventions have been successfully imple- farming district bordering western Kenya, an equally mented with several advanced cultivars of maize, wheat major cassava-growing region. Qualitative and quantita- and beans tested for on-farm production [15]. Most tive tools were used to collect data from men, women and recently, recognition of the impact of biofortification of youth in Bulumbi and Dabani sub-counties, with specific staple crops climaxed at the award of the 2016 World focus on prevalence of yellow-root cassava. Sampling Food Prize to team of researchers that implemented frame was derived from a list of smallholder farmers pro- development and dissemination of provitamin A sweet vided by the Production Department of Busia. From each potato varieties. These success stories are strong motiva - sub-county, a parish with the largest number of farmers tions for biofortification of cassava, a crop of immense and cassava production was selected. A total of 40 partic- importance for food security in subsistence systems in ipants from each parish were purposively sampled with SSA. Indeed, National agricultural Research Organisa- deliberate efforts to ensure equal representation of men, tion (NARO) of Uganda initiated breeding efforts tailored women and youth. towards the development of high-yielding provitamin A Study tools were peer-reviewed and pretested prior to cassava varieties [16]. Some of these improved clones are data collection. Initially, focus group discussions (FGDs) being tested by National Crops Resources Research Insti- were conducted such that the respondents were disaggre- tute (NaCRRI) for prospects of commercial release [17]. gated into three groups: men, women and a mixed group Fortunately, communities across cassava-growing comprising of men and women. The target size for each regions of SSA have demonstrated strong willingness FGD was 10 individuals, and it was assumed that some to produce and consume yellow-root cassava. A case in invitees would not respond, while in other cases, resi- point was observed in Kenya, where primary school chil- dents of the village that had not been invited would show dren aged between 7 and 12  years were keen on having interest and join the group discussion. In fact, in the case meals of yellow root [18]. Relatedly, at least six carote- where there were an appreciable number of households noid-rich cassava varieties have been released for com- not actively farming in the village, the list was filtered mercial production in Nigeria, with farmers expressing first to remove those households before the remaining substantial willingness to grow them [19]. Certainly, were used for random selection. In some cases, other these studies strongly demonstrate that when farmers people joined the focus group, usually village elders or are provided with technological options, they will make decision-makers. No participant belonged to more than informed choices. However, global acceptance of biofor- one focus group. Raw data from each focus group were tified crop varieties depends on an array of factors, with recorded in notebooks and flipcharts following a pre - high adoption reported for varieties identified through determined study guide. A lot of steps and precautions participatory selection schemes [20]. considered while undertaking the FGDs were adopted Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 3 of 9 from guidelines provided by Freistas et  al. [25]. Other Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents (N = 81) observations and images were recorded. All discussions were voice-recorded to supplement responses written in Variable Number (%) notebooks. Gender (age in years) Further information on cassava production in Busia Men (31–65) 20 (24.7) was obtained from focal persons through key informant Women (31–65) 20 (24.7) interviews (KIIs). In this case, four men and two women, Male youth (18–30) 21 (25.9) who included agricultural officers and experienced cas - Female youth (18–30) 20 (24.7) sava farmers, were interviewed. These key informants Marital status were regarded to be community experts with first-hand Single 28 (34.5) knowledge and ability to provide deep insight into cas- Married 51 (63.0) sava production dynamics in the study area. Together, Widowed 2 (2.5) information from FGDs and KIIs was used to develop Educational level semi-structured questionnaire for collecting quantitative No formal education 5 (6.2) data through household interviews. A purposive sample Primary 37 (45.7) of 81 farmers, representing equal proportions of men, Secondary 33 (40.7) women, male youth and female youth, were interviewed Tertiary 6 (7.4) such that each household contributed only one respond- Primary occupation ent. Caution was taken not to interview participants of Crop farming 69 (85.2) FGDs and KIIs. Students 9 (11.1) Other activities 3 (3.7) Data analysis Qualitative data from FGD and KII were analysed using content analysis approach described by Elo and Kyngas [26]. Initially, all responses were examined and coded respondents attained primary education, while 40.7% to generate themes clustered by categories to capture a attended secondary education, highlighting a drop of gender-disaggregated understanding of aspects of yellow- ~ 5% for the primary to secondary education transition root cassava production. Information generated was then for the community. Meanwhile, 6.2% of the people inter- analysed separately for men, women and youth following viewed did not attend any formal education. As initially the generated themes; this was done for each site where targeted by this study, most households (85.2%) were pri- FGDs were conducted. Finally, a comparative analysis marily engaged in crop farming and 11.1 were students. was conducted across sites by means of cataloguing the The respondents had on average spent 24  years in the evidence collected and resultant themes rated in terms community. of relevance and consistence to reach conclusions of the study. Supplementary information recorded during dis- cussions was used as additional reference materials dur- Major crops grown in Busia district ing transcription. Cassava was the most predominant crop grown by Meanwhile, quantitative data generated from the 81 respondents (~ 71% for income and 100% for food) inter- individual household interviews were cleaned and coded viewed in this study (Table  2). Cassava and maize were for statistical analyses using STATA v13 [27]. Differences particularly grown for food by both men and women; and associations for gender roles and gender perceptions on the contrary, youth majorly grew both crops for cash. on production, processing, consumption and marketing However, all the gender categories grew beans, sorghum of yellow-root cassava were assessed using Chi-square and sweet potato on smaller scale to supplement food tests. Logistic regression was computed to determine from cassava and maize. It was generally noted that the predictors of knowledge on yellow-root cassava [28]. most important crops were grown for the dual purposes of food and cash, though the relationship between food Results crops and gender category was non-significant (X = 28.5; Socio‑demographic characteristics of respondents P = 0.688). Similarly, a non-significant (X = 43.5; Majority (63%) of respondents were married; only 34.5% P = 0.535) relationship was noted between cash crops were single (Table  1), an essential piece of informa- and gender categories; these findings clearly illustrate tion that determines extent of participation in decision- non-specific preference of growing a cash crop or food making along the production–processing–marketing crop by men, women and youth continuum. With regard to education levels, 45.7% of Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 4 of 9 Table 2 Major crops grown by different gender categories in Busia district Crop Men (%) Women (%) MY (%) FY (%) Overall (%) Food Cash Food Cash Food Cash Food Cash Food Cash Cassava 20 9 20 14 20 12 21 17 100 71.2 Maize 19 9 17 13 19 12 21 17 93.8 69.9 Sweet potato 9 1 14 1 10 2 11 4 54.3 11.0 Beans 10 3 8 4 12 6 13 4 53.1 23.3 Sorghum 9 3 4 0 6 3 9 3 34.6 12.3 MY male youth, FM female youth, Chi-square test for food crops grown and gender is: χ = 28.55 , P = 0.688 ; Chi-square test cash crop grown and gender is: χ = 43.51 , P = 0.535 Overall, cassava landraces were predominantly grown women had strong preference for this landrace because by farmers in Busia. For example, cultivar “yellow”, which it matured early and yielded better than other varie- is a yellow-root cassava landrace, was the most popu- ties grown in the area. For example, during FGDs, men lar across all the gender categories in Busia; strikingly, strongly narrated that: 100% of the female respondents grew “yellow” (Table  3). “Yellow helps us