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Energy efficiency and conservation indicators in Yemen

Energy efficiency and conservation indicators in Yemen In this paper we assess energy conservation and analyse energy efficiency in various sectors in Yemen. Accordingly, the paper introduces Yemen energy profile, energy resources and performs calculations of a number of energy indicators for different sectors. Country-specific socio- economical characteristics are presented. The concerned energy indicators covered the following: macro level indicators and indicators of energy transformation, industry, tertiary, residential, transport, agriculture and fishing sectors. For each sector 8–12 indicators were calculated. For instance the macro level indicators include: energy dependency, intensity of primary energy, intensity of final energy, ratio of final energy consumption to primary energy, ratio of final energy bill to GDP, average emission factor, intensity of CO ,average primaryenergyconsumption perhabitant, average electricity consumption per habitant. Similarly other sectors have their relevant indicators. In total 50 indicators were calculated for a period of 7 years, 2003–2009. The results of calculations are discussed and analysed. The paper has shown the high potentials of Renewable Energy Resources. Further it was shown how low the energy efficiency and energy consumption in this country are. Finally the Paper has shown also that energy dependency is reaching zero soon and within few years can be positive which shall make the country in a difficult economical challenge due heavy subsidies on energy sector and expected increase of energy consumption. Here one can see the value of this work as an initial step to help in the development of an energy strategy for Yemen. Keywords: Energy conservation, Energy efficiency, Energy indicators, Energy intensity Introduction sustainability. For example, in 1996 the United Nations This work is a summary of the main of Yemen’scontribu- Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable tion to a regional Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Development complied over 130 indicators [2]. Such a project titled “Energy Efficiency Indicators”. The project large set can provide an accurate way to assess different covered ten countries and started January 2011. The final aspects of sustainability and development [3–6]. Report was published on October 2012 [1]. The political This paper introduces Yemen’s energy profile and en- unrest which erupted in many of the participating coun- ergy resources. The energy profile shows that the trans- tries had led to delays in finalising the project. portation sector is the largest consumer of energy. Next, The political unrest and lack of a National Data Bank energy resources are presented, oil is the main source but has made the data collection phase very tedious. Never- its production has declined. On the other hand, gas is a theless the data availability has reached more than 63 % promising resource and renewable energy resources have which provides a sufficiently good basis to perform the a very high potential. Then the paper presents and ana- study. Accordingly the indicators were calculated and lyses a number of energy indicators in Yemen. Both macro the work was performed. level indicators and those for different sectors are dis- Since human activity is heavily dependent on energy cussed in order to assess energy conservation and find out usageand generation,energyindicatorshavelongbeen energy efficiency in various sectors. Some of the indicators used as a measure of a society’sdevelopment and used are defined and the method to calculate them is pre- sented in Appendix. To assist in the analysis country- specific socio-economical characteristics are presented. Correspondence: ali.alashwal@ye.liu.edu.lb Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Engineering, Lebanese The energy indicators covered the following: macro level International University (LIU), Sana’a Campus, Sana’a, Yemen © 2016 Al-Ashwal. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 2 of 10 and imported oil products of 4550 ktoe. However, Yemen exports crude oil and natural gas which reached 12,694 ktoe in 2009. Figure 1 shows the energy profile of the country. The grand total of energy production in 2009 reached 15,567 ktoe. The transport sector was accounted for 34 % of the consumption (most consumption), while minimum consumption was due to the tertiary sector. The profile structure can be explained by the fact that only 70 % of the country is covered by electricity, tourist industry is not strong due to the high security risk and biomass is not included in residential consumption. Energy resources The energy resources in Yemen consist of the following: Fig. 1 Energy consumption of different sectors 1. Oil [2]: It is the main source of energy. Yemen indicators and indicators of energy transformation, indus- has been exporting oil since the nineteen eighties. try, tertiary, residential, transport, agriculture and fishing The amount of produced crude oil reached sectors. For each sector 8–12 indicators are calculated. 400,000 barrel/day in nineteen nineties but in In total 50 indicators were calculated covering a period 2009 it was 284 barrel/day. of 7 years, 2003–2009. The civil unrest which started 2. Gas [2]: Currently, the certified gas reserved is end of 2010 early 2011 has made it difficult to extend 18.215 tcf. From this amount 9.5 tcf is allocated for the analysis beyond 2009. The results of the calculations export. The rest can be used for domestic needs or are discussed and analysed. The paper has shown that for export. both energy efficiency and consumption are extremely 3. Renewable Energy Resources: They have a high low in Yemen. Finally, the paper shows also that energy potential. A study carried out by the Consultants dependency is reaching zero soon and within few years Lahmeyer International, Germany assessed these can be positive which shall make the country in a diffi- potentials and had the following findings [9]: cult economic situation due to heavy subsidies on energy a. Wind: preliminary estimates showed that around sector and expected increase of energy consumption. 14,214 MW could be developed at assessed Here one can see the value of this work as an initial step windfarm sites. Economically attractive sites were to help stakeholders of the sector to develop rational en- those with more than 3500 full load hours per ergy strategy for Yemen. year. A capacity of around 2507 MW could be developed at these sites which could generate Energy profile and energy resources around 8293 GWh of electricity per year. Energy profile b. Solar: The annual average solar insolation in Energy demand was in 2009; 7423 thousand ton oil equiva- Yemen ranges from 5.2 to 6.8 kWh/m /day. lent (ktoe) [7, 8]. This demand is met by local production The resource assessment study estimated a Table 1 Macro-level indicators Abb Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 EDR Energy dependence ratio % −417 % −438 % −300 % −286 % −168 % −135 % −110 % IPE Intensity of primary energy toe/10 YR 2.01 1.85 2.34 2.12 2.55 2.56 2.72 IFE Intensity of final energy toe/10 YR 1.54 1.43 1.81 1.66 1.98 2.01 2.13 RFEPE Ratio of final energy consumption to primary energy % 77 % 77 % 77 % 78 % 78 % 78 % 78 % REB Ratio of national energy bill to GDP % 8 % 9 % 13 % 12 % 14 % 16 % 11 % RPSE Ratio of public subsidies for energy to GDP % 0.07 % 0.21 % 0.73 % 1.1 % 1.5 % 3 % 3.6 % AEF Average emission factor teCO /toe 3.06 3.05 3.03 3.02 3.02 3.00 3.00 ICO2 Intensity of CO2 teCO /10 YR 6.15 5.65 7.09 6.40 7.71 7.68 8.16 AECH Average primary energy consumption per habitant ktoe/10 hab 0.218 0.203 0.263 0.241 0.296 0.300 0.325 AELCH Average electricity consumption per habitant MWh/hab 0.143 0.149 0.162 0.173 0.190 0.203 0.203 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 3 of 10 Fig. 2 Energy dependency ratio technical potential for different applications, This is approximately 6 % of the GDP. This situation e.g. solar heating, photovoltaic and solar affects Energy Intensity Indicators. For example, thermal, that could reach 2210 MW. energy intensity could be high because the fuel is c. Geothermal: Yemen is situated near three cheap, see Appendix Table 10. tectonic boundaries which are among the most 2) Shortage of power generation to meet demand is active in the world, viz. the Gulf of Aden, the Red estimated to be 1200 MW. This shortage is around Sea and the Eastern African Rift System. These 30 %. In addition, more than 30 % of the country three tectonic plates meet in a triple junction territory is not covered by electricity supply and creating high geothermal gradient, and many industries have their own power station which subsequently geothermal energy potential was are not connected to the national grid. Therefore, estimated to be 28.5 GW. the average electricity consumption is very low. 3) Biomass (wood, firewood and/or charcoal, dang, etc.) Yemen circumstances affecting energy indicators has substantial participation in rural household energy calculation consumption. This form of energy is not recorded and Yemen has specific factors affecting calculation results varies from 1 year to another depending on some of energy indicators. These factors are listed below: factors such as liquid petroleum gas (LPG) availability, rainfall and unemployment in rural areas. 