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Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-016-0035-8 Improving maize production through nitrogen supply from ten rarely-used organic resources in Ghana . . . Samuel T. Partey Naresh V. Thevathasan Robert B. Zougmore Richard F. Preziosi Received: 14 July 2015 / Accepted: 14 October 2016 / Published online: 20 October 2016 The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Where there is limited availability of mineralization was studied in the laboratory using an conventional fertilizers, the use of organic materials incubation experiment. Field trials were also estab- is considered a viable alternative to increase the lished using a randomized complete block design. -1 productive capacity of soils. Many potential plant Plant residues were applied at 5 t dry matter ha a residues remain underutilized due to limited research week before planting maize while fertilizer was split- -1 on their use as a nutrient source. In this study, the applied at 90 kg N ha on designated plots. From the nitrogen supplying capabilities of ten rarely-used leaf results on plant residue chemistry, most of the plant biomass sources (Acacia auriculiformis, Baphia residues recorded relatively high N concentration -1 nitida, Albizia zygia, Azadirachta indica, Senna (C24.9 g kg ) and low C/N ratio (B20.1) although siamea, Senna spectabilis, Tithonia diversifolia, Gli- neither N content nor C/N ratio significantly (p [ 0.05) ricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala and Zea mays) affected their N mineralization patterns. Leaf biomass were tested based on their nutrient content, N miner- application of B. nitida, A. auriculiformis, A. zygia and alization patterns and effect on maize yield (in maize stover resulted in an initial net N immobilization comparison with inorganic fertilizer). N that lasted for 14 days. Application of all plant materials significantly increased the biological yield and N uptake of maize with G. sepium and T. diversifolia producing the greatest impact especially S. T. Partey (&) in the major rainy season. Relative to the control, total Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, grain yield after four cropping seasons was comparable -1 Ghana between inorganic fertilizer (9.2 t ha ), G. sepium e-mail: stpartey@gmail.com; -1 -1 (8.8 t ha ) and T. diversifolia (9.4 t ha ) treatments. S.Partey@cgiar.org The results on maize biological yield were significantly N. V. Thevathasan correlated with the effects of the treatments on N School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, uptake. The findings suggest that in locations where Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada inorganic fertilizers are limited, leaf biomass from G. sepium and T. diversifolia could offer the most S. T. Partey R. B. Zougmore´ International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid suitable option in comparison with the other species Tropics (ICRISAT), Bamako, Mali used in this study. R. F. Preziosi Keywords Organic agriculture Soil fertility Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Maize production Underutilized species Manchester, UK 123 376 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 Introduction status and improves soil moisture retention (Chivenge et al. 2011; Makumba et al. 2006). Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important staple crop in most In Ghana, the use of organic resources is included in of Africa and accounts for more than 50 percent of total soil management practices but many potential plant cereal production in the region. Ragasa et al. (2013) residues remain underutilized due to limited research reports that the bulk of maize produced goes into food and knowledge transfer (Partey et al. 2011; Partey and consumption in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) making it an Thevathasan 2013). Their utilization could comple- important crop for food security. The development and ment and contribute to solving nutrient deficiencies productivity of the livestock and poultry sectors also due to limited application of inorganic fertilizers. depend on the maize value chain since maize is a major Some of these organic resources are the leaf biomasses component of poultry and livestock feed (Ragasa 2014). of Acacia auriculiformis, Baphia nitida, Albizia zygia, Despite the availability of improved germplasm, aver- Azadirachta indica, Senna siamea, Senna spectabilis, age maize yield in SSA remains one of the lowest (1.6 t Tithonia diversifolia, Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena -1 ha ) in the world (FAOSTAT 2010). In most parts of leucocephala. Despite having limited use in Ghanaian SSA, soil fertility decline is a major reason for the low cropping systems, studies in Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda yields of major food crops including maize. Unsustain- and other parts of SSA have shown that leaf biomass able farming activities have severely depleted soil application increase crop yields even on depleted soils nutrients throughout much of the farming regions. (Beedy et al. 2010; Ikerra et al. 2007; Mucheru-Muna Although fertilizer consumption increased steadily in et al. 2014; Nziguheba