to overcome hunger in a short time Indeed, improved cassava varieties (white-fleshed) because it takes about 8 months to mature, produces released under the nomenclature of “NASE” were grown 10–12 roots per plant and yields higher than other by few of the respondents, except for NASE 3 that had varieties in the same garden”. Relatedly, women relatively high frequency among men (45.0%) and women recounted that “we like the yellow color of its roots (47.6%). Other common cassava cultivars grown in Busia and food prepared from those roots makes one eas- included “magana”, “mercury”, “lodelado”, “dodo” and ily satisfied. Also, less amount of flour is required “mufumba chai”. Overall, the relationship between vari- to prepare sufficient food for the family because its eties grown and gender categories was non-significant flour easily absorbs water; in addition, the floor from (X = 78.7; P = 0.454). Again, these findings clearly illus - it has a nice aroma”. trate non-specific preference of cassava varieties by men, women and youth, i.e. a variety is universally accepted by Compared to their male counterparts, female youth the community. showed stronger preference for early maturity, high fresh root yield, good flour quality and tolerance to diseases. Attributes influencing preference for yellow‑root cassava Overall, men and the male youth showed high preference among men, women and youth for shorter maturity time, while women and female youth There were several good qualities attributed to the yel - tended to prefer the yellow cultivar because of its high low-root cassava landrace “yellow” that was commonly root yields. Meanwhile, preference for flour quality was grown in Busia. In particular, early maturity, high fresh highest (40%) among the female youth (40%) and least root yield and tolerance to diseases, notably cassava among men (16.7%). Drought tolerance was another pre- mosaic disease; these attributes (or traits) were preferred ferred attribute marginally mentioned by respondents, across the gender groups (Table  4). Generally, men and notably male youth (11.1%) and men (5.3%). Similarly, Table 3 Cassava varieties grown by the different gender categories Variety Men (%) Women (%) Male youth (%) Female youth (%) Overall (%) Yellow cassava 90.0 100 94.7 85.0 92.5 Magana 75.0 66.7 57.9 70.0 67.5 NASE 3 45.0 47.6 5.3 25.0 31.3 Mercury 30.0 42.9 10.5 5.0 22.5 NASE (improved) 10.0 19.1 21.1 10.0 15.0 Lodelado 20.0 9.5 0.0 0.0 7.5 Dodo 5.0 9.5 0.0 0.0 3.75 Mufumba Chai 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 2.5 Chi-square test for food crops grown and gender: χ = 78.77 , P = 0.454 Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 5 of 9 Table 4 Attributes of yellow-root cassava considered good and poor by respondents Attribute Men (%) Women (%) Male youth (%) Female youth (%) Overall (%) Good qualities Early maturity 77.8 58.8 78.9 75.0 72.9 High root yield 50.0 70.6 31.6 50.0 50.0 Good flour quality 16.7 23.5 26.3 40.0 27.0 Disease tolerance 16.7 11.8 15.8 25.0 17.6 Drought tolerance 5.3 0.0 11.1 0.0 4.0 Extended shelf-life 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 Poor qualities Low dry matter 63.2 65.0 45.0 60.0 58.2 Bitter fresh roots 57.9 45.0 70.0 55.0 57.0 Disease susceptibility 21.1 50.0 25.0 25.0 30.4 Poor soil storability 21.1 30.0 15.0 20.0 21.5 Low root yield 10.5 30.0 15.0 20.0 18.9 extended shelf-life was considered marginal as reflected were largely involved in land preparation and selling of by 5.6% of the male respondents; other respondents cassava produce. In general, the youth played support- hardly mentioned it (Table 4). ive roles to both men and women, with female youth On the other hand, some qualities of the “yellow” cul- more involved in food preparation, while the male youth tivar were considered poor and thus disliked by farmers largely participated in land preparation. Relatedly, it was in the different gender categories. Top on the list of poor noted that decision-making on which varieties to grow qualities was low dry matter content and bitter taste of varied among the different gender groups. fresh roots, with more than 55% of respondents express- ing dislike for these traits (Table  4). Ironically, 50% of Predictors of willingness to grow yellow‑root cassava women respondents indicated disease susceptibility as a Results of the logistic regression indicate that female poor quality attribute, contrasting the results under good youth were six times more likely to grow yellow-root cas- quality attributes. Similarly, low root yield was regarded sava than any other gender group (Table 5). Married peo- as a poor attribute by 18.9% of the respondents, which ple were also more willing to grow yellow-root cassava again, contrasted with its good attributes highlighted than those who were not married. Relatedly, respondents above. Relatively larger proportions of women (30%) and that attained secondary education were six times more female youth (20%) considered poor storability of roots likely to cultivate yellow-root cassava than those who in soil as a major drawback of the “yellow” cultivar. Over- only attended primary education. all, men and women had similar opinions on poor quality attributes of cultivar yellow during FGDs. Discussion For example, men said that “Yellow is not good for in- Empirical data to demonstrate the resilience of cassava soil storage, so one cannot do piece meal harvest. Yellow in Africa revealed that the crop will be more positively also has watery roots, which shrink during drying. In impactful in many areas of Africa than other staples [4, fact, roots of Yellow are bitter and cannot be eaten fresh, 29]. This is a positive outlook, although it also presents as they make our stomach pain”. Similarly, women nar- some intrinsic challenges. Diets that heavily depend on rated that “yellow has watery roots that take several days starchy staples such as cassava are highly vulnerable to to dry, especially during wet season. Further, its roots are VAD. Indeed, such micronutrient deficiency problems bitter when eaten fresh, do not stay long in the soil and are commonplace in peasant families, where nutritious the plants are susceptible to pests and diseases”. foods in the form of animal products, fruits and vegeta- bles are very rare [13]. In extreme cases, severe VAD in Role of different gender categories in cassava production children and women of reproductive age increases their and utilization susceptibility to preventable diseases [30]. Worse still, in Overall, women were more engaged in the bulk of cas- remote parts of developing countries (including Uganda), sava production activities than any other gender group. interventions to minimize VAD through use of supple- In particular, women were largely involved in sourcing mentation and/or food fortification are not practical. planting materials, planting, weeding, harvesting, pro- It is this landscape of challenges that strongly justifies cessing and food preparation (Fig.  1). In parallel, men the urgent need to breed and deploy nutrient-rich crop Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 6 of 9 Fig. 1 Role of different gender categories in cassava production, processing and marketing varieties to vulnerable communities [12]. Such concerted potato were other crops commonly grown for food in efforts will contribute towards attainment of sustain - Busia, which indicated heavy reliance of diets on starchy able development goals particularly, goal 2 that focuses staples and thus increased vulnerability to VAD. Effec - on improved nutrition and promotion of sustainable tively, Busia would be a primary target for potential dis- agriculture. semination of provitamin A cassava varieties in future. uTh s, this pioneer study sought to gather informa - Despite the high economic value of cassava, most cul- tion on knowledge and perceptions of men, women and tivars grown in Busia, including the yellow-root type, youth on yellow-root cassava, to provide frameworks for were landraces. Although some Ugandan farmers tend systematic varietal development and eventual deploy- to continuously cultivate landraces for various specific ment of improved provitamin A cassava. It is understood traits, such cultivars are often highly susceptible to dis- that, among the key constraints facing cassava produc- eases [32] and thus leading to low on-farm productivity. tion, participation of men and women produces different Busia is noted to be among areas with high incidence of benefits and gains across the entire value chain [24]. For CBSD [33], and continuous exposure of such landraces to this purpose, this study was conducted in Busia, where the viral diseases could result to widespread crop failure yellow cassava varieties had been reported before [16]. and ultimate food insecurity in the area. Such