1) Electricity and oil products are heavily subsidised, 4) Yemen’s GDP is considered to be very low. the subsidies reached around US$2.7 Billion in 2014. According to the IMF [4] Yemen’s GDP per capita Fig. 3 Primary and final energy intensity Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 4 of 10 Fig. 4 Average primary energy and electricity consumption per capita in 2009 was USD 2475 and it was ranked 137 in the  Yearly Statistical Book [7]. world, due to the political instability since 2011 the  Records of many ministries, entities, corporations GDP has been dropping. and organization concerned in energy [10–15]. Records of some international agencies [16]. Indicator analysis Data collection and main sources of data Macro-level indicators Appendix shows basic formulas for calculation of those Macro-level indicators are concerned with the country’sen- indicators which require further clarification. In order ergy status and its impact on the economy, social develop- to calculate the indicators, the necessary data had to be ment and the environment. The importance of macro-level collected. During data collections a number of difficul- indicators of energy of a country comes from the fact they ties were faced some of which are listed below: reflect its level of economic and social development. In addition, macro-level indicators expose other aspects such Access to data sources is not easy, moreover some as environmental issues and energy efficiency. The for- data is considered secret. mulas need to calculate these indicators are presented The political unrest since 2011 has limited the data in Appendix Table 10. In this study the macro level in- availability for these years. dicators include: There are no sector specific data. There is no data history.  Energy dependency, which is related to energy The available data contains discrepancies. import/export status and is an indicator of a Complex routine and bureaucracy in all ministries country’s dependency on energy imports. and even private sector entities.  Intensity of primary energy, intensity of final energy Involvement of various entities in the same task, for and ratio of final energy consumption to primary example transport sector. energy. These three indicators are related to energy The existing databases have limited capacity and efficiency as explained [6]. capability and lack of MIS.  Ratio of final energy bill to GDP, which is related to Unfortunately in Yemen there is no National Data the country economy. Bank.  Average emission factor and intensity of CO . These two indicators are related to environment. In order to comprehensively carry out the task many  Average primary energy consumption per inhabitant sources were used, mainly: and average electricity consumption per inhabitant which are social indicators. Table 2 Electricity generation and consumption Units 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Consumed ktoe 235 253 283 312 351 387 399 Table 3 Yearly Petroleum product production electricity Product LPG Naphtha Kerosene Gasoline Diesel Fuel oil Asphalt Generated ktoe 355 375 410 459 519 563 581 electricity Million Ton 50,144 59437 533,197 918,271 918,105 571,308 925,38 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 5 of 10 Table 4 Indicators of energy transformation Abbreviation Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 SREC Share of installed renewable energy electricity capacity % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % URIC Usage rate of the installed power generation capacity % 47 % 45 % 49 % 54 % 59 % 61 % 50 % AETS Apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector % 78 % 77 % 78 % 75 % 77 % 74 % 74 % PGEFF Power generation efficiency of thermal plants % 30 % 31 % 32 % 32 % 33 % 33 % 33 % SCFFP Specific consumption of thermal power plants toe/GWh 283.1 281.1 270.1 265.7 259.1 258.6 263.2 PGF Power generation efficiency % 30 31 32 32 33 33 33 SCPG Specific consumption of power generation toe/GWh 283.1 281.1 270.1 265.7 259.1 258.6 263.2 TDEE Transmission and distribution electricity system efficiency % 78 % 80 % 83 % 82 % 83 % 83 % 85 % PGEF Power generation emission factor teCO2/GWh 821 815 783 770 751 750 763 ESEF Electricity sector emission factor teCO2/GWh 1169 1142 1006 999 965 950 951 From Table 1 and as shown in Fig. 2 one can see that demand for energy should be expected in the future as first indicator energy dependence ratio (EDR) was −417 % development programs are implemented. The results in 2003, but in 2009 it climbed to −110 % which means are summarized in Fig. 4. that Yemen was independent in its energy resources until 2009. Furthermore, Yemen exports energy products (oil and gas). However, since the EDR indicator is increasing Energy transformation sector indicators rapidly, one could conclude that Yemen could go into en- Energy transformation sector is related to all forms of ergy dependency phase within few years. energy conversion. In Yemen it includes all forms of The second and third indicators are related to inten- electricity generation and oil refinery. Formulas to calcu- sity of primary and final Energy (IPE &IFE ) which have late these indicators are defined in Appendix Table 11. small values not due high efficiency but because the en- Electricity sector suffers from serious problems, mainly: ergy consumption is comparatively low, the results are shortage of available generating capacities to meet de- summarised in Fig. 3. mand, low efficiency as shown in Table 2, low coverage of It is worth examining the fifth indicator, i.e. Ratio of Na- supply, low reliability, bad quality of services and misman- tional Energy Bill to GDP. The significant growth in this agement. The Sector needs to be reformed and the invest- indicator is deemed a great challenge for Yemen. Thus it ment plans must be implemented. is essential for the State to reform its fuel subsidy policy. In Yemen there are two oil refineries. One was installed Unitary energy and electricity consumption indica- in Aden when it was British Colony, in the middle of last tors show low levels compared to other countries century. The monthly average crude oil refined in Aden which reflect the overall low level of economic devel- Refinery is 2.161 MMbbls. The yearly production profile is opment in Yemen. In addition,theyindicatethathigh shown in Table 3. Fig. 5 Apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 6 of 10 Fig. 6 Transformation sector indicators: electricity sector emission factor and consumption of power generation The other oil refinery is located in Mareb which was Indicators PGF and SCPG are replica of PGEFF & SCFFP installed in the nineteen eighties. The monthly average indicators respectively, because power generation types in of crude oil refined in Mareb Refinery is 250,000 bbls, Yemen is limited to thermal power stations, see Fig. 6. i.e. around 10 % of the capacity of Aden refinery and having almost the same spectrum of oil products. Industrial sector indicators The Table 4 presents the main indicators calculated Industrial sector in Yemen is still at a low level of devel- for transformation sector. The zero share of renewable opment, as the contribution of the industrial sector in energy electricity capacity indicator (SREC) shows that the GDP for 2009 was around 24 %. This