et al. 2000). Biomass transfers recent times in SSA (Sommer et al. 2013), average from these species could therefore contribute to the fertilizer use rates are still considered too low and development of sustainable soil improvement prac- ineffective for sustaining crop production and main- tices that improve and sustain crop production for taining soil fertility (Gruhn et al. 2000; Ragasa et al. smallholder farmers in Ghana. However, the develop- 2013). A recent survey identified factors including high ment and adoption of such soil fertility improvement costs of fertilizers due to removal of subsidies, lack of practices will be influenced by research results that access to fertilizers and inefficient marketing systems as reveal the viability of organic sources for improving the major constraints to the sub-optimal application of soil fertility (particularly N availability) and crop fertilizers (Chapoto and Ragasa 2013;FAO 2012). yields. It was therefore the objective of this study to With the limited availability of conventional fertiliz- determine the N supplying capabilities of rarely-used ers, the use of organic materials is considered a viable plant residues for maize production in Ghana. The alternative to increase the productive capacity of soils. In selection of the plant materials were based on their SSA, the use of organic resources is identified as a relative abundance at the study location, experimental mainstream opportunity for agricultural development in evidence of their use as organic fertilizers in SSA the region due to their relative availability (Partey and (Gachengo et al. 1999; Jama et al. 2000; Partey et al. Thevathasan 2013). The most common organic resources 2011), their residue N concentrations and underutilized employed in soil fertility programs in SSA include plant status for soil management at the study location (Partey residues, green manure sources of leguminous crops, and Thevathasan 2013). The research was based on the animal manure, mulches and tree/shrub prunings from hypothesis that with increased net N mineralization agroforestry practices (Partey et al. 2011). Animal from the leaf biomass of the tested species, the manures are bulky, have unpleasant scent and have high biological yield of maize will increase because of a potential for harbouring pathogens (Bernal et al. 2009; resultant increase in N availability and uptake. Crutzen et al. 2008) making the use of plant residue sources the preferable option. Recent research of high quality plant residues (with relatively high N concentra- Materials and methods tion and low C/N ratio) appliedtoagriculturalfields indicated tremendous yield increase for major food crops Study site in SSA (Beedy et al. 2010). The addition of such organic resources to the soil reportedly improves soil tempera- The study was conducted at the agroforestry demon- ture, enhances soil structure, maintains high soil nutrient stration field of the Faculty of Renewable Natural 123 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 377 Resources (FRNR), Kwame Nkrumah University of hydrometer method, total N was determined by dry TM Science and Technology, Kumasi (KNUST), Ghana, combustion using a LECO TruSpec CN autoana- located at Lat 01 43N and Long 01 36W. The lyzer (LECO Corporation), organic carbon was deter- research area had been fallowed for five years prior to mined by the dichromate oxidation method (Motsara the execution of this study. The area falls within the and Roy 2008), cation exchange capacity was mea- moist semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana and is sured using flame photometry of ammonium acetate characterized by a bimodal rainfall pattern, with the extracts, available P by the ammonium phospho- major wet season between May and July. This area molybdate method and available K by flame photom- also experiences a short dry season in August and a etry (Toth and Prince 1949). The initial long one between December and March. The annual physicochemical properties of the soil at the study -1 rainfall of the area ranges between 1250 and location were: pH (4.6), total N (0.42 g kg ), avail- -1 -1 1500 mm. The area is characterized by a mean annual able P (2.1 mg kg ), available K (224.0 mg kg ), -1 -1 temperature of 26.6 C. Precipitation data recorded organic C (13.8 g kg ), CEC (5.8 cmol kg ), sand during the research period is shown in Fig. 1. Soil type (67.6 %), silt (28.4 %) and clay (4.0 %). at study site is a ferric acrisol. Plant residue quality and N mineralization study Initial soil characterization Plant residue characterization Prior to establishing the field experiment, soil samples were randomly collected from the surface 20 cm from Organic resources used in the experiment were the leaf 16 locations at the site for characterization using a biomass of A. auriculiformis, B. nitida, A. zygia, A. stainless steel soil auger (25 inch. in diameter). The indica, S. siamea, S. spectabilis, T. diversifolia, G. samples were composited and homogenized into one sepium, Z. mays and L. leucocephala. Table 1 presents sample. They were then air-dried and sieved to 2-mm a summary of the botany, growth habits and general before being sub-divided into four sub-samples for uses of the species used