a situation Indeed, results indicated that crop production was the illustrates an opportunity to amplify efforts towards dis - most important economic activity in Busia, with cassava semination of improved cassava varieties to enhance pro- as the most predominant crop cultivated in the district. duction in areas with low access to such varieties. An important feature of the study area was the active Good qualities associated with the landraces, particu- engagement of youth in cassava production, which is larly the “yellow” cultivar, were listed. Overall, men and acknowledged to help eliminate generation gap for sus- male youth had preference for early-maturing cassava, tainability of the food supply chain [31]. Maize and sweet while women and the female youth expressed strong Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 7 of 9 Table 5 Predictors of  willingness to  grow yellow-root cassava may explain this observation. Iglesias et  al. [34] cassava production (N = 81) and Chávez et  al. [35] have previously demonstrated the effectiveness of using root colour to select for high carot - Variable Willingness to grow yellow‑root cassava enoids content in cassava. More recently, Njoku et  al. b c (OR) (CI ) [36] and Esuma et  al. [17] reported higher total carot- enoids content in yellow-pigmented cassava roots than Age 1.06 (0.95–1.19) in white-cream roots. Carotenoids such as beta-carotene Gender a are precursors to vitamin A. The ability to discriminate Male youth (ref ) 1.00 cassava varieties visually would be an incentive to farm- Male youth versus female youth 6.40 (0.85–48.41)* ers, as nutritious cultivars would be easily distinguished Male youth versus men 0.36 (0.02–7.81) using the root pigmentation. In fact, this practice has Male youth versus women 8.28 (0.12–58. 16) proved to be helpful in dissemination of orange-fleshed Marital status sweet potato [20, 37]. Inevitably, future efforts targeting Single (ref ) 1.00 dissemination of yellow-root cassava will need to adopt Single versus married 0.56 (0.12–2.65)* multi-stakeholder approach to incorporate nutrition edu- Educational status cation as a strong and integral component of such pro- Primary 1.00 grammes. Accordingly, women and female youth need to Primary versus secondary 5.45 (1.02–29.04)* be a major focus of such nutrition interventions, as they Primary versus no formal education 0.07 (0.01–1.20) tend to be more engaged in cassava production and pro- Main occupation cessing, including key activities such as seed acquisition Other activities 1.00 and food preparation. Despite this, respondents were Other activities versus crop farming 0.30 (0.30–2.97) able to identify some positive attributes of yellow-root Years of growing cassava 0.99 (0.75–1.32) cassava, notable of which included early maturity, high Access to extension service 0.28 (0.03–1.97) fresh root yield and tolerance to drought. Such diver- * Significant at 5% sity in farmer-preference attributes justifies the need for Reference category undertaking participatory variety selection mindful of Odd ratio gender dynamics in such communities, as farmers are Confidence interval aware of their preferences. Men, women and youth engaged in this study noted two poor quality attributes of yellow-root cultivar grown preference for high-yielding cultivars. These trends are in Busia and should be primary considerations for cas- a probable reflection of social differences between men sava-breeding programmes targeting to deploy improved and women owing to the economic values they attach to varieties. Firstly, the low dry matter content, which nega- cassava. It is very likely that men largely produce cassava tively impacts on processing output and flour quality. for commercial benefits, which relates well to their role The tendency of low dry matter content in cassava roots in selling the produce from cassava. Meanwhile, women with high levels of carotenoid content has previously tended to attach more value to food security, as reflected been reported by [36, 38]. In Latin America, this nega- in their preference for high root yields and participation tive relationship is non-existent owing to germplasm and in processing roots for food. However, such socially con- evaluations methods employed [39]. Breaking these neg- structed gender roles and household relations have also ative correlations constitutes a major research gap that been reported to limit women’s participation in com- is currently being addressed. Secondly, the bitter taste mercial cassava production in Nigeria and Malawi [21]. of fresh roots of cassava is a probable reflection of high Such results indicate an overall need for development cyanogenic potential, which results in accumulation of projects targeted to enable women benefit from agricul - high levels of hydrogen cyanide when cells are crushed tural markets. On their part, plant breeders could exploit or bruised; it is a toxic biochemical compound that accu- improved genetic stocks with good attributes to develop mulates in some genotypes [40]. Bitter cassava roots provitamin A cassava varieties for wide adoption across will need to be processed, mainly through fermenta- different gender groups. Alternatively, elite germplasm tion and/or sun drying, to reduce the cyanide content to could be accessed from elsewhere and evaluated for pos- non-toxic levels before consumption. Unfortunately, the sible adaptation and adoption after successful evaluation. high labour requirements for such processing methods Results further indicated that none of the respondents tend to rest on women and youth, limiting their time for associated yellow-root cassava with nutritional benefits other necessary socio-economic activities [24]. Besides, of vitamin A; the low education levels and/or lack of pub- the processing methods to remove hydrogen cyanide licity campaigns on the nutritional value of yellow-root Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 8 of 9 Competing interests are associated with significant reduction in carotenoid The authors declare that they have no competing interests. content in the roots, essentially reducing the nutritional benefits to the target consumers [41]. For cassava bio - Availability of data and materials Data that support findings of this study are available upon request through fortification to yield meaningful results and create the the corresponding author. desired nutritional impact, it is imperative that provita- min A varieties targeted for release have non-toxic levels Consent for publication Not applicable. of hydrogen cyanide to encourage consumption of roots with minimal processing, such as boiling. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Funding Conclusion This study was jointly supported by funds from the Next Generation Cassava This study reports a pioneer effort to dissect gender Breeding project (www.nextg encas sava.org) and the Gender Responsive Researchers Equipped for Agricultural Transformation project (www.great agric constraints and opportunities for cassava production ultur e.org). and utilization in Uganda, with particular focus on yel- low-root cassava cultivars. Though data were generated Publisher’s Note from few respondents relative to, three key findings were Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- apparent: (1) a general acceptance and willingness among lished maps and institutional affiliations. men, women and youth to cultivate yellow-root cassava; Received: 20 August 2018 Accepted: 13 March 2019 (2) trait preferences of provitamin A cassava were largely similar among men, women and youth, with early matu- rity, high fresh root yield and high dry matter mentioned as the most desired attributes; and (3) need for specially References designed educational campaigns on the nutritional ben- 1. Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, Foley JA. Farming the planet: geographic distribution of crop areas, yields, physiological types, and net primary efits of yellow-root cassava, which should further guide production in the year 2000. Glob Biogeochem Cycles. 2008;22(1):1–19. processing methods in order to realize intended benefits 2. Tan SL. Cassava—silently, the tuber fills: the lowly cassava, regarded as a to consumers. Importantly, these results provide strong poor man’s crop, may help save the world from the curse of plastic pollu- tion. Utar Agric Sci J. 2015;1(2):12–24. motivations towards breeding provitamin A cassava vari- 3. FAOSTAT. Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations sta- eties that have farmer-preferred traits in the background tistics. 2016 10 April 2017; http://data.fao.org/ref/262b7 9ca-279c-4517- of disease resistance, an output that will be attained 93de-ee3b7 c7cb5 53. 