fact is clearly renewables are not utilized in spite of their high poten- seen from the amount of energy consumed by the indus- tials (SREC) as discussed in section Energy resources. try sector which reached 15.2 % (881 ktoe) of final en- Usage rate of the installed power generation capacity ergy consumption in 2009 year. Industries like steel and (URIC) indicator reflects power station availability and new cement plants were commissioned in 2011. But utilization. It ranges between 47 and 61 %, which is sig- other heavy industries do not exist. nificantly low. Noticeable sharp reduction of this indica- Final energy intensity for industry is given by final en- tor in 2009 is due to the fact that the Public Electricity ergy consumption of industry sector divided by added Corporation (PEC) started in this year electricity pur- value at a constant price. One can see that the intensity chase from private electricity producers. almost doubled between 2003 and 2009. But this in- Apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector crease occurred due to less increase rate of value added (AETS) indicator, Fig. 5, generally expresses whole en- of the sector. Specific consumption for cement seems to ergy efficiency. It ranges between 78 and 74 %, which is be within the average in similar countries. The results quite low. This fact should encourage concerned entities are summarised in Table 5. to work out initiatives to improve the efficiency. Generation Emission (PGEF) indicator shows slight Tertiary sector indicators improvement in the emission reduction factor. However Due to unavailability of most of data for this sector, the in- this indicator is still high compared to similar countries dicators were not calculated except Energy Intensity which in the region. Specific Fuel Consumption (SCFFP) indi- is defined as the final energy consumption of the tertiary cator shows a reduction in fuel consumption up to 2008. sector divided by the tertiary sector added value at constant In 2009 it slightly increased possibly due to power short- price, as shown in Table 6. Here we notice slight increase in age increases which led to the running of the thermal energy intensity because value added increasing was less plants with lower efficiency. than energy consumption which indicates less efficiency. Table 5 Industrial sector indicators Abbreviation Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 BSEC Specific energy consumption for cement toe/t 0.101 0.099 0.115 0.103 0.110 0.110 0.109 FEIIS Final energy intensity of industry sector toe/10 YR 5.335 5.086 6.548 6.233 7.977 8.358 9.120 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 7 of 10 Table 6 Tertiary sector indicators air-conditioners for year 2009. There is number of reasons behind this result: Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 ➢ Electricity Coverage is around 70 %. Energy Toe/10 YR 2.66 2.43 2.91 2.72 3.18 3.23 3.36 intensity ➢ Around 70 % of dwellings are located in rural areas where this equipment is considered a luxury. Residential sector indicators ➢ High percentage of the population lives in the The fact that around 40 % of the electricity output of mountainous area, i.e. highlands having elevation distribution is consumed by household customers makes higher than 1000 m above sea level and higher, the residential sector of paramount importance. How- where there is no need for air-conditioning. ever, the number of dwellings using electricity supply ❖ Refrigerator Indicator (ERFR), compared with other represents less than 70 %. In order to meet the inhabi- countries in the region, shows a low rate, in 1000 tants’ demands for lighting, cooking, heating, cooling dwells there were only 217 refrigerators for year and other residential activities. This sector consumes 2003 and 304 units for year 2009. This situation is other forms of energy, such as gas, kerosene, wood and explained partially by above mentioned reasons of biomass in addition to electricity. From Table 7 the fol- air-conditioning indicator. But these rates are higher lowing observations can be made: than air-condition rate because: ➢ A refrigerator is considered basic need for urban ❖ The unit consumption of energy (kgoe/Dw) indicator household. is generally low but its average increase rate is high, ➢ Electricity consumption of refrigerator is lower almost 6 % per year. The low level is explained by than that of air-conditioners. the low economic development of the country. ➢ Refrigerators are needed in all areas of Yemen. ❖ Electricity consumption of household indicator is also low but its average increase rate is high, almost 4.8 % Transport sector indicators per year. It should be noticed that during these years It is worth noting that the transportation sector consumed and up to now there is severe power shortage. Which around 34 % of final energy consumption for 2009. This resulted in daily power cut-offs of at least 30 % of fact shows the importance of initiating and developing en- maximum demand. Therefore the figures shown in ergy saving policy in this sector. Table 7 are lower than what they should be. Referring to overall intensity of final energies, transport ❖ Energy intensity, defined as final energy energy intensity indicator reflects the high energy con- consumption of the residential sector divided by sumption level of this sector (34 %). The intensity in- household expenses at a constant price, has creased from 0.684 toe/Million RY in 2003 to 0.629 increased probably due to the increase in the toe/Million YR in 2009 (see Table 8). This is more likely number of households which have been connected due the increase in the fuel price in that period. Share of to electricity supply. household expenditure for transport indicator shows ❖ Although the energy products are subsidized, energy significant increase from less 16 to 19 % which negatively intensity indicator seems too low. This is because impacts household living quality. Motorization Rate (MR) other forms of fuel were not included (biomass) indicator shows that the increase rate of vehicles was which are used extensively in rural areas. In addition, higher than population increase rate (see Table 8). some dwellings included in the total number may Coupled with the very high population growth rate such a use negligible amount of energy and some may be rapid increase is not sustainable. not occupied by households. ❖ Air-conditioning diffusion rate shows low figures, Agriculture and fishing sector indicators i.e. in 100 dwells there were only 11 air-conditioners Agriculture and fishing sector is the most important for the year 2003. This figure increased up to 12 sector for national economy because more that 70 % of Table 7 Indicators of residential sector Abbr. Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 UCED Unit consumption of energy per dwelling kgoe/Dw 183.40 179.39 226.09 216.54 257.68 266.74 283.16 UEICD Unit consumption of electricity per dwelling kWh/Dw 398.78 415.80 447.32 486.02 532.88 561.83 562.52 RIPE Intensity of residential sector toe/Million LC 2.66 2.57 3.21 2.84 3.14 3.14 3.04 ERACR Equipment rate of air conditioning in residential sector Unit/Dw 0.111 0.111 0.113 0.112 0.114 0.123 0.120 ERFR Equipment rate of refrigerator in residential sector Unit/Dw 0.217 0.230 0.244 0.254 0.275 0.288 0.303 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 8 of 10 Table 8 Indicators of transport sector Abb Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 TrFEI Final energy intensity of transport sector toe/Million YR 0.684 0.629 0.805 0.729 0.882 0.889 0.947 STEHE Share of household expenditure for transport % 16 % 17 % 19 % 19 % 18 % 19 % 18 % EUCC Average energy unit consumption of cars kgeo/car/year 1518 1518 1518 1518 1518 1518 1518 EUCC G Average energy unit consumption of gasoline cars kgeo/car/year 1755 1755 1755 1755 1755 1755 1755 EUCC D Average energy unit consumption of diesel Cars kgeo/car/year 734 734 734 734 734 734 734 AEFTS Average emission factor of transport sector teCO2/toe 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 MR Motorization rate persons/Vehicle 61.1 56.9 52.8 50.8 48.7 47.4 45.0 ICO2 CO2 intensity of transport sector kgeCO2/YR 1.99 1.82 2.33 2.12 2.56 2.58 2.75 population live in rural areas where agriculture and due to political unrest since 2011. For the first time such fishing are the main activities. Furthermore, great ef- an exercise is performed in Yemen. This work can be forts are paid to restrict population flow from rural considered a foundation upon which future reforms to the areas to urban areas. This goal cannot be achieved un- energy sector in Yemen can be built. This task can be less there is sustainable development in rural areas. Hence considered one of most important due to expected impact the main aspect should be the agriculture development. of this study on the energy sector in particular and to the Therefore energy indicators for agriculture and fishing country development in general. Going through this sector have particular importance to rural development exercise a number of observations may be pointed out: and to the national economy. The indicators are defined in Appendix Table 13. 