in the experiment. In order to analysis. Soil pH was measured with a glass electrode characterize the plant residues for quality parameters, (1: 1 H O), particle size was determined using the portions of their leaf biomass including soft stems Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Aprl May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec 2013 2014 Months Fig. 1 Monthly rainfall distribution recorded during the experimental periods in 2013 and 2014. Data points are the means of three replicates Mean Rainfall (mm) 378 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 were oven dried at 65 C for 72 h, ground with a treatments was calculated by subtracting the inorganic grinder and sieved to 0.5 mm. The sieved plant N of the unamended control from amended soils at materials were analyzed for total N, P, K, Ca, Mg each sampling time (Abbasi and Khizar 2012; Sistani and C in four replicates. For all analyses, total N and C et al. 2008). were determined simultaneously by dry combustion TM using a LECO TruSpec CN autoanalyzer (LECO Field experiment Corporation) while total K, Ca, and Mg were deter- mined by the dry ashing and atomic absorption The field experiment was conducted in four continu- spectrophotometry as described by Eneji et al. ous planting seasons: major rainy season of 2013, (2005). Phosphorus was also determined in an ash minor rainy season of 2013, major rainy season of solution by the ammonium phosphomolybdate method 2014 and minor rainy season of 2014. For both years, (Motsara and Roy 2008). The general chemical major rainy season experiments were conducted characteristics of all plant materials used are reported between June and August while minor rainy season in Table 2. experiments were conducted between September and November. The experiment was first set up during the Quantification of N mineralization with plant residue major rainy season of 2013 using a randomized application complete block design with four replicates. The treatments included a control; leaf biomass sources -1 An incubation experiment was performed under of each plant (all applied at 5 t dry matter ha ); and laboratory-controlled conditions to determine N min- mineral fertilizer applied at a recommended rate of -1 eralization from the selected plant residues. Briefly, 90 kg N ha (Partey et al. 2014a). Fresh leaf -1 125 mg (equivalent to 5 t ha ) of 0.5 mm sieved biomasses of the species (including soft stems) were dried and ground leaf biomass of each plant were harvested from nearby fields at the study location for mixed with 50 g of 2 mm sieved sandy-loam soil in the planting seasons in which leaf biomass treatments 250 ml beakers and incubated in the dark at 28 C for were imposed. Each treatment was allocated to a plot 84 days. Unamended soil was used as a control. There size of 3.2 m 9 3.2 m. There were 44 plots in all. The were 24 beakers for every treatment. Prior to amend- tree leaf biomass was generally applied in whole with ing the soil, the soil was preconditioned by moistening random cuts into smaller pieces where necessary. The to 50 % water holding capacity for 5 days. This was biomass was surface applied on designated plots by done to stabilize microbial activities (Xiang et al. hand and incorporated by hoeing a week before -1 2008). The beakers were covered with aluminium foil planting. The 90 kg N ha inorganic fertilizer treat- to prevent rapid loss of water due to evaporation. Soil ment (in the form of urea) was split applied on the moisture content was checked by weighing every designated plots at 7 days after planting (DAP) and 30 other day and the weight loss was replaced by addition DAP using 40 and 60 % of the total fertilizer of distilled water. The moisture content was kept respectively. To reduce the effects of P deficiency, constant at 50 % water holding capacity of the soil all 44 plots received one time basal P application (in throughout the experiment. Nitrogen mineralization the form of triple superphosphate) at a rate of -1 was determined by measuring the production of 60 kg ha 7 DAP. The experimental treatments were ? - mineral N (NH ? NO ) at 3, 7, 14, 28, 56, and applied in only the first three seasons: major rainy 4 3 84 days of incubation. Ammonium and nitrate were season of 2013, minor rainy season of 2013; and major determined by extracting 25 g of moist soil with 2 M rainy season of 2014. In the fourth cropping season KCl at a 1: 4 soil and extractant ratio. Ammonium and (minor rainy season of 2014), the residual effects of nitrate in the KCl extract were determined by the the treatments were evaluated (no plant residue indophenol blue and phenoldisulphonic acid methods treatments or fertilizer applied). During planting, four respectively (Motsara and Roy 2008). All measure- maize seeds (of a local variety named ‘obatampa’) ments were done by sampling four beakers per were sown per hill at 0.4 9 0.8 m spacing and thinned treatment on every sampling period. Analysis was to two plants per hill within 2 weeks. Thinning was done separately for each soil sample in a beaker. Net done to ensure that plants left in the field had uniform cumulative N mineralized from the different growth. As much as possible, confounding effects of 123 