4. Jarvis A, Ramirez-Villegas J, Herrera Campo BV, Navarro-Racines C. Is through undertaking participatory variety selection tri- cassava the answer to African climate change adaptation? Trop Plant Biol. als. Equally important is the urgent need to broaden the 2012;5(1):9–29. scope of the study, being mindful of the entire cassava 5. Alicai T, Omongo CA, Maruthi MN, Hillocks RJ, Baguma Y, Kawuki R, Bua A, Otim-Nape GW, Colvin J. Re-emergence of cassava brown streak disease value chain actors. in Uganda. Plant Dis. 2007;91(1):24–9. 6. Knox J, Hess T, Daccache A, Wheeler T. Climate change impacts on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia. Environ Res Lett. 2012;7(3):8. Abbreviations 7. Abele S, Twine E, Ntawuruhunga P, Baguma Y, Kanobe C, Bua A. Devel- CBSD: cassava brown streak disease; FGD: focus group discussion; KII: key opment and dissemination of improved cassava varieties in Uganda: informant interview; NaCRRI: National Crops Resources Research Institute; analysis of adoption rates, variety attributes and speed of adoption. In NARO: National Agricultural Research Organization; SSA: sub-Saharan Africa; AAAE Ghana conference. Accra; 2007. VAD: vitamin A deficiency. 8. Sims B, Kienzle J. Making mechanization accessible to smallholder farm- ers in sub-Saharan Africa. Environments. 2016;3(11):18. Authors’ contributions 9. Abass A, Amaza P, Bachwenkizi B, Wanda K, Agona A, Cromme N. The WE designed the study and wrote the manuscript; ARN developed the impact of mechanized processing of cassava on farmers’ production study tools and edited the manuscript; RM provided technical guidance and efficiency in Uganda. Appl Econ Lett. 2017;24(2):102–6. reviewed the manuscript; SA analysed data and edited the manuscript; RSK 10. Salvador EM, Steenkamp V, McCrindle CME. Production, consumption provided in-depth review and edited the manuscript. All authors read and and nutritional value of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) in Mozam- approved the final manuscript. bique: an overview. J Agric Biotechnol Sustain Dev. 2014;6(3):29–38. 11. Stephenson K, Amthor R, Mallowa S, Nungo R, Maziya-Dixon B, Gichuki S, Author details Mbanaso A, Manary M. Consuming cassava as a staple food places chil- National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), 9 km Gayaza-Zirobwe dren 2–5 years old at risk for inadequate protein intake, an observational Road, P.O. Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda. Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, study in Kenya and Nigeria. Nutr J. 2010;9:9. Kampala, Uganda. 12. Pfeiffer WH, McClafferty B. HarvestPlus: breeding crops for better nutri- tion. Crop Science. 2007;47(S):88–105. Acknowledgements 13. Mayer JE, Pfeiffer WH, Beyer P. Biofortified crops to alleviate micronutrient The authors are grateful to the technical staff of NaCRRI that administered the malnutrition. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2008;11(2):166–70. questionnaires to capture required data from respondents. Furthermore, we 14. Nassar NMA, Ortiz R. Breeding cassava to feed the poor. Sci Am J. thank the gender experts implementing the GREAT Project for their technical 2010;302(5):78–82. guidance during design of this study. 15. Hefferon KL. Nutritionally enhanced food crops; progress and perspec- tives. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16(2):3895–914. Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 9 of 9 16. Esuma W, Rubaihayo P, Pariyo A, Kawuki R, Wanjala B, Nzuki I, Harvey JJW, 29. Ceballos H, Ramirez J, Bellotti AC, Jarvis A, Alvarez A. Adaptation of cas- Baguma Y. Genetic diversity of provitamin A cassava in Uganda. J Plant sava to changing climates. In: Yadav SS, et al., editors. Crop adaptation to Stud. 2012;1(1):60–71. climate change. Hoboken: Blackwell; 2011. p. 411–25. 17. Esuma W, Kawuki R, Herselman L, Labuschagne MT. Stability and geno- 30. Sommer A. Vitamin A deficiency and clinical disease: an historical over - type by environment interaction of provitamin A carotenoid and dry view. J Nutr. 2008;138:1835–9. matter content in cassava in Uganda. Breed Sci. 2016;66:434–43. 31. Butt TM, Hassan MZY, Sahi ST, Atiq M, Jabbar A, Ahmad I, Luqman M, 18. Talsma EF, Melse-Boonstra A, de Kok BP, Mbera GN, Mwangi AM, Brouwer Shafique W. Role of rural youth in agricultural and rural development: a ID. Biofortified cassava with pro-vitamin A is sensory and culturally self perceived case study of Okara District, Punjab, Pakistan. J Agric Ext acceptable for consumption by primary school children in Kenya. PLoS Rural Dev. 2011;3(2):23–8. ONE. 2013;8(8):e73433. 32. Abaca A, Kawuki R, Tukamuhabwa P, Baguma Y, Pariyo A, Alicai T, Omongo 19. Njoku DN, Egesi CN, Gracen VE, Oei SK ff , Asante IK, Danquah EY. Identi- CA, Bua A. Evaluation of local and elite cassava genotypes for resistance fication of pro-vitamin A cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) varieties for to cassava brown streak disease. Uganda J Agron. 2012;11:65–72. adaptation and adoption through participatory research. J Crop Improv. 33. Kathurima TM, Nyende AB, Kiarie SM, Ateka EM. Genetic diversity and 2014;28(3):361–76. distribution of Cassava Brown Streak Virus and Ugandan Cassava Brown 20. Tumuhimbise GA, Namutebi A, Turyashemererwa F, Muyonga J. Provita- Streak Virus in major cassava-growing regions in Kenya. Ann Res Rev Biol. min A crops: acceptability, bioavailability, efficacy and effectiveness. Food 2016;10(5):1–9. Nutr Sci. 2013;4(4):430–5. 34. Iglesias CA, Meyer J, Chávez AL, Calle F. Genetic potential and stability of 21. Forsythe L, Posthumus H, Marti A. A crop of one’s own? women’s experi- carotene content in cassava roots. Euphytica. 1997;94:367–73. ences of cassava commercialization in Nigeria and Malawi. J Gend Agric 35. Chávez AL, Bedoya JM, Sánchez T, Iglesias CA, Ceballos H, Roca W. Iron, Food Secur. 2016;1(2):110–28. carotene, and ascorbic acid in cassava roots and leaves. Food Nutr Bull. 22. Bentley J, Olanrewaju A, Madu T, Olaosebikan O, Abdoulaye T, Wossen T, 2000;21(4):410–4. Manyong V, Kulakow P, Ayedun B, Ojide B, Girma G, Rabbi IY, Ashu- 36. Njoku DN, Gracen VE, Oei SK ff , Asante IK, Egesi CN, Kulakow P, Ceballos mugha G, Tokula M. Cassava farmers’ preferences for varieties and seed H. Parent-offspring regression analysis for total carotenoids and some dissemination system in Nigeria: gender and regional perspectives. IITA agronomic traits in cassava. Euphytica. 2015;206:657–66. Monograph; 2017. p. 90. 37. Laurie SM, Magoro MD. Evaluation and release of new sweet potato vari- 23. Olaoye G, Ajala SO, Adedeji SA. Participatory selection of a maize (Zea eties through farmer participatory selection. Afr J Agric Res. 2008;3:672–6. mays L.) variety for the control of stem borers in a southeastern Nigeria 38. Esuma W, Kawuki R, Herselman L, Labuschagne MT. Diallel analysis of location. J Food Agric Environ. 2009;7(2):508–12. provitamin A carotenoid and dry matter content in cassava (Manihot 24. Ahmadu J, Idisi PO. Gendered participation in cassava value chain in esculenta Crantz). Breed Sci. 2016;66:627–35. Nigeria. Merit Res J Agric Sci Soil Sci. 2014;2(11):147–53. 39. Ceballos H, Morante N, Sánchez T, Ortiz D, Aragón I, Chávez AL, Pizarro M, 25. Freistas H, Oliveira M, Jenkins M, Popjoy O. The focus group, a qualitative Calle F, Dufour D. Rapid cycling recurrent selection for increased carot- research method: reviewing the theory and providing guidelines to its enoids content in cassava roots. Crop Sci. 2013;53(6):23–42. planning. ISRC working paper; 1998. pp. 010298:22. 40. Cereda MP, Mattos MCY. Linamarin: the toxic compound of cassava. J 26. Elo S, Kyngas H. The qualitative content analysis process. J Adv Nurs. Venom Anim Toxins. 1996;2(2):06–12. 2007;62(1):107–15. 41. Chavez AL, Sanchez T, Ceballos H, Rodriguez-Amaya DB, Nestel Tohme J, 27. StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 13. College Station, Ishitani M. Retention of carotenoids in cassava roots submitted to differ - 2013;TX:StataCorp LP. ent processing methods. J Sci Food Agric. 2007;87:388–93. 28. Peng C, Lee KL, Ingersoll GM. An introduction to logistic regression analy- sis and reporting. J Educ Res. 2002;96:14. Ready to submit your research ? Choose BMC and benefit from: fast, convenient online submission thorough peer review by experienced researchers in your field rapid publication on acceptance support for research data, including large and complex data types • gold Open Access which fosters wider collaboration and increased citations maximum visibility for your research: over 100M website views per year At BMC, research is always in progress. Learn more biomedcentral.com/submissions http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Agriculture & Food Security Springer Journals

Men and women’s perception of yellow-root cassava among rural farmers in eastern Uganda

Download PDF
9 pages

Loading next page...