1. Most of the entities concerned are not enthusiastic From Table 9 the following observations can be made: about energy conservation and energy efficiency indicators. Final energy Intensity for agriculture increased 2. Data availability and data structure did not meet more than 53 % between 2003 and 2009. But this the standard formulation requirements of energy increase was due to less increase rate of added conservation and energy efficiency indicator value of the sector. calculation. Energy Indicators for fishing show the high 3. Having analysed the energy profile, energy resources economical value of this sector with respect to and the energy indicators one may conclude that: energy consumption and energy intensity. This is a. There is a high potential for renewable energy due energy subsidy and large amount of fishes in the resources in Yemen, which imposes the necessity Red Sea and Arab Sea. to take into account these resources in any future More than 90 % of wells are equipped with diesel planning and energy strategy development. engine pumps rather than electrical pumps because b. Energy dependency curve shows that the most of rural areas are not covered by electricity breakeven point (when the export and import of supply. energy are equal) could take place within 2–3 years. This result is very alarming and decision Conclusion makers must develop policies to meet the future This work presented a summary of the energy indicators energy needs of the country. The amount of for Yemen up to 2009. Further data could not be collected exported oil is rapidly decreasing because of the Table 9 Agriculture and fishing sector indicators Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Final energy intensity of agriculture toe/10 YR 6.97 6.76 8.85 8.12 9.73 9.79 1.07 Final energy intensity of fishing toe/10 YR 7.85 7.73 6.76 6.88 8.61 1.02 1.01 Specific consumption for fishing toe/tone 0.066 0.067 0.0721 0.0783 0.118 0.166 0.113 Share of dry cultivated area % 47 % 47 % 48 % 49 % 50 % 49 % 47 % Share of irrigated cultivated area % 53 % 53 % 52 % 51 % 50 % 51 % 53 % Share of equipped wells with diesel pumps % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % Share of equipped wells with electric pumps % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 9 of 10 drop in oil production and the increase in Table 11 Transformation sector consumption. The depletion of oil is estimated to No Unit Formula take place within 10–15 years 1 Usage rate of the installed % Total generated electricity/ power generation capacity Total installed generation c. Low level of energy consumption and electricity capacity consumption compared with similar countries 2 Apparent Efficiency of % Transformation Sector Energy should warn decision makers about possible Energy Transformation Output Transformation Sector significant increase in energy demand of the Sector Energy Input country in the coming years. 3 Transmission and % Total Electricity Output of the d. From the above two points it is clear that the Distribution Electricity Transmission and Distribution existing level of state fuel subsidies is not system Efficiency System/Total Electricity Input to the Transmission and sustainable. Distribution System e. Calculated low energy efficiency in different 4 Power Generation Emission Te/GW Electricity sector emissions/ energy sectors should encourage decision Factor Total generated electricity makers to invest in energy conservation 5 Electricity Sector Emission Te/GW Electricity sector emissions/ research and studies. Factor Total Electricity Output of the f. This paper has shown that the fishing sector is the Transmission and Distribution System most economical one, which should encourage decision makers to invest in the fishing industry. g. The paper also can be considered as a first initiative in establishing an energy indicator framework in Yemen. Therefore it would lead to open up a wide possibility for further research works in energy sector, for instance: Establish a data bank suitable for calculation of energy indicators Further development of the energy indicator framework to include more indicators and continuous update of the introduced Table 12 Industrial sector indicators. No Unit Formula Link energy indicator framework to sustainable 1 Final Energy Intensity Toe/YR Final Energy Consumption development in Yemen of transport sector of Transport Sector/GDP at Link energy indicators to energy demand constant price forecast; hence help develop country energy 2 CO2 intensity of teCO2/YR Transport sector emissions/ strategy. transport sector GDP at constant price Endnotes GDP constant Price 1990 Appendix Indicator calculation Table 10 Macro-level indicator No Indicator Unit Formula 1 Energy dependence % Gross Energy Production in/ Ratio Primary energy consumption Table 13 Agriculture and fishing sector indicators 2 Intensity of Primary Toe/YR Primary energy consumption/ No Unit Formula Energy GDP at constant price 1 Final Energy Intensity Toe/YR Final Energy Consumption 3 Intensity of Final Toe/YR Final energy consumption/ of agriculture of Agriculture sector/Added Energy GDP at constant price Value of agriculture sector 4 Average emission Te/Toe Energy sector CO2 emissions/ at constant price factor Primary energy consumption 2 Final Energy Intensity Toe /YR Final Energy Consumption of 5 Intensity of CO2 Te/YR Energy sector CO2 emissions/GDP of fishing fishing sector/Added Value of at constant price fishing at constant price Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 10 of 10 Abbreviations AETS: apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector; Bbls: barrels; Dw: dwell; EDR: energy dependence ratio; ERFR: equipment rate of refrigerator in residential sector; GDP: gross domestic product; Gwh: giga watts hour; IFE: intensity of final energy; IMF: International Monetary Fund; IPE: intensity of primary energy; Kgoe: kilo gram oil equivalent; ktoe: thousand ton oil equivalent; kWh: kilo watts hour; LPG: liquid petroleum gas; m: Metre; MENA: Middle East and North Africa Region; MMbbls: million barrels; MR: motorization rate; MW: mega watts; MW: mega watts; PEC: Public Electricity Corporation; PGEF: generation emission; RE: renewable energy; SCFFP: specific fuel consumption of thermal power plant; SREC: shared of renewable energy capacity; Tcf: trillion cubic feet; URIC: usage rate of the installed power generation capacity. Competing interests The author declares that he has no competing interests. Author’s contributions The main contribution of this paper is that it establishes for first time an energy indicator framework in Yemen. The well-known significance of such framework for any country exposes the importance of this paper. Acknowledgement The Author would like to express his deep gratitude to Plan-Blue of France for its financial and technical support. Special thanks for RCREEE, Alcor and all Yemeni concerned entities for their help and cooperation with the Author. Received: 4 November 2015 Accepted: 21 March 2016 References 1. Missaoui R, Hassine HB, Mourtada A (2012) Energy efficiency indicators in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries 2. UN Department of policy co-ordination and sustainable development (1996) Integrating environment and development in decision-making 3. Vera I, Langlois L (2007) Energy indicators for sustainable development. Energy 32(6):875–882 4. International Atomic Energy Agency, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, International Energy Agency, Eurostat, European Environment Agency (2005) Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies 5. Kemmler A, Spren D (2007) Energy indicators for tracking sustainability in developing countries. Energy Policy 35(4):2466–2480 6. International Energy Organization (2014) Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics 7. Central Organization of Statistics (2003–2009) Yearly statistical books. Central Organization Statistics, Sana’a 8. International Monitory Fund (IMF). World Economic Outlook Database [online]. International Monitory Fund (IMF). 