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 379 Table 1 Botanical information and general uses of the species used in the experiment Scientific name Common name (s) Family Description Climate range Uses References Baphia nitida Camwood/African Fabaceae Shrub; grows to Tropical Source of dye, Chong sandalwood about 10 m in fodder, soil et al. the forest improvement, (2009) ornamental and medicinal Albizia zygia Igbo (nyie avu); Swahili Fabaceae A deciduous Tropical Fodder, timber, Orwa et al. (nongo); Yoruba (ayin tree; grows to source of (2009) rela) about 30 m tannins, soil improvement, erosion control, fuelwood Tithonia Mexican sunflower, tree Asteraceae Fast growing Tropical Fodder, green ICRAF diversifolia marigold, Mexican shrub; grows manure for soil (1997) tournesol, Nitobe to about 3 m improvement, chrysanthemum tall. live fence, ornamental Senna Calceolaria shower, Fabaceae Shrub and Tropical and Apiculture, Orwa et al. spectabilis pisabed, cassia, yellow medium-sized tolerant of cool fodder, (2009) shower tree; grows to conditions fuelwood, soil about 15 m improvement, tall ornamental Gliricidia Gliricidia, tree of iron, St. Fabaceae Shrub; grows to Tropical Apiculture, Orwa et al. sepium Vincent plum, Mexican a height of fodder, (2009) lilac, mother of cocoa, 2–15 m fuelwood, soil quick stick, Nicaraguan improvement, cacao shade Leucaena Leucaena, Jumpy-bean, Fabaceae Shrub and Tropical Apiculture, Orwa et al. leucocephala wild tamarind, lead tree, medium-sized fodder, source (2009) white popinac, white tree; grows to of gum or leadtree, horse tamarind about 15 m resin; tall fuelwood, soil improvement Acacia Earpod wattle, Papuan Fabaceae An evergreen Mostly tropical Street Starr et al. auriculiformis wattle, auri, earleaf tree; grows to but also found landscaping, (2003) acacia, northern black about 15 m in some soil wattle, Darwin black tall temperate improvement, wattle ecologies as an fuelwood and introduced charcoal ornamental production Senna siamea Kassod tree, yellow cassia, Fabaceae A medium-size, Lowland tropics Source of tannin, Orwa et al. cassia, Thailand shower, evergreen tree with a monsoon fuelwood, (2009) thai copper pod, iron growing up to climate fodder, food, wood, Siamese senna, 18 m tall soil Bombay blackwood, improvement, black-wood cassia ornamental Azadirachta Neem Meliaceae Small to Lowland tropics Source of tannin Orwa et al. indica medium-sized and lipids, (2009) tree, usually fuelwood, evergreen, fodder, food, grows up to 15 soil (30 max.) m improvement, tall medicinal 123 380 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 Table 2 Chemical characteristics of plant materials used in the experiment Plant materials N P K Ca Mg C C/N -1 (g kg ) A. auriculiformis 20.5 ± 1.2 1.4 ± 0.1 19.0 ± 1.3 14.6 ± 1.2 3.3 ± 0.1 453.2 ± 3.7 22.1 ± 0.1 A. indica 21.2 ± 1.3 1.1 ± 0.0 13.3 ± 1.1 18.2 ± 1.4 4.7 ± 0.2 490.0 ± 4.3 23.1 ± 1.3 A. zygia 24.3 ± 2.0 2.2 ± 0.1 21.0 ± 2.1 15.4 ± 1.1 2.7 ± 0.1 479.0 ± 4.1 19.7 ± 1.2 B. nitida 39.2 ± 1.8 2.2 ± 0.1 23.0 ± 2.3 14.1 ± 1.4 2.3 ± 0.2 475.0 ± 5.0 12.1 ± 0.8 G. sepium 27.7 ± 1.1 2.9 ± 0.2 18.0 ± 1.5 7.9 ± 1.2 6.6 ± 0.2 455.3 ± 2.1 16.4 ± 1.2 L. leucocephala 24.6 ± 1.4 1.9 ± 0.1 19.0 ± 1.3 12.7 ± 1.1 6.3 ± 0.1 460.2 ± 2.3 18.7 ± 1.1 Maize stover 12.2 ± 1.3 1.2 ± 0.1 20.6 ± 1.7 4.2 ± 0.2 2.9 ± 0.1 420.0 ± 3.1 34.4 ± 1.1 S. siamea 18.2 ± 1.1 2.1 ± 0.1 21.0 ± 1.6 5.8 ± 0.1 3.3 ± 0.0 460.1 ± 2.6 25.3 ± 0.9 S. spectabilis 28.9 ± 1.6 2.5 ± 0.1 23.0 ± 1.4 6.4 ± 0.1 5.3 ± 0.1 451.2 ± 1.3 15.6 ± 1.0 T. diversifolia 32.6 ± 1.7 4.1 ± 0.2 41.0 ± 2.4 13.5 ± 1.3 9.1 ± 0.3 450.2 ± 1.2 13.8 ± 0.6 Values are the means of four replicates ± standard error crop residues were controlled by removing all maize the analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. Repeated biomass after every trial including the roots. measures analysis was used to determine seasonal effects and the effect of season and treatment inter- Determination of maize productivity and nutrient action on maize biological yield. Where test results uptake were significant, the least significant difference method was used for mean comparison at a 5 % At physiological maturity, all maize plants within probability level. Correlation and regression analyses 4-m were sampled. To determine stover yield, the were used to establish significant relationships among plants were uprooted from the soil after watering the measured parameters. All statistical analyses were surface soil. Uprooting plants was necessary to conducted with Genstat 12 software (VSN minimize confounding effects of crop residues. The International). above-ground residues were separated from the roots and oven dried in the laboratory at 65 C for 72 h. To determine nutrient uptake, samples of the oven-dried Results above-ground residue were ground to pass through a 0.5-mm sieve and analysed for N concentration. Plant residue quality and N mineralization patterns TM Nitrogen was determined using LECO TruSpec CN autoanalyzer (LECO Corporation). Nitrogen The C and nutrient content of the ten plant materials uptake was determined by multiplying the dry-matter used in the study are reported in Table 2. Nitrogen -1 yields by the N nutrient concentration of the above- ranged from 12.2 g kg in maize