 
/lp/springer-journals/men-and-women-s-perception-of-yellow-root-cassava-among-rural-farmers-wfcpHZOY6x

References (36)

Publisher
Springer Journals
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 by The Author(s)
Subject
Life Sciences; Agriculture; Biotechnology; Plant Sciences; Ecology; Agricultural Economics; Epidemiology
eISSN
2048-7010
DOI
10.1186/s40066-019-0253-1
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Background: Global efforts are underway to develop staple crops with improved levels of provitamin A carotenoids to help combat dietary vitamin A deficiency, which has afflicted the health of resource-poor farmers in the develop - ing world. As a staple crop for more than 500 million people in sub-Saharan Africa, cassava enriched with provitamin A carotenoids could have a widespread nutritional impact. Because cassava is the second most important food crop in Uganda, a breeding programme was initiated to develop provitamin A varieties, with some clones already tested in advanced yield selection trials. Methods: A survey was conducted to understand gender-based constraints and opportunities governing farmers’ decisions to grow yellow-root cassava in Busia, a rural district in eastern Uganda. Logistic regression was computed to determine predictors of willingness to grow yellow-root cassava. Results: Men, women and youth involved in this study were all aware of a yellow-root cassava landrace popularly grown in eastern Uganda, with at least 85% of each group actively growing the cultivar at the time of this study. Interestingly, both men and women singled out early maturity and high fresh root yield as attributes influencing their preference for the yellow root. An assessment of household participation in cassava production and processing activi- ties showed that women performed the bulk of such activities, with men particularly involved in land preparation and selling of products. Nonetheless, both women and men showed strong indication of acceptance and willingness to cultivate yellow-root cassava, which is an incentive for potential uptake of such varieties in future. However, there was poor knowledge on the nutritional benefits of yellow-root cassava, suggesting need for nutritional education when disseminating improved provitamin A cassava varieties. Conclusions: The study provides strong motivation towards breeding provitamin A cassava varieties that have farmer-preferred traits in the background of disease resistance, an output that could be attained through undertaking participatory variety selection trials. Keywords: Biofortification, Gender, Manihot esculenta, Participatory breeding, Provitamin A carotenoids Introduction million people live in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [1, 2]. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a starchy crop Currently, cassava is grown on an estimated 17 million grown and consumed widely in tropical regions of Africa, hectares in SSA alone, making it the second most widely Asia and Latin America, where it dependably provides cultivated crop after maize in the region [3]. In fact, acre- food, non-food uses and income to the populace involved age under cassava is expected to increase [4], which testi- in its production and marketing. Globally, at least 800 fies the crop’s importance and leverage on the continent. million people derive the bulk of their dietary energy In Uganda, for example, a total cassava production of from cassava on a daily basis; of these, an estimated 500 3.42 MT in 1990 was obtained from 412,000  ha. Four- teen years later (2004), the production increased to 5.5 MT from 407,000 ha. As of this writing, area under cas- *Correspondence: esumawilliams@yahoo.co.uk 1 sava production in Uganda had increased to 850,000 ha, National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), 9 km Gayaza-Zirobwe Road, P.O. Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda but production decreased remarkably to 2.81 MT [3]. It Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 2 of 9 suffices to note that this trend of a declining production It is commonplace that men, women and youth par- reflects a myriad of production constraints occasioned by ticipate in cassava production to meet diverse needs; the complexity of pest and disease epidemics [5], rapid thus, preferences for varietal characteristics tend to vary changes in climatic conditions [6], limited agricultural among these social groups [21, 22]. Such variations in extension services [7] and slow commercialization and/or farmer perceptions and attitudes towards crop varie- mechanization development [8, 9]. Moreover, the starchy ties are critical considerations when targeting to deploy roots, though hugely popular for food, are inherently improved cultivars [23, 24]. Therefore, the current study deficient in micronutrients such as vitamin A [10]. For was undertaken to understand gender-based constraints example, Stephenson et  al. [11] reported that consum- and opportunities that govern farmers’ decisions to grow ing cassava as a staple food places children aged below yellow-root cassava in Busia, a rural district in east- 5  years at a risk of inadequate protein and vitamin A ern Uganda. Specifically, we answered the question on intake. Clearly, if the malnutrition challenge is allowed to whether or not differences existed among men, women continue, it will create room for a huge economic burden and youth in preference for traits in yellow-root cassava. for future generations. This information is critical for key stakeholders involved Accordingly, global efforts have been made to bio-for - in promotion and/or dissemination of improved cassava tify cassava, targeting the development of varieties with varieties. elevated levels of provitamin A carotenoids, primarily to help reduce prevalence of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) Materials and methods in subsistence-farming systems [12]. Consumption of Research design and data collection carotene-rich cassava would become home-grown thera- The study was conducted in Busia district, eastern pies for sustainably improving nutrition in communi- Uganda. Busia is located between latitudes 00°28′14″N ties whose dietary needs heavily depend on the crop [13, and longitudes 34°05′31″E. Busia is a major cassava- 14]. Similar interventions have been successfully imple- farming district bordering western Kenya, an equally mented with several advanced cultivars of maize, wheat major cassava-growing region. Qualitative and quantita- and beans tested for on-farm production [15]. Most tive tools were used to collect data from men, women and recently, recognition of the impact of biofortification of youth in Bulumbi and Dabani sub-counties, with specific staple crops climaxed at the award of the 2016 World focus on prevalence of yellow-root cassava. Sampling Food Prize to team of researchers that implemented frame was derived from a list of smallholder farmers pro- development and dissemination of provitamin A sweet vided by the Production Department of Busia. From each potato varieties. These success stories are strong motiva - sub-county, a parish with the largest number of farmers tions for biofortification of cassava, a crop of immense and cassava production was selected. A total of 40 partic- importance for food security in subsistence systems in ipants from each parish were purposively sampled with SSA. Indeed, National agricultural Research Organisa- deliberate efforts to ensure equal representation of men, tion (NARO) of Uganda initiated breeding efforts tailored women and youth. towards the development of high-yielding provitamin A Study tools were peer-reviewed and pretested prior to cassava varieties [16]. Some of these improved clones are data collection. Initially, focus group discussions (FGDs) being tested by National Crops Resources Research Insti- were conducted such that the respondents were disaggre- tute (NaCRRI) for prospects of commercial release [17]. gated into three groups: men, women and a mixed group Fortunately, communities across cassava-growing comprising of men and women. The target size for each regions of SSA have demonstrated strong willingness FGD was 10 individuals, and it was assumed that some to produce and consume yellow-root cassava. A case in invitees would not respond, while in other cases, resi- point was observed in Kenya, where primary school chil- dents of the village that had not been invited would show dren aged between 7 and 12  years were keen on having interest and join the group discussion. In fact, in the case meals of yellow root [18]. Relatedly, at least six carote- where there were an appreciable number of households noid-rich cassava varieties have been released for com- not actively farming in the village, the list was filtered mercial production in Nigeria, with farmers expressing first to remove those households before the remaining substantial willingness to grow them [19]. Certainly, were used for random selection. In some cases, other these studies strongly demonstrate that when farmers people joined the focus group, usually village elders or are provided with technological options, they will make decision-makers. No participant belonged to more than informed choices. However, global acceptance of biofor- one focus group. Raw data from each focus group were tified crop varieties depends on an array of factors, with recorded in notebooks and flipcharts following a pre - high adoption reported for varieties identified through determined study guide. A lot of steps and precautions participatory selection schemes [20]. considered while undertaking the FGDs were adopted Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 3 of 9 from guidelines provided by Freistas et  al. [25]. Other Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents (N = 81) observations and images were recorded. All discussions were voice-recorded to supplement responses written in Variable Number (%) notebooks. Gender (age in years) Further information on cassava production in Busia Men (31–65) 20 (24.7) was obtained from focal persons through key informant Women (31–65) 20 (24.7) interviews (KIIs). In this case, four men and two women, Male youth (18–30) 21 (25.9) who included agricultural officers and experienced cas - Female youth (18–30) 20 (24.7) sava farmers, were interviewed. These key