2009. Available at http://www. imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/download.aspx. Accessed 24 May 2015. 9. Lahmyer Group. Renewable energy resource assessment and renewable energy opportunities. Lahmyer Group; 2006. 10. Ministry of Agriculture (2009) Annual Reports. Ministry of Agriculture, Sana’a 11. Ministry of Fishing (2009) Annual Reports. Ministry of Fishing, Sana’a 12. Ministry of Interior (2009) Records of Traffic Department. Ministry of Interior, Sana’a 13. Ministry of Oil and Minerals (2013) Annual reports. Ministry of Oil and Minerals, Sana’a Submit your manuscript to a 14. Public Electricity Corporation (2009) Records of Public Electricity journal and benefi t from: Corporation. PEC, Sana’a 15. Yemen Cement Corporation (2009) Annual report. Yemen Cement 7 Convenient online submission Corporation, Sana’a 7 Rigorous peer review 16. World Bank. Household energy supply and use in Yemen. World Bank; 2009. 7 Immediate publication on acceptance 7 Open access: articles freely available online 7 High visibility within the fi eld 7 Retaining the copyright to your article Submit your next manuscript at 7 springeropen.com http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Future Cities and Environment Springer Journals

Energy efficiency and conservation indicators in Yemen

Al-Ashwal, Ali
Future Cities and Environment , Volume 2 (1) – Apr 1, 2016
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Energy; Energy Efficiency (incl. Buildings); Renewable and Green Energy; Energy Technology; Landscape/Regional and Urban Planning
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Abstract

In this paper we assess energy conservation and analyse energy efficiency in various sectors in Yemen. Accordingly, the paper introduces Yemen energy profile, energy resources and performs calculations of a number of energy indicators for different sectors. Country-specific socio- economical characteristics are presented. The concerned energy indicators covered the following: macro level indicators and indicators of energy transformation, industry, tertiary, residential, transport, agriculture and fishing sectors. For each sector 8–12 indicators were calculated. For instance the macro level indicators include: energy dependency, intensity of primary energy, intensity of final energy, ratio of final energy consumption to primary energy, ratio of final energy bill to GDP, average emission factor, intensity of CO ,average primaryenergyconsumption perhabitant, average electricity consumption per habitant. Similarly other sectors have their relevant indicators. In total 50 indicators were calculated for a period of 7 years, 2003–2009. The results of calculations are discussed and analysed. The paper has shown the high potentials of Renewable Energy Resources. Further it was shown how low the energy efficiency and energy consumption in this country are. Finally the Paper has shown also that energy dependency is reaching zero soon and within few years can be positive which shall make the country in a difficult economical challenge due heavy subsidies on energy sector and expected increase of energy consumption. Here one can see the value of this work as an initial step to help in the development of an energy strategy for Yemen. Keywords: Energy conservation, Energy efficiency, Energy indicators, Energy intensity Introduction sustainability. For example, in 1996 the United Nations This work is a summary of the main of Yemen’scontribu- Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable tion to a regional Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Development complied over 130 indicators [2]. Such a project titled “Energy Efficiency Indicators”. The project large set can provide an accurate way to assess different covered ten countries and started January 2011. The final aspects of sustainability and development [3–6]. Report was published on October 2012 [1]. The political This paper introduces Yemen’s energy profile and en- unrest which erupted in many of the participating coun- ergy resources. The energy profile shows that the trans- tries had led to delays in finalising the project. portation sector is the largest consumer of energy. Next, The political unrest and lack of a National Data Bank energy resources are presented, oil is the main source but has made the data collection phase very tedious. Never- its production has declined. On the other hand, gas is a theless the data availability has reached more than 63 % promising resource and renewable energy resources have which provides a sufficiently good basis to perform the a very high potential. Then the paper presents and ana- study. Accordingly the indicators were calculated and lyses a number of energy indicators in Yemen. Both macro the work was performed. level indicators and those for different sectors are dis- Since human activity is heavily dependent on energy cussed in order to assess energy conservation and find out usageand generation,energyindicatorshavelongbeen energy efficiency in various sectors. Some of the indicators used as a measure of a society’sdevelopment and used are defined and the method to calculate them is pre- sented in Appendix. To assist in the analysis country- specific socio-economical characteristics are presented. Correspondence: ali.alashwal@ye.liu.edu.lb Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Engineering, Lebanese The energy indicators covered the following: macro level International University (LIU), Sana’a Campus, Sana’a, Yemen © 2016 Al-Ashwal. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 2 of 10 and imported oil products of 4550 ktoe. However, Yemen exports crude oil and natural gas which reached 12,694 ktoe in 2009. Figure 1 shows the energy profile of the country. The grand total of energy production in 2009 reached 15,567 ktoe. The transport sector was accounted for 34 % of the consumption (most consumption), while minimum consumption was due to the tertiary sector. The profile structure can be explained by the fact that only 70 % of the country is covered by electricity, tourist industry is not strong due to the high security risk and biomass is not included in residential consumption. Energy resources The energy resources in Yemen consist of the following: Fig. 1 Energy consumption of different sectors 1. Oil [2]: It is the main source of energy. Yemen indicators and indicators of energy transformation, indus- has been exporting oil since the nineteen eighties. try, tertiary, residential, transport, agriculture and fishing The amount of produced crude oil reached sectors. For each sector 8–12 indicators are calculated. 400,000 barrel/day in nineteen nineties but in In total 50 indicators were calculated covering a period 2009 it was 284 barrel/day. of 7 years, 2003–2009. The civil unrest which started 2. Gas [2]: Currently, the certified gas reserved is end of 2010 early 2011 has made it difficult to extend 18.215 tcf. From this amount 9.5 tcf is allocated for the analysis beyond 2009. The results of the calculations export. The rest can be used for domestic needs or are discussed and analysed. The paper has shown that for export. both energy efficiency and consumption are extremely 3. Renewable Energy Resources: They have a high low in Yemen. Finally, the paper shows also that energy potential. A study carried out by the Consultants dependency is reaching zero soon and within few years Lahmeyer International, Germany assessed these can be positive which shall make the country in a diffi- potentials and had the following findings [9]: cult economic situation due to heavy subsidies on energy a. Wind: preliminary estimates showed that around sector and expected increase of energy consumption. 