stover to -1 ground biomass. Grain yield was determined by 39.2 g kg in the leaf biomass of B. nitida. The collecting cobs into perforated harvesting bags and C/N ratio also ranged from 12.1 in B. nitida to 34.4 in sun drying over two weeks until the grain reached maize stover. Among the plant materials, leaf biomass 12.5 % moisture content (the acceptable moisture of T. diversifolia recorded the greatest level of P and content in most African markets) (Kurwakumire et al. K. Calcium concentration was lowest in maize stover 2014). while Mg content was significantly (p B 0.05) higher in T. diversifolia. Statistical analysis Figure 2 shows the N mineralization patterns of the plant materials used in the experiment. Immobiliza- Data on maize agronomic performance, nutrient tion occurred in soil amended with leave from A. uptake, and N mineralization were analysed using auriculiformis, A. zygia, B. nitida, maize stover and S. 123 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 381 siamea during the first 13 days of the incubation. leaf biomass application. With respect to the biolog- Nitrogen immobilization also occurred in A. indica for ical yield of maize, repeated measures analysis 3 days. The highest levels of net N mineralization showed significant (P \ 0.001) seasonal effects and were observed for soil amended with T. diversifolia, interaction with treatments (Table 4). Both grain and G. sepium, L. leucocephala and S. spectabilis. Cumu- stover yields of maize where greater during the major lative net N mineralization was significantly higher rainy season trials. During the major rainy season of -1 -1 with T. diversifolia (93.5 mg N kg ) at the end of the 2013, grain yield ranged from 1.0 to 3.1 t ha . incubation period (84 days). The net N mineralization Among treatments, grain yield was significantly rate in T. diversifolia was approximately higher on plots that received inorganic fertilizer or T. -1 -1 1.1 mg N kg day . Cumulative net N mineraliza- diversifolia leaf biomass (Table 5). Relative to the tion was comparable between G. sepium and L. control, grain yield in the major season of 2013 was leucocephala and lowest for A. auriculiformis, A. about 300 % greater with the application of either zygia, B. nitida, maize stover and S. siamea. A inorganic fertilizer or T. diversifolia leaf biomass. correlation and regression analysis indicated that Comparable results were also obtained during the cumulative net N mineralization of the plant materials 2013 major season for A. auriculiformis, A. zygia, B. were not significantly related to their initial N nitida, maize stover, and S. siamea. The effect of G. concentrations (r = 0.14, p = 0.28) or C/N ratios sepium leaf biomass aplication was comparable to that (r = 0.26, p = 0.14). of S. spectabilis, A. indica and L. leucocephala. In the minor season of 2013, grain yield ranged from 0.8 t -1 -1 Effects of treatments on N uptake and biological ha for the control to 2.2 t ha with the application yield of maize of T. diversifolia leaf biomass. Statistically, the greatest effects were obtained from plots that received Table 3 shows the nitrogen uptake of maize as inorganic fertilizer, G. sepium or T. diversifolia influenced by the treatments. In general, the applica- treatments. The effects of A. auriculiformis, A. zygia, tion of plant residues increased N uptake on all B. nitida, maize stover, and S. siamea were compa- amended plots. However, among treatments, N uptake rable and intermediate. Maize grain yield was also was significantly (p \ 0.001) higher on plots that significantly (p \ 0.001) higher with inorganic fertil- received either inorganic fertilizer or T. diversifolia izer, G. sepium and T. diversifolia treatments during Fig. 2 Cumulative net N Aa Ai Az Bn mineralization of ten plant Gs Ll Ms Ssi materials over 84 days of Ssp Td incubation under laboratory 100 controlled conditions. Data points are the means of four replicates. Error bars are 80 standard error of means. Aa Acacia auriculiformis, Az Albizia zygia, Ai Azadirachta indica, Bn Baphia nitida, GS Gliricidia sepium, Ll Leucaena leucocephala, Ms maize stover, Ssi Senna siamea, Ssp Senna spectabilis, Td Tithonia diversifolia -10 -20 3 8 13 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 73 7 8 8 3 88 Sampling time (days) -1 Net N mineralization (mg N kg ) 382 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 -1 Table 3 Nitrogen uptake (kg ha ) of maize as affected by fertilizer recorded the highest grain yield of maize inorganic fertilizer and plant residue treatments (Table 5). Among the cropping seasons, trials in the major rainy seasons of 2013 and 2014 recorded the Treatments N uptake -1 highest mean grain yield (approximately 2.2 t ha ). A. auriculiformis 40.3 ± 2.7 Similar to the results on grain yield, the application A. indica 47.4 ± 1.7 of treatments increased maize stover yield in all four A. zygia 36.8 ± 2.0 crop growing seasons (Table 6). Maize stover yield B. nitida 36.9 ± 1.2 was significantly (p \ 0.001) higher on plots that Control 15.6 ± 1.0 received inorganic fertilizer or T. diversifolia treat- Fertilizer 60.4 ± 3.4 ments. In 2014, maize stover yield ranged from 3.1 to -1 G. sepium 55.0 ± 2.5 6.1 t ha in the major rainy season and 2.1 to 4.7 t -1 L. leucocephala 50.6 ± 4.6 ha in the minor rainy season. Similar to the results in Maize stover 33.5 ± 1.7 2013, G. sepium, T. diversifolia and inorganic fertil- S. siamea 39.1 ± 3.4 izer recorded the highest effects in the 2014 major S. spectabilis 51.9 ± 1.5 season trial. The residual effects were generally T. diversifolia 61.7 ± 3.1 comparable among treatments. At the end of the four LSD 5.40 experimental trials, total stover yield ranged from 10.1 -1 -1 P value 0.001 tha for the control to 22.0 t ha for T. diversifolia. Values are the means of four replicates ± standard error LSD least significant difference Discussion Considering that crop production is a soil-based industry, agricultural technologies that improve soil Table 4 Repeated measures analysis for the effect of treat- ment and time on maize grain and stover yields fertility in agroecosystems have major implications for reducing hunger by enhancing crop yields. The use Variable Source of variation df MS P value of organic amendments is strongly recommended for Grain yield Treatment 11 2.19 \0.001 the highly weathered tropical soils of SSA that are Time 3 7.34 \0.001 normally low in organic matter (Vanhie et al. 2015). In Treatment 9 time 33 0.27 \0.001 this study, the nitrogen supplying capabilities of ten Stover yield Treatment 11 9.95 \0.001 rarely-used plant residues were tested on maize Time 3 8.12 \0.001 production in comparison with inorganic fertilizer. Treatment 9 time 33 0.85 \0.001 The N supplying capabilities of the species were determined based on their residue chemistry (N df degrees of freedom; MS mean sum of squares content and C/N ratio); N mineralization and effect on maize performance. The use of substrate N concentration and C/N ratio as indices for determining the major rainy season trial of 2014. On average, the decomposability and N mineralization of plant maize grain yield was about twice that of the control residues in agroforestry systems is well documented when maize received either inorganic fertilizer, G. (e.g. Constantinides and Fownes 1994; Kumar and sepium or T. diversifolia leaf biomass. During the Goh 1999; Partey et al. 2014b; Gentile et al. 2008). minor rainy season of 2014, the residual effects of T. According to Troeh and Thompson (2005), the break- diversifolia and inorganic fertilizer (although signif- even point for decomposing and increased net N icantly higher than the control) were comparatively mineralization of organic materials within a few lower than was observed in previous trials. Generally, weeks is a C: N ratio of about 32: 1. Whilst this there were comparable results among treatments assertion was consistent with the pattern of N miner- between growing seasons. Total cumulative grain alization recorded for T. diversifolia, G. sepium, L. yield obtained from the four experimental trials leucocephala and S. spectabilis (Fig. 2), it contra- showed T. diversifolia, G. sepium and inorganic dicted that of B. nitida, A. zygia, and A. indica which 123 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 383 -1 Table 5 Grain yield (t ha ) of maize as affected by inorganic fertilizer and plant residue treatments during the minor and major rainy seasons of 2013 and 2014 Treatments 2013 2014 Total grain yield a b a b Major rainy season Minor rainy season Major rainy season Minor rainy season A. auriculiformis 2.0 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.2 2.1 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.2 7.4 ± 0.5 A. indica 2.5 ± 0.2 1.6 ± 0.1 2.4 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.2 8.3 ± 0.3 A. zygia 1.9 ± 0.2 1.3 ± 0.2 1.8 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.2 6.7 ± 0.6 B. nitida 1.9 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.2 1.6 ± 0.2 6.8 ± 0.4 Control 1.0 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.2 Fertilizer 3.0 ± 0.2 2.1 ± 0.3 2.8 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1 9.2 ± 0.4 G. sepium 2.7 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.3 2.6 ± 0.2 1.5 ± 0.4 8.8 ± 0.4 L. leucocephala 2.5 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.3 2.5 ± 0.2 1.5 ± 0.2 8.3 ± 0.6 Maize stover 1.8 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.2 6.4 ± 0.3 S. siamea 1.9 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.2 2.1 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.2 7.2 ± 0.6 S. spectabilis 2.6 ± 0.2 1.8 ± 0.2 2.5 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.1 8.4 ± 0.3 T. diversifolia 3.1 ± 0.2 2.2 ± 0.3 2.8 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.1 9.4 ± 0.5 LSD 0.27 0.36 0.26 0.26 0.68 P value \0.001 \0.001 \0.001 \0.001 \0.001 Values are the means of four replicates ± standard error LSD least significant difference Growing season was between June and August Growing season was between September and November had C/N ratios narrower than the critical maximum of capacity of plant residues which although unassessed 32: 1. However, the results are consistent with in this study have been shown to influence plant previous studies that demonstrated that the C/N ratio residue decomposition and N mineralization (Palm of plant residues may not be a reliable indicator of et al. 2001; Iqbal et al. 2013; Makkonen et al. 2013). organic matter decomposition and N mineralization in Based on the results on N mineralization, leaf biomass both temperate and tropical regions (Ostrowska and application of T. diversifolia, G. sepium, L. leuco- Porebska 2015; Palm and Sanchez 1990; Partey et al. cephala and S. spectabilis are expected to improve soil 2012). While these contrasting results do not under- N availability and subsequent uptake by crops for mine the applicability of substrate initial N concen- increased biological yield. The accelerated mineral- trations and C/N ratio as plant litter quality indicators, ization of N in T. diversifolia and G. sepium biomass they imply the necessity for prudent decision making may limit their use for long term sustenance of soil in selecting plant residues for soil fertility improve- fertility and soil organic matter. Farmers may have to ment based on multiple plant and soil factors. It is apply these materials every cropping season which therefore reasonable to assume that unlike the initial N may have significant economic implications. concentrations of the plant residues and their C/N The differential effects of the plant residues on the ratios, their decomposition and N mineralization may biological yield of maize reflected their differences in be related to: (1) different decomposer communities quality and N supplying capabilities. Apart from that may have developed on the plant residues based nutrient supply, plant residue quality has implications on their intrinsic qualities (Cobo et al. 2002); (2) other for other soil properties such as soil moisture, pH and plant quality variables such as lignin, polyphenol, cation exchange capacity which are intrinsically hemicellulose concentrations and their ratios with N; linked to soil organic matter content and quality (Bhupinderpal-Singh and Rengel 2007). The overall (3) C/N ratio of soil; as well as (4) the water retention 123 384 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 -1 Table 6 Maize stover yield (t dry matter ha ) as affected by inorganic fertilizer and plant residue treatments during the minor and major rainy seasons of 2013 and 2014 Treatments 2013 2014 Total stover yield a b a b Major rainy season Minor rainy season Major rainy season Minor rainy season A. auriculiformis 4.5 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.1 4.7 ± 0.3 17.8 ± 0.5 A. indica 5.4 ± 0.1 4.3 ± 0.2 5.3 ± 0.2 4.1 ± 0.2 19.0 ± 0.6 A. zygia 4.5 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.2 4.3 ± 0.1 4.7 ± 0.2 17.2 ± 0.3 B. nitida 4.4 ± 0.1 3.8 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.3 17.1 ± 0.4 Control 2.6 ± 0.1 2.3 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.1 2.1 ± 0.0 10.1 ± 0.3 Fertilizer 6.3 ± 0.1 5.1 ± 0.1 6.1 ± 0.2 4.0 ± 0.2 21.5 ± 0.4 G. sepium 5.8 ± 0.1 4.8 ± 0.1 5.8 ± 0.2 4.3 ± 0.2 20.7 ± 0.3 L. leucocephala 5.3 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.3 5.7 ± 0.4 4.5 ± 0.3 19.9 ± 1.1 Maize stover 4.0 ± 0.1 3.7 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.1 4.7 ± 0.2 16.5 ± 0.4 S. siamea 4.3 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.2 17.4 ± 0.5 S. spectabilis 5.6 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.1 5.6 ± 0.1 4.3 ± 0.1 20.1 ± 0.2 T. diversifolia 6.2 ± 0.1 5.3 ± 0.1 6.0 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.1 22.0 ± 0.3 LSD 0.34 0.41 0.44 0.62 1.29 P value \0.001 \0.001 \0.001 \0.001 0.001 Values are the means of four replicates ± standard error LSD least significant difference Growing season was between June and August Growing season was between September and November effects of the treatments on maize may therefore be a nitrogen supplying capabilities of the plant residues combination of factors beyond just N supply (which may be more closely correlated with their N miner- was the emphasis of this study). Generally, the results alization patterns than their N composition. It was showed increased biomass yield, grain yield and N evident that even with the application of -1 uptake of maize in all treatments compared with the 196 kg N ha from B. nitida leaf biomass (Fig. 3), control. However, the greatest effects occurred on plots amended with B. nitida leaf biomass produced plots that received either G. sepium or T. diversifolia some of the smallest effects on maize grain and stover treatments especially during the major rainy season; yield. Considering the significantly low net N miner- possibly because of increased water availability. alization of soil amended with B. nitida leaf biomass, These observations are consistent with the results of the release of N may not have synchronized with crop previous studies (Gachengo et al. 1999; Nziguheba N demand. According to Salas et al. (2003), organic et al. 2000; Partey and Thevathasan 2013). In Western resources contain significant concentrations of organic Kenya, field trials conducted by Nziguheba et al. nutrients that undergo biological decomposition and (2000) showed that the addition of T. diversifolia mineralization processes to become available for crop green manure tripled total maize yields after six use. It is therefore reasonable to assume that with high seasons compared to the control and inorganic fertil- N mineralization, high N uptake could be expected, izer treatments. Experimental trials under similar which may consequently result in high crop yield. This tropical conditions in Malawi, Brazil and other parts assertion would explain why the plant materials with of SSA reported multiple increments in maize grain high cumulative net N mineralization such as G. yield with the application of G. sepium prunings sepium and T. diversifolia recorded the greatest impact (Barreto et al. 2012; Beedy et al. 2010; Makumba et al. on the biological yield of maize. The argument is 2006). Further, the results on maize yield showed the further supported by the significant (p \ 0.001) 123 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 385 necessitate regular application of their biomass during crop growing seasons which may pose greater finan- cial burden on resource-poor farmers; especially where labour requirements may be high for biomass collection. Conclusions From the results on plant residue quality, most of the plant residues recorded relatively high N concentra- tion and low C/N ratio although these properties were not always significantly related to their N mineraliza- tion patterns. Application of B. nitida, A. auriculi- Aa Ai Az Bn C Fert Gs Ll Ms Ssi Ssp Td formis, A. zygia leaf biomass and maize stover resulted Treatments in an initial net N immobilization that lasted for Fig. 3 Amount of N applied from inorganic fertilizer and plant 14 days. On the effect of the treatments on maize, the residues used in the experiment. Data points are the means of results confirmed that all the treatments could increase four replicates. Error bars are standard error of means. Aa maize yield in the study area. However, the effect will Acacia auriculiformis, Az Albizia zygia, Ai Azadirachta indica, be greater with either inorganic fertilizer, G. sepium or Bn Baphia nitida, C control, Fert inorganic fertilizer, GS Gliricidia sepium, Ll Leucaena leucocephala, Ms maize stover, T. diversifolia leaf biomass application. Relative to the Ssi Senna siamea, Ssp Senna spectabilis, Td Tithonia diversi- control, total grain yield after four cropping seasons -1 folia. All plant materials were applied at 5 t dry matter ha , -1 was found to be comparable between inorganic inorganic fertilizer was applied at 90 kg N ha -1 -1 fertilizer (9.2 t ha ), G. sepium (8.8 t ha ) and T. -1 diversifolia (9.4 t ha ) treatments. The results positive correlation obtained between the amount of N showed that differential effects of the species on mineralized and the biological yield and N uptake of maize biological yield were attributed to their differ- maize (Table 7). However, the collection of large ences in N mineralization. It was evident that with amounts of biomass and the resultant labour demands high N mineralization, high N uptake could be may limit large-scale adoption of T. diversifolia and G. expected, which may consequently result in high crop sepium biomass for maize production. In addition, it is yield. We therefore suggests that in places where evident (Tables 5, 6) that, compared with the species inorganic fertilizers are limited, leaf biomass from G. with least N mineralization rates, T. diversifolia and G. sepium and T. diversifolia could offer the most sepium may have low residual impacts due to accel- suitable option in comparison with the other species erated decomposition and N release. This may Table 7 Pearson correlation coefficients for the relationship between N uptake, N mineralization and the total biological yield of maize Total grain Total stover N added Cumulative net N uptake N mineralized Total grain 1 *** Total stover 0.98 1 ns ns N added 0.37 0.42 1 *** *** ns Cumulative net N mineralized 0.91 0.97 0.38 1 *** *** ns *** N uptake 0.99 0.99 0.42 0.96 1 N = 44 ns not significant at p B 0.05 *** significant at p B 0.001 -1 Amount of N applied (kg ha ) 386 Agroforest Syst (2018) 92:375–387 Cobo JG, Barrios E, Kass DCL, Thomas RJ (2002) Decompo- used in this study. This notwithstanding, labour sition and nutrient release by green manures in a tropical requirements and cost implications for harvesting leaf hillside agroecosystem. Plant Soil 240:331–342 biomass should be considered in adopting this Constantinides M, Fownes JH (1994) Nitrogen mineralization practice. from leaves and litter of tropical plants: relationship to nitrogen, lignin and soluble polyphenol concentrations. Soil Biol Biochem 26:49–55 Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Crutzen PJ, Mosier AR, Smith KA, Winiwarter W (2008) N O International Foundation for Science, Stockholm, Sweden, 2 release from agro-biofuel production negates global through a grant to Samuel Partey as part of efforts to promote warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels. Atmos Chem the use of less utilized leguminous species in developing Phys 8:389–395 countries. The authors are grateful to the logistical support of the Eneji AE, Yamamoto S, Wen G, Inanaga S, Honna T (2005) A CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and comparative evaluation of wet digestion and dry ashing Food Security (CCAFS). 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Agroforestry Systems – Springer Journals
Published: Apr 1, 2018
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