informants Marital status were regarded to be community experts with first-hand Single 28 (34.5) knowledge and ability to provide deep insight into cas- Married 51 (63.0) sava production dynamics in the study area. Together, Widowed 2 (2.5) information from FGDs and KIIs was used to develop Educational level semi-structured questionnaire for collecting quantitative No formal education 5 (6.2) data through household interviews. A purposive sample Primary 37 (45.7) of 81 farmers, representing equal proportions of men, Secondary 33 (40.7) women, male youth and female youth, were interviewed Tertiary 6 (7.4) such that each household contributed only one respond- Primary occupation ent. Caution was taken not to interview participants of Crop farming 69 (85.2) FGDs and KIIs. Students 9 (11.1) Other activities 3 (3.7) Data analysis Qualitative data from FGD and KII were analysed using content analysis approach described by Elo and Kyngas [26]. Initially, all responses were examined and coded respondents attained primary education, while 40.7% to generate themes clustered by categories to capture a attended secondary education, highlighting a drop of gender-disaggregated understanding of aspects of yellow- ~ 5% for the primary to secondary education transition root cassava production. Information generated was then for the community. Meanwhile, 6.2% of the people inter- analysed separately for men, women and youth following viewed did not attend any formal education. As initially the generated themes; this was done for each site where targeted by this study, most households (85.2%) were pri- FGDs were conducted. Finally, a comparative analysis marily engaged in crop farming and 11.1 were students. was conducted across sites by means of cataloguing the The respondents had on average spent 24  years in the evidence collected and resultant themes rated in terms community. of relevance and consistence to reach conclusions of the study. Supplementary information recorded during dis- cussions was used as additional reference materials dur- Major crops grown in Busia district ing transcription. Cassava was the most predominant crop grown by Meanwhile, quantitative data generated from the 81 respondents (~ 71% for income and 100% for food) inter- individual household interviews were cleaned and coded viewed in this study (Table  2). Cassava and maize were for statistical analyses using STATA v13 [27]. Differences particularly grown for food by both men and women; and associations for gender roles and gender perceptions on the contrary, youth majorly grew both crops for cash. on production, processing, consumption and marketing However, all the gender categories grew beans, sorghum of yellow-root cassava were assessed using Chi-square and sweet potato on smaller scale to supplement food tests. Logistic regression was computed to determine from cassava and maize. It was generally noted that the predictors of knowledge on yellow-root cassava [28]. most important crops were grown for the dual purposes of food and cash, though the relationship between food Results crops and gender category was non-significant (X = 28.5; Socio‑demographic characteristics of respondents P = 0.688). Similarly, a non-significant (X = 43.5; Majority (63%) of respondents were married; only 34.5% P = 0.535) relationship was noted between cash crops were single (Table  1), an essential piece of informa- and gender categories; these findings clearly illustrate tion that determines extent of participation in decision- non-specific preference of growing a cash crop or food making along the production–processing–marketing crop by men, women and youth continuum. With regard to education levels, 45.7% of Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 4 of 9 Table 2 Major crops grown by different gender categories in Busia district Crop Men (%) Women (%) MY (%) FY (%) Overall (%) Food Cash Food Cash Food Cash Food Cash Food Cash Cassava 20 9 20 14 20 12 21 17 100 71.2 Maize 19 9 17 13 19 12 21 17 93.8 69.9 Sweet potato 9 1 14 1 10 2 11 4 54.3 11.0 Beans 10 3 8 4 12 6 13 4 53.1 23.3 Sorghum 9 3 4 0 6 3 9 3 34.6 12.3 MY male youth, FM female youth, Chi-square test for food crops grown and gender is: χ = 28.55 , P = 0.688 ; Chi-square test cash crop grown and gender is: χ = 43.51 , P = 0.535 Overall, cassava landraces were predominantly grown women had strong preference for this landrace because by farmers in Busia. For example, cultivar “yellow”, which it matured early and yielded better than other varie- is a yellow-root cassava landrace, was the most popu- ties grown in the area. For example, during FGDs, men lar across all the gender categories in Busia; strikingly, strongly narrated that: 100% of the female respondents grew “yellow” (Table  3). “Yellow helps us to overcome hunger in a short time Indeed, improved cassava varieties (white-fleshed) because it takes about 8 months to mature, produces released under the nomenclature of “NASE” were grown 10–12 roots per plant and yields higher than other by few of the respondents, except for NASE 3 that had varieties in the same garden”. Relatedly, women relatively high frequency among men (45.0%) and women recounted that “we like the yellow color of its roots (47.6%). Other common cassava cultivars grown in Busia and food prepared from those roots makes one eas- included “magana”, “mercury”, “lodelado”, “dodo” and ily satisfied. Also, less amount of flour is required “mufumba chai”. Overall, the relationship between vari- to prepare sufficient food for the family because its eties grown and gender categories was non-significant flour easily absorbs water; in addition, the floor from (X = 78.7; P = 0.454). Again, these findings clearly illus - it has a nice aroma”. trate non-specific preference of cassava varieties by men, women and youth, i.e. a variety is universally accepted by Compared to their male counterparts, female youth the community. showed stronger preference for early maturity, high fresh root yield, good flour quality and tolerance to diseases. Attributes influencing preference for yellow‑root cassava Overall, men and the male youth showed high preference among men, women and youth for shorter maturity time, while women and female youth There were several good qualities attributed to the yel - tended to prefer the yellow cultivar because of its high low-root cassava landrace “yellow” that was commonly root yields. Meanwhile, preference for flour quality was grown in Busia. In particular, early maturity, high fresh highest (40%) among the female youth (40%) and least root yield and tolerance to diseases, notably cassava among men (16.7%). Drought tolerance was another pre- mosaic disease; these attributes (or traits) were preferred ferred attribute marginally mentioned by respondents, across the gender groups (Table  4). Generally, men and notably male youth (11.1%) and men (5.3%). Similarly, Table 3 Cassava varieties grown by the different gender categories Variety Men (%) Women (%) Male youth (%) Female youth (%) Overall (%) Yellow cassava 90.0 100 94.7 85.0 92.5 Magana 75.0 66.7 57.9 70.0 67.5 NASE 3 45.0 47.6 5.3 25.0 31.3 Mercury 30.0 42.9 10.5 5.0 22.5 NASE (improved) 10.0 19.1 21.1 10.0 15.0 Lodelado 20.0 9.5 0.0 0.0 7.5 Dodo 5.0 9.5 0.0 0.0 3.75 Mufumba Chai 5.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 2.5 Chi-square test for food crops grown and gender: χ = 78.77 , P = 0.454 Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 5 of 9 Table 4 Attributes of yellow-root cassava considered good and poor by respondents Attribute Men (%) Women (%) Male youth (%) Female youth (%) Overall (%) Good qualities Early maturity 77.8 58.8 78.9 75.0 72.9 High root yield 50.0 70.6 31.6 50.0 50.0 Good flour quality 16.7 23.5 26.3 40.0 27.0 Disease tolerance 16.7 11.8 15.8 25.0 17.6 Drought tolerance 5.3 0.0 11.1 0.0 4.0 Extended shelf-life 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 Poor qualities Low dry matter 63.2 65.0 45.0 60.0 58.2 Bitter fresh roots 57.9 45.0 70.0 55.0 57.0 Disease susceptibility 21.1 50.0 25.0 25.0 30.4 Poor soil storability 21.1 30.0 15.0 20.0 21.5 Low root yield 10.5 30.0 15.0 20.0 18.9 extended shelf-life was considered marginal as reflected were largely involved in land preparation and selling of by 5.6% of the male respondents; other respondents cassava produce. In general, the youth played support- hardly mentioned it (Table 4). ive roles to both men and women, with female youth On the other hand, some qualities of the “yellow” cul- more involved in food preparation, while the male youth tivar were considered poor and thus disliked by farmers largely participated in land preparation. Relatedly, it was in the different gender categories. Top on the list of poor noted that decision-making on which varieties to grow qualities was low dry matter content and bitter taste of varied among the different gender groups. fresh roots, with more than 55% of respondents express- ing dislike for these traits (Table  4). Ironically, 50% of Predictors of willingness to grow yellow‑root cassava women respondents indicated disease susceptibility as a Results of the logistic regression indicate that female poor quality attribute, contrasting the results under good youth were six times more likely to grow yellow-root cas- quality attributes. Similarly, low root yield was regarded sava than any other gender group (Table 5). Married peo- as a poor attribute by 18.9% of the respondents, which ple were also more willing to grow yellow-root cassava again, contrasted with its good attributes highlighted than those who were not married. Relatedly, respondents above. Relatively larger proportions of women (30%) and that attained secondary education were six times more female youth (20%) considered poor storability of roots likely to cultivate yellow-root cassava than those who in soil as a major drawback of the “yellow” cultivar. Over- only attended primary education. all, men and women had similar opinions on poor quality attributes of cultivar yellow during FGDs. Discussion For example, men said that “Yellow is not good for in- Empirical data to demonstrate the resilience of cassava soil storage, so one cannot do piece meal harvest. Yellow in Africa revealed that the crop will be more positively also has watery roots, which shrink during drying. In impactful in many areas of Africa than other staples [4, fact, roots of Yellow are bitter and cannot be eaten fresh, 29]. This is a positive outlook, although it also presents as they make our stomach pain”. Similarly, women nar- some intrinsic challenges. Diets that heavily depend on rated that “yellow has watery roots that take several days starchy staples such as cassava are highly vulnerable to to dry, especially during wet season. Further, its roots are VAD. Indeed, such micronutrient deficiency problems bitter when eaten fresh, do not stay long in the soil and are commonplace in peasant families, where nutritious the plants are susceptible to pests and diseases”. foods in the form of animal products, fruits and vegeta- bles are very rare [13]. In extreme cases, severe VAD in Role of different gender categories in cassava production children and women of reproductive age increases their and utilization susceptibility to preventable diseases [30]. Worse still, in Overall, women were more engaged in the bulk of cas- remote parts of developing countries (including Uganda), sava production activities than any other gender group. interventions to minimize VAD through use of supple- In particular, women were largely involved in sourcing mentation and/or food fortification are not practical. planting materials, planting, weeding, harvesting, pro- It is this landscape of challenges that strongly justifies cessing and food preparation (Fig.  1). In parallel, men the urgent need to breed and deploy nutrient-rich crop Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 6 of 9 Fig. 1 Role of different gender categories in cassava production, processing and marketing varieties to vulnerable communities [12]. Such concerted potato were other crops commonly grown for food in efforts will contribute towards attainment of sustain - Busia, which indicated heavy reliance of diets on starchy able development goals particularly, goal 2 that focuses staples and thus increased vulnerability to VAD. Effec - on improved nutrition and promotion of sustainable tively, Busia would be a primary target for potential dis- agriculture. semination of provitamin A cassava varieties in future. uTh s, this pioneer study sought to gather informa - Despite the high economic value of cassava, most cul- tion on knowledge and perceptions of men, women and tivars grown in Busia, including the yellow-root type, youth on yellow-root cassava, to provide frameworks for were landraces. Although some Ugandan farmers tend systematic varietal development and eventual deploy- to continuously cultivate landraces for various specific ment of improved provitamin A cassava. It is understood traits, such cultivars are often highly susceptible to dis- that, among the key constraints facing cassava produc- eases [32] and thus leading to low on-farm productivity. tion, participation of men and women produces different Busia is noted to be among areas with high incidence of benefits and gains across the entire value chain [24]. For CBSD [33], and continuous exposure of such landraces to this purpose, this study was conducted in Busia, where the viral diseases could result to widespread crop failure yellow cassava varieties had been reported before [16]. and ultimate food insecurity in the area. Such a situation Indeed, results indicated that crop production was the illustrates an opportunity to amplify efforts towards dis - most important economic activity in Busia, with cassava semination of improved cassava varieties to enhance pro- as the most predominant crop cultivated in the district. duction in areas with low access to such varieties. An important feature of the study area was the active Good qualities associated with the landraces, particu- engagement of youth in cassava production, which is larly the “yellow” cultivar, were listed. Overall, men and acknowledged to help eliminate generation gap for sus- male youth had preference for early-maturing cassava, tainability of the food supply chain [31]. Maize and sweet while women and the female youth expressed strong Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 7 of 9 Table 5 Predictors of  willingness to  grow yellow-root cassava may explain this observation. Iglesias et  al. [34] cassava production (N = 81) and Chávez et  al. [35] have previously demonstrated the effectiveness of using root colour to select for high carot - Variable Willingness to grow yellow‑root cassava enoids content in cassava. More recently, Njoku et  al. b c (OR) (CI ) [36] and Esuma et  al. [17] reported higher total carot- enoids content in yellow-pigmented cassava roots than Age 1.06 (0.95–1.19) in white-cream roots. Carotenoids such as beta-carotene Gender a are precursors to vitamin A. The ability to discriminate Male youth (ref ) 1.00 cassava varieties visually would be an incentive to farm- Male youth versus female youth 6.40 (0.85–48.41)* ers, as nutritious cultivars would be easily distinguished Male youth versus men 0.36 (0.02–7.81) using the root pigmentation. In fact, this practice has Male youth versus women 8.28 (0.12–58. 16) proved to be helpful in dissemination of orange-fleshed Marital status sweet potato [20, 37]. Inevitably, future efforts targeting Single (ref ) 1.00 dissemination of yellow-root cassava will need to adopt Single versus married 0.56 (0.12–2.65)* multi-stakeholder approach to incorporate nutrition edu- Educational status cation as a strong and integral component of such pro- Primary 1.00 grammes. Accordingly, women and female youth need to Primary versus secondary 5.45 (1.02–29.04)* be a major focus of such nutrition interventions, as they Primary versus no formal education 0.07 (0.01–1.20) tend to be more engaged in cassava production and pro- Main occupation cessing, including key activities such as seed acquisition Other activities 1.00 and food preparation. Despite this, respondents were Other activities versus crop farming 0.30 (0.30–2.97) able to identify some positive attributes of yellow-root Years of growing cassava 0.99 (0.75–1.32) cassava, notable of which included early maturity, high Access to extension service 0.28 (0.03–1.97) fresh root yield and tolerance to drought. Such diver- * Significant at 5% sity in farmer-preference attributes justifies the need for Reference category undertaking participatory variety selection mindful of Odd ratio gender dynamics in such communities, as farmers are Confidence interval aware of their preferences. Men, women and youth engaged in this study noted two poor quality attributes of yellow-root cultivar grown preference for high-yielding cultivars. These trends are in Busia and should be primary considerations for cas- a probable reflection of social differences between men sava-breeding programmes targeting to deploy improved and women owing to the economic values they attach to varieties. Firstly, the low dry matter content, which nega- cassava. It is very likely that men largely produce cassava tively impacts on processing output and flour quality. for commercial benefits, which relates well to their role The tendency of low dry matter content in cassava roots in selling the produce from cassava. Meanwhile, women with high levels of carotenoid content has previously tended to attach more value to food security, as reflected been reported by [36, 38]. In Latin America, this nega- in their preference for high root yields and participation tive relationship is non-existent owing to germplasm and in processing roots for food. However, such socially con- evaluations methods employed [39]. Breaking these neg- structed gender roles and household relations have also ative correlations constitutes a major research gap that been reported to limit women’s participation in com- is currently being addressed. Secondly, the bitter taste mercial cassava production in Nigeria and Malawi [21]. of fresh roots of cassava is a probable reflection of high Such results indicate an overall need for development cyanogenic potential, which results in accumulation of projects targeted to enable women benefit from agricul - high levels of hydrogen cyanide when cells are crushed tural markets. On their part, plant breeders could exploit or bruised; it is a toxic biochemical compound that accu- improved genetic stocks with good attributes to develop mulates in some genotypes [40]. Bitter cassava roots provitamin A cassava varieties for wide adoption across will need to be processed, mainly through fermenta- different gender groups. Alternatively, elite germplasm tion and/or sun drying, to reduce the cyanide content to could be accessed from elsewhere and evaluated for pos- non-toxic levels before consumption. Unfortunately, the sible adaptation and adoption after successful evaluation. high labour requirements for such processing methods Results further indicated that none of the respondents tend to rest on women and youth, limiting their time for associated yellow-root cassava with nutritional benefits other necessary socio-economic activities [24]. Besides, of vitamin A; the low education levels and/or lack of pub- the processing methods to remove hydrogen cyanide licity campaigns on the nutritional value of yellow-root Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 8 of 9 Competing interests are associated with significant reduction in carotenoid The authors declare that they have no competing interests. content in the roots, essentially reducing the nutritional benefits to the target consumers [41]. For cassava bio - Availability of data and materials Data that support findings of this study are available upon request through fortification to yield meaningful results and create the the corresponding author. desired nutritional impact, it is imperative that provita- min A varieties targeted for release have non-toxic levels Consent for publication Not applicable. of hydrogen cyanide to encourage consumption of roots with minimal processing, such as boiling. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Funding Conclusion This study was jointly supported by funds from the Next Generation Cassava This study reports a pioneer effort to dissect gender Breeding project (www.nextg encas sava.org) and the Gender Responsive Researchers Equipped for Agricultural Transformation project (www.great agric constraints and opportunities for cassava production ultur e.org). and utilization in Uganda, with particular focus on yel- low-root cassava cultivars. Though data were generated Publisher’s Note from few respondents relative to, three key findings were Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- apparent: (1) a general acceptance and willingness among lished maps and institutional affiliations. men, women and youth to cultivate yellow-root cassava; Received: 20 August 2018 Accepted: 13 March 2019 (2) trait preferences of provitamin A cassava were largely similar among men, women and youth, with early matu- rity, high fresh root yield and high dry matter mentioned as the most desired attributes; and (3) need for specially References designed educational campaigns on the nutritional ben- 1. Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, Foley JA. Farming the planet: geographic distribution of crop areas, yields, physiological types, and net primary efits of yellow-root cassava, which should further guide production in the year 2000. Glob Biogeochem Cycles. 2008;22(1):1–19. processing methods in order to realize intended benefits 2. Tan SL. Cassava—silently, the tuber fills: the lowly cassava, regarded as a to consumers. Importantly, these results provide strong poor man’s crop, may help save the world from the curse of plastic pollu- tion. Utar Agric Sci J. 2015;1(2):12–24. motivations towards breeding provitamin A cassava vari- 3. FAOSTAT. Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations sta- eties that have farmer-preferred traits in the background tistics. 2016 10 April 2017; http://data.fao.org/ref/262b7 9ca-279c-4517- of disease resistance, an output that will be attained 93de-ee3b7 c7cb5 53. 4. Jarvis A, Ramirez-Villegas J, Herrera Campo BV, Navarro-Racines C. Is through undertaking participatory variety selection tri- cassava the answer to African climate change adaptation? Trop Plant Biol. als. Equally important is the urgent need to broaden the 2012;5(1):9–29. scope of the study, being mindful of the entire cassava 5. Alicai T, Omongo CA, Maruthi MN, Hillocks RJ, Baguma Y, Kawuki R, Bua A, Otim-Nape GW, Colvin J. Re-emergence of cassava brown streak disease value chain actors. in Uganda. Plant Dis. 2007;91(1):24–9. 6. Knox J, Hess T, Daccache A, Wheeler T. Climate change impacts on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia. Environ Res Lett. 2012;7(3):8. Abbreviations 7. Abele S, Twine E, Ntawuruhunga P, Baguma Y, Kanobe C, Bua A. Devel- CBSD: cassava brown streak disease; FGD: focus group discussion; KII: key opment and dissemination of improved cassava varieties in Uganda: informant interview; NaCRRI: National Crops Resources Research Institute; analysis of adoption rates, variety attributes and speed of adoption. In NARO: National Agricultural Research Organization; SSA: sub-Saharan Africa; AAAE Ghana conference. Accra; 2007. VAD: vitamin A deficiency. 8. Sims B, Kienzle J. Making mechanization accessible to smallholder farm- ers in sub-Saharan Africa. Environments. 2016;3(11):18. Authors’ contributions 9. Abass A, Amaza P, Bachwenkizi B, Wanda K, Agona A, Cromme N. The WE designed the study and wrote the manuscript; ARN developed the impact of mechanized processing of cassava on farmers’ production study tools and edited the manuscript; RM provided technical guidance and efficiency in Uganda. Appl Econ Lett. 2017;24(2):102–6. reviewed the manuscript; SA analysed data and edited the manuscript; RSK 10. Salvador EM, Steenkamp V, McCrindle CME. Production, consumption provided in-depth review and edited the manuscript. All authors read and and nutritional value of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) in Mozam- approved the final manuscript. bique: an overview. J Agric Biotechnol Sustain Dev. 2014;6(3):29–38. 11. Stephenson K, Amthor R, Mallowa S, Nungo R, Maziya-Dixon B, Gichuki S, Author details Mbanaso A, Manary M. Consuming cassava as a staple food places chil- National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), 9 km Gayaza-Zirobwe dren 2–5 years old at risk for inadequate protein intake, an observational Road, P.O. Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda. Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, study in Kenya and Nigeria. Nutr J. 2010;9:9. Kampala, Uganda. 12. Pfeiffer WH, McClafferty B. HarvestPlus: breeding crops for better nutri- tion. Crop Science. 2007;47(S):88–105. Acknowledgements 13. Mayer JE, Pfeiffer WH, Beyer P. Biofortified crops to alleviate micronutrient The authors are grateful to the technical staff of NaCRRI that administered the malnutrition. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2008;11(2):166–70. questionnaires to capture required data from respondents. Furthermore, we 14. Nassar NMA, Ortiz R. Breeding cassava to feed the poor. Sci Am J. thank the gender experts implementing the GREAT Project for their technical 2010;302(5):78–82. guidance during design of this study. 15. Hefferon KL. Nutritionally enhanced food crops; progress and perspec- tives. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16(2):3895–914. Esuma et al. Agric & Food Secur (2019) 8:10 Page 9 of 9 16. Esuma W, Rubaihayo P, Pariyo A, Kawuki R, Wanjala B, Nzuki I, Harvey JJW, 29. Ceballos H, Ramirez J, Bellotti AC, Jarvis A, Alvarez A. Adaptation of cas- Baguma Y. Genetic diversity of provitamin A cassava in Uganda. J Plant sava to changing climates. In: Yadav SS, et al., editors. Crop adaptation to Stud. 2012;1(1):60–71. climate change. Hoboken: Blackwell; 2011. p. 411–25. 17. Esuma W, Kawuki R, Herselman L, Labuschagne MT. Stability and geno- 30. Sommer A. Vitamin A deficiency and clinical disease: an historical over - type by environment interaction of provitamin A carotenoid and dry view. J Nutr. 2008;138:1835–9. matter content in cassava in Uganda. Breed Sci. 2016;66:434–43. 31. Butt TM, Hassan MZY, Sahi ST, Atiq M, Jabbar A, Ahmad I, Luqman M, 18. Talsma EF, Melse-Boonstra A, de Kok BP, Mbera GN, Mwangi AM, Brouwer Shafique W. Role of rural youth in agricultural and rural development: a ID. Biofortified cassava with pro-vitamin A is sensory and culturally self perceived case study of Okara District, Punjab, Pakistan. J Agric Ext acceptable for consumption by primary school children in Kenya. PLoS Rural Dev. 2011;3(2):23–8. ONE. 2013;8(8):e73433. 32. Abaca A, Kawuki R, Tukamuhabwa P, Baguma Y, Pariyo A, Alicai T, Omongo 19. Njoku DN, Egesi CN, Gracen VE, Oei SK ff , Asante IK, Danquah EY. Identi- CA, Bua A. Evaluation of local and elite cassava genotypes for resistance fication of pro-vitamin A cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) varieties for to cassava brown streak disease. Uganda J Agron. 2012;11:65–72. adaptation and adoption through participatory research. J Crop Improv. 33. Kathurima TM, Nyende AB, Kiarie SM, Ateka EM. Genetic diversity and 2014;28(3):361–76. distribution of Cassava Brown Streak Virus and Ugandan Cassava Brown 20. Tumuhimbise GA, Namutebi A, Turyashemererwa F, Muyonga J. Provita- Streak Virus in major cassava-growing regions in Kenya. Ann Res Rev Biol. min A crops: acceptability, bioavailability, efficacy and effectiveness. Food 2016;10(5):1–9. Nutr Sci. 2013;4(4):430–5. 34. Iglesias CA, Meyer J, Chávez AL, Calle F. Genetic potential and stability of 21. Forsythe L, Posthumus H, Marti A. A crop of one’s own? women’s experi- carotene content in cassava roots. Euphytica. 1997;94:367–73. ences of cassava commercialization in Nigeria and Malawi. J Gend Agric 35. Chávez AL, Bedoya JM, Sánchez T, Iglesias CA, Ceballos H, Roca W. Iron, Food Secur. 2016;1(2):110–28. carotene, and ascorbic acid in cassava roots and leaves. Food Nutr Bull. 22. Bentley J, Olanrewaju A, Madu T, Olaosebikan O, Abdoulaye T, Wossen T, 2000;21(4):410–4. Manyong V, Kulakow P, Ayedun B, Ojide B, Girma G, Rabbi IY, Ashu- 36. Njoku DN, Gracen VE, Oei SK ff , Asante IK, Egesi CN, Kulakow P, Ceballos mugha G, Tokula M. Cassava farmers’ preferences for varieties and seed H. Parent-offspring regression analysis for total carotenoids and some dissemination system in Nigeria: gender and regional perspectives. IITA agronomic traits in cassava. Euphytica. 2015;206:657–66. Monograph; 2017. p. 90. 37. Laurie SM, Magoro MD. Evaluation and release of new sweet potato vari- 23. Olaoye G, Ajala SO, Adedeji SA. Participatory selection of a maize (Zea eties through farmer participatory selection. Afr J Agric Res. 2008;3:672–6. mays L.) variety for the control of stem borers in a southeastern Nigeria 38. Esuma W, Kawuki R, Herselman L, Labuschagne MT. Diallel analysis of location. J Food Agric Environ. 2009;7(2):508–12. provitamin A carotenoid and dry matter content in cassava (Manihot 24. Ahmadu J, Idisi PO. Gendered participation in cassava value chain in esculenta Crantz). Breed Sci. 2016;66:627–35. Nigeria. Merit Res J Agric Sci Soil Sci. 2014;2(11):147–53. 39. Ceballos H, Morante N, Sánchez T, Ortiz D, Aragón I, Chávez AL, Pizarro M, 25. Freistas H, Oliveira M, Jenkins M, Popjoy O. The focus group, a qualitative Calle F, Dufour D. Rapid cycling recurrent selection for increased carot- research method: reviewing the theory and providing guidelines to its enoids content in cassava roots. Crop Sci. 2013;53(6):23–42. planning. ISRC working paper; 1998. pp. 010298:22. 40. Cereda MP, Mattos MCY. Linamarin: the toxic compound of cassava. J 26. Elo S, Kyngas H. The qualitative content analysis process. J Adv Nurs. Venom Anim Toxins. 1996;2(2):06–12. 2007;62(1):107–15. 41. Chavez AL, Sanchez T, Ceballos H, Rodriguez-Amaya DB, Nestel Tohme J, 27. StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 13. College Station, Ishitani M. Retention of carotenoids in cassava roots submitted to differ - 2013;TX:StataCorp LP. ent processing methods. J Sci Food Agric. 2007;87:388–93. 28. Peng C, Lee KL, Ingersoll GM. An introduction to logistic regression analy- sis and reporting. J Educ Res. 2002;96:14. Ready to submit your research ? Choose BMC and benefit from: fast, convenient online submission thorough peer review by experienced researchers in your field rapid publication on acceptance support for research data, including large and complex data types • gold Open Access which fosters wider collaboration and increased citations maximum visibility for your research: over 100M website views per year At BMC, research is always in progress. Learn more biomedcentral.com/submissions

Journal

Agriculture & Food Security – Springer Journals

Published: Mar 22, 2019

There are no references for this article.