14,214 MW could be developed at assessed Here one can see the value of this work as an initial step windfarm sites. Economically attractive sites were to help stakeholders of the sector to develop rational en- those with more than 3500 full load hours per ergy strategy for Yemen. year. A capacity of around 2507 MW could be developed at these sites which could generate Energy profile and energy resources around 8293 GWh of electricity per year. Energy profile b. Solar: The annual average solar insolation in Energy demand was in 2009; 7423 thousand ton oil equiva- Yemen ranges from 5.2 to 6.8 kWh/m /day. lent (ktoe) [7, 8]. This demand is met by local production The resource assessment study estimated a Table 1 Macro-level indicators Abb Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 EDR Energy dependence ratio % −417 % −438 % −300 % −286 % −168 % −135 % −110 % IPE Intensity of primary energy toe/10 YR 2.01 1.85 2.34 2.12 2.55 2.56 2.72 IFE Intensity of final energy toe/10 YR 1.54 1.43 1.81 1.66 1.98 2.01 2.13 RFEPE Ratio of final energy consumption to primary energy % 77 % 77 % 77 % 78 % 78 % 78 % 78 % REB Ratio of national energy bill to GDP % 8 % 9 % 13 % 12 % 14 % 16 % 11 % RPSE Ratio of public subsidies for energy to GDP % 0.07 % 0.21 % 0.73 % 1.1 % 1.5 % 3 % 3.6 % AEF Average emission factor teCO /toe 3.06 3.05 3.03 3.02 3.02 3.00 3.00 ICO2 Intensity of CO2 teCO /10 YR 6.15 5.65 7.09 6.40 7.71 7.68 8.16 AECH Average primary energy consumption per habitant ktoe/10 hab 0.218 0.203 0.263 0.241 0.296 0.300 0.325 AELCH Average electricity consumption per habitant MWh/hab 0.143 0.149 0.162 0.173 0.190 0.203 0.203 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 3 of 10 Fig. 2 Energy dependency ratio technical potential for different applications, This is approximately 6 % of the GDP. This situation e.g. solar heating, photovoltaic and solar affects Energy Intensity Indicators. For example, thermal, that could reach 2210 MW. energy intensity could be high because the fuel is c. Geothermal: Yemen is situated near three cheap, see Appendix Table 10. tectonic boundaries which are among the most 2) Shortage of power generation to meet demand is active in the world, viz. the Gulf of Aden, the Red estimated to be 1200 MW. This shortage is around Sea and the Eastern African Rift System. These 30 %. In addition, more than 30 % of the country three tectonic plates meet in a triple junction territory is not covered by electricity supply and creating high geothermal gradient, and many industries have their own power station which subsequently geothermal energy potential was are not connected to the national grid. Therefore, estimated to be 28.5 GW. the average electricity consumption is very low. 3) Biomass (wood, firewood and/or charcoal, dang, etc.) Yemen circumstances affecting energy indicators has substantial participation in rural household energy calculation consumption. This form of energy is not recorded and Yemen has specific factors affecting calculation results varies from 1 year to another depending on some of energy indicators. These factors are listed below: factors such as liquid petroleum gas (LPG) availability, rainfall and unemployment in rural areas. 1) Electricity and oil products are heavily subsidised, 4) Yemen’s GDP is considered to be very low. the subsidies reached around US$2.7 Billion in 2014. According to the IMF [4] Yemen’s GDP per capita Fig. 3 Primary and final energy intensity Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 4 of 10 Fig. 4 Average primary energy and electricity consumption per capita in 2009 was USD 2475 and it was ranked 137 in the  Yearly Statistical Book [7]. world, due to the political instability since 2011 the  Records of many ministries, entities, corporations GDP has been dropping. and organization concerned in energy [10–15]. Records of some international agencies [16]. Indicator analysis Data collection and main sources of data Macro-level indicators Appendix shows basic formulas for calculation of those Macro-level indicators are concerned with the country’sen- indicators which require further clarification. In order ergy status and its impact on the economy, social develop- to calculate the indicators, the necessary data had to be ment and the environment. The importance of macro-level collected. During data collections a number of difficul- indicators of energy of a country comes from the fact they ties were faced some of which are listed below: reflect its level of economic and social development. In addition, macro-level indicators expose other aspects such Access to data sources is not easy, moreover some as environmental issues and energy efficiency. The for- data is considered secret. mulas need to calculate these indicators are presented The political unrest since 2011 has limited the data in Appendix Table 10. In this study the macro level in- availability for these years. dicators include: There are no sector specific data. There is no data history.  Energy dependency, which is related to energy The available data contains discrepancies. import/export status and is an indicator of a Complex routine and bureaucracy in all ministries country’s dependency on energy imports. and even private sector entities.  Intensity of primary energy, intensity of final energy Involvement of various entities in the same task, for and ratio of final energy consumption to primary example transport sector. energy. These three indicators are related to energy The existing databases have limited capacity and efficiency as explained [6]. capability and lack of MIS.  Ratio of final energy bill to GDP, which is related to Unfortunately in Yemen there is no National Data the country economy. Bank.  Average emission factor and intensity of CO . These two indicators are related to environment. In order to comprehensively carry out the task many  Average primary energy consumption per inhabitant sources were used, mainly: and average electricity consumption per inhabitant which are social indicators. Table 2 Electricity generation and consumption Units 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Consumed ktoe 235 253 283 312 351 387 399 Table 3 Yearly Petroleum product production electricity Product LPG Naphtha Kerosene Gasoline Diesel Fuel oil Asphalt Generated ktoe 355 375 410 459 519 563 581 electricity Million Ton 50,144 59437 533,197 918,271 918,105 571,308 925,38 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 5 of 10 Table 4 Indicators of energy transformation Abbreviation Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 SREC Share of installed renewable energy electricity capacity % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 % URIC Usage rate of the installed power generation capacity % 47 % 45 % 49 % 54 % 59 % 61 % 50 % AETS Apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector % 78 % 77 % 78 % 75 % 77 % 74 % 74 % PGEFF Power generation efficiency of thermal plants % 30 % 31 % 32 % 32 % 33 % 33 % 33 % SCFFP Specific consumption of thermal power plants toe/GWh 283.1 281.1 270.1 265.7 259.1 258.6 263.2 PGF Power generation efficiency % 30 31 32 32 33 33 33 SCPG Specific consumption of power generation toe/GWh 283.1 281.1 270.1 265.7 259.1 258.6 263.2 TDEE Transmission and distribution electricity system efficiency % 78 % 80 % 83 % 82 % 83 % 83 % 85 % PGEF Power generation emission factor teCO2/GWh 821 815 783 770 751 750 763 ESEF Electricity sector emission factor teCO2/GWh 1169 1142 1006 999 965 950 951 From Table 1 and as shown in Fig. 2 one can see that demand for energy should be expected in the future as first indicator energy dependence ratio (EDR) was −417 % development programs are implemented. The results in 2003, but in 2009 it climbed to −110 % which means are summarized in Fig. 4. that Yemen was independent in its energy resources until 2009. Furthermore, Yemen exports energy products (oil and gas). However, since the EDR indicator is increasing Energy transformation sector indicators rapidly, one could conclude that Yemen could go into en- Energy transformation sector is related to all forms of ergy dependency phase within few years. energy conversion. In Yemen it includes all forms of The second and third indicators are related to inten- electricity generation and oil refinery. Formulas to calcu- sity of primary and final Energy (IPE &IFE ) which have late these indicators are defined in Appendix Table 11. small values not due high efficiency but because the en- Electricity sector suffers from serious problems, mainly: ergy consumption is comparatively low, the results are shortage of available generating capacities to meet de- summarised in Fig. 3. mand, low efficiency as shown in Table 2, low coverage of It is worth examining the fifth indicator, i.e. Ratio of Na- supply, low reliability, bad quality of services and misman- tional Energy Bill to GDP. The significant growth in this agement. The Sector needs to be reformed and the invest- indicator is deemed a great challenge for Yemen. Thus it ment plans must be implemented. is essential for the State to reform its fuel subsidy policy. In Yemen there are two oil refineries. One was installed Unitary energy and electricity consumption indica- in Aden when it was British Colony, in the middle of last tors show low levels compared to other countries century. The monthly average crude oil refined in Aden which reflect the overall low level of economic devel- Refinery is 2.161 MMbbls. The yearly production profile is opment in Yemen. In addition,theyindicatethathigh shown in Table 3. Fig. 5 Apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 6 of 10 Fig. 6 Transformation sector indicators: electricity sector emission factor and consumption of power generation The other oil refinery is located in Mareb which was Indicators PGF and SCPG are replica of PGEFF & SCFFP installed in the nineteen eighties. The monthly average indicators respectively, because power generation types in of crude oil refined in Mareb Refinery is 250,000 bbls, Yemen is limited to thermal power stations, see Fig. 6. i.e. around 10 % of the capacity of Aden refinery and having almost the same spectrum of oil products. Industrial sector indicators The Table 4 presents the main indicators calculated Industrial sector in Yemen is still at a low level of devel- for transformation sector. The zero share of renewable opment, as the contribution of the industrial sector in energy electricity capacity indicator (SREC) shows that the GDP for 2009 was around 24 %. This fact is clearly renewables are not utilized in spite of their high poten- seen from the amount of energy consumed by the indus- tials (SREC) as discussed in section Energy resources. try sector which reached 15.2 % (881 ktoe) of final en- Usage rate of the installed power generation capacity ergy consumption in 2009 year. Industries like steel and (URIC) indicator reflects power station availability and new cement plants were commissioned in 2011. But utilization. It ranges between 47 and 61 %, which is sig- other heavy industries do not exist. nificantly low. Noticeable sharp reduction of this indica- Final energy intensity for industry is given by final en- tor in 2009 is due to the fact that the Public Electricity ergy consumption of industry sector divided by added Corporation (PEC) started in this year electricity pur- value at a constant price. One can see that the intensity chase from private electricity producers. almost doubled between 2003 and 2009. But this in- Apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector crease occurred due to less increase rate of value added (AETS) indicator, Fig. 5, generally expresses whole en- of the sector. Specific consumption for cement seems to ergy efficiency. It ranges between 78 and 74 %, which is be within the average in similar countries. The results quite low. This fact should encourage concerned entities are summarised in Table 5. to work out initiatives to improve the efficiency. Generation Emission (PGEF) indicator shows slight Tertiary sector indicators improvement in the emission reduction factor. However Due to unavailability of most of data for this sector, the in- this indicator is still high compared to similar countries dicators were not calculated except Energy Intensity which in the region. Specific Fuel Consumption (SCFFP) indi- is defined as the final energy consumption of the tertiary cator shows a reduction in fuel consumption up to 2008. sector divided by the tertiary sector added value at constant In 2009 it slightly increased possibly due to power short- price, as shown in Table 6. Here we notice slight increase in age increases which led to the running of the thermal energy intensity because value added increasing was less plants with lower efficiency. than energy consumption which indicates less efficiency. Table 5 Industrial sector indicators Abbreviation Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 BSEC Specific energy consumption for cement toe/t 0.101 0.099 0.115 0.103 0.110 0.110 0.109 FEIIS Final energy intensity of industry sector toe/10 YR 5.335 5.086 6.548 6.233 7.977 8.358 9.120 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 7 of 10 Table 6 Tertiary sector indicators air-conditioners for year 2009. There is number of reasons behind this result: Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 ➢ Electricity Coverage is around 70 %. Energy Toe/10 YR 2.66 2.43 2.91 2.72 3.18 3.23 3.36 intensity ➢ Around 70 % of dwellings are located in rural areas where this equipment is considered a luxury. Residential sector indicators ➢ High percentage of the population lives in the The fact that around 40 % of the electricity output of mountainous area, i.e. highlands having elevation distribution is consumed by household customers makes higher than 1000 m above sea level and higher, the residential sector of paramount importance. How- where there is no need for air-conditioning. ever, the number of dwellings using electricity supply ❖ Refrigerator Indicator (ERFR), compared with other represents less than 70 %. In order to meet the inhabi- countries in the region, shows a low rate, in 1000 tants’ demands for lighting, cooking, heating, cooling dwells there were only 217 refrigerators for year and other residential activities. This sector consumes 2003 and 304 units for year 2009. This situation is other forms of energy, such as gas, kerosene, wood and explained partially by above mentioned reasons of biomass in addition to electricity. From Table 7 the fol- air-conditioning indicator. But these rates are higher lowing observations can be made: than air-condition rate because: ➢ A refrigerator is considered basic need for urban ❖ The unit consumption of energy (kgoe/Dw) indicator household. is generally low but its average increase rate is high, ➢ Electricity consumption of refrigerator is lower almost 6 % per year. The low level is explained by than that of air-conditioners. the low economic development of the country. ➢ Refrigerators are needed in all areas of Yemen. ❖ Electricity consumption of household indicator is also low but its average increase rate is high, almost 4.8 % Transport sector indicators per year. It should be noticed that during these years It is worth noting that the transportation sector consumed and up to now there is severe power shortage. Which around 34 % of final energy consumption for 2009. This resulted in daily power cut-offs of at least 30 % of fact shows the importance of initiating and developing en- maximum demand. Therefore the figures shown in ergy saving policy in this sector. Table 7 are lower than what they should be. Referring to overall intensity of final energies, transport ❖ Energy intensity, defined as final energy energy intensity indicator reflects the high energy con- consumption of the residential sector divided by sumption level of this sector (34 %). The intensity in- household expenses at a constant price, has creased from 0.684 toe/Million RY in 2003 to 0.629 increased probably due to the increase in the toe/Million YR in 2009 (see Table 8). This is more likely number of households which have been connected due the increase in the fuel price in that period. Share of to electricity supply. household expenditure for transport indicator shows ❖ Although the energy products are subsidized, energy significant increase from less 16 to 19 % which negatively intensity indicator seems too low. This is because impacts household living quality. Motorization Rate (MR) other forms of fuel were not included (biomass) indicator shows that the increase rate of vehicles was which are used extensively in rural areas. In addition, higher than population increase rate (see Table 8). some dwellings included in the total number may Coupled with the very high population growth rate such a use negligible amount of energy and some may be rapid increase is not sustainable. not occupied by households. ❖ Air-conditioning diffusion rate shows low figures, Agriculture and fishing sector indicators i.e. in 100 dwells there were only 11 air-conditioners Agriculture and fishing sector is the most important for the year 2003. This figure increased up to 12 sector for national economy because more that 70 % of Table 7 Indicators of residential sector Abbr. Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 UCED Unit consumption of energy per dwelling kgoe/Dw 183.40 179.39 226.09 216.54 257.68 266.74 283.16 UEICD Unit consumption of electricity per dwelling kWh/Dw 398.78 415.80 447.32 486.02 532.88 561.83 562.52 RIPE Intensity of residential sector toe/Million LC 2.66 2.57 3.21 2.84 3.14 3.14 3.04 ERACR Equipment rate of air conditioning in residential sector Unit/Dw 0.111 0.111 0.113 0.112 0.114 0.123 0.120 ERFR Equipment rate of refrigerator in residential sector Unit/Dw 0.217 0.230 0.244 0.254 0.275 0.288 0.303 Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 8 of 10 Table 8 Indicators of transport sector Abb Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 TrFEI Final energy intensity of transport sector toe/Million YR 0.684 0.629 0.805 0.729 0.882 0.889 0.947 STEHE Share of household expenditure for transport % 16 % 17 % 19 % 19 % 18 % 19 % 18 % EUCC Average energy unit consumption of cars kgeo/car/year 1518 1518 1518 1518 1518 1518 1518 EUCC G Average energy unit consumption of gasoline cars kgeo/car/year 1755 1755 1755 1755 1755 1755 1755 EUCC D Average energy unit consumption of diesel Cars kgeo/car/year 734 734 734 734 734 734 734 AEFTS Average emission factor of transport sector teCO2/toe 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 MR Motorization rate persons/Vehicle 61.1 56.9 52.8 50.8 48.7 47.4 45.0 ICO2 CO2 intensity of transport sector kgeCO2/YR 1.99 1.82 2.33 2.12 2.56 2.58 2.75 population live in rural areas where agriculture and due to political unrest since 2011. For the first time such fishing are the main activities. Furthermore, great ef- an exercise is performed in Yemen. This work can be forts are paid to restrict population flow from rural considered a foundation upon which future reforms to the areas to urban areas. This goal cannot be achieved un- energy sector in Yemen can be built. This task can be less there is sustainable development in rural areas. Hence considered one of most important due to expected impact the main aspect should be the agriculture development. of this study on the energy sector in particular and to the Therefore energy indicators for agriculture and fishing country development in general. Going through this sector have particular importance to rural development exercise a number of observations may be pointed out: and to the national economy. The indicators are defined in Appendix Table 13. 1. Most of the entities concerned are not enthusiastic From Table 9 the following observations can be made: about energy conservation and energy efficiency indicators. Final energy Intensity for agriculture increased 2. Data availability and data structure did not meet more than 53 % between 2003 and 2009. But this the standard formulation requirements of energy increase was due to less increase rate of added conservation and energy efficiency indicator value of the sector. calculation. Energy Indicators for fishing show the high 3. Having analysed the energy profile, energy resources economical value of this sector with respect to and the energy indicators one may conclude that: energy consumption and energy intensity. This is a. There is a high potential for renewable energy due energy subsidy and large amount of fishes in the resources in Yemen, which imposes the necessity Red Sea and Arab Sea. to take into account these resources in any future More than 90 % of wells are equipped with diesel planning and energy strategy development. engine pumps rather than electrical pumps because b. Energy dependency curve shows that the most of rural areas are not covered by electricity breakeven point (when the export and import of supply. energy are equal) could take place within 2–3 years. This result is very alarming and decision Conclusion makers must develop policies to meet the future This work presented a summary of the energy indicators energy needs of the country. The amount of for Yemen up to 2009. Further data could not be collected exported oil is rapidly decreasing because of the Table 9 Agriculture and fishing sector indicators Indicators Unit 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Final energy intensity of agriculture toe/10 YR 6.97 6.76 8.85 8.12 9.73 9.79 1.07 Final energy intensity of fishing toe/10 YR 7.85 7.73 6.76 6.88 8.61 1.02 1.01 Specific consumption for fishing toe/tone 0.066 0.067 0.0721 0.0783 0.118 0.166 0.113 Share of dry cultivated area % 47 % 47 % 48 % 49 % 50 % 49 % 47 % Share of irrigated cultivated area % 53 % 53 % 52 % 51 % 50 % 51 % 53 % Share of equipped wells with diesel pumps % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 93 % Share of equipped wells with electric pumps % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % 7 % Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 9 of 10 drop in oil production and the increase in Table 11 Transformation sector consumption. The depletion of oil is estimated to No Unit Formula take place within 10–15 years 1 Usage rate of the installed % Total generated electricity/ power generation capacity Total installed generation c. Low level of energy consumption and electricity capacity consumption compared with similar countries 2 Apparent Efficiency of % Transformation Sector Energy should warn decision makers about possible Energy Transformation Output Transformation Sector significant increase in energy demand of the Sector Energy Input country in the coming years. 3 Transmission and % Total Electricity Output of the d. From the above two points it is clear that the Distribution Electricity Transmission and Distribution existing level of state fuel subsidies is not system Efficiency System/Total Electricity Input to the Transmission and sustainable. Distribution System e. Calculated low energy efficiency in different 4 Power Generation Emission Te/GW Electricity sector emissions/ energy sectors should encourage decision Factor Total generated electricity makers to invest in energy conservation 5 Electricity Sector Emission Te/GW Electricity sector emissions/ research and studies. Factor Total Electricity Output of the f. This paper has shown that the fishing sector is the Transmission and Distribution System most economical one, which should encourage decision makers to invest in the fishing industry. g. The paper also can be considered as a first initiative in establishing an energy indicator framework in Yemen. Therefore it would lead to open up a wide possibility for further research works in energy sector, for instance: Establish a data bank suitable for calculation of energy indicators Further development of the energy indicator framework to include more indicators and continuous update of the introduced Table 12 Industrial sector indicators. No Unit Formula Link energy indicator framework to sustainable 1 Final Energy Intensity Toe/YR Final Energy Consumption development in Yemen of transport sector of Transport Sector/GDP at Link energy indicators to energy demand constant price forecast; hence help develop country energy 2 CO2 intensity of teCO2/YR Transport sector emissions/ strategy. transport sector GDP at constant price Endnotes GDP constant Price 1990 Appendix Indicator calculation Table 10 Macro-level indicator No Indicator Unit Formula 1 Energy dependence % Gross Energy Production in/ Ratio Primary energy consumption Table 13 Agriculture and fishing sector indicators 2 Intensity of Primary Toe/YR Primary energy consumption/ No Unit Formula Energy GDP at constant price 1 Final Energy Intensity Toe/YR Final Energy Consumption 3 Intensity of Final Toe/YR Final energy consumption/ of agriculture of Agriculture sector/Added Energy GDP at constant price Value of agriculture sector 4 Average emission Te/Toe Energy sector CO2 emissions/ at constant price factor Primary energy consumption 2 Final Energy Intensity Toe /YR Final Energy Consumption of 5 Intensity of CO2 Te/YR Energy sector CO2 emissions/GDP of fishing fishing sector/Added Value of at constant price fishing at constant price Al-Ashwal Future Cities and Environment (2016) 2:3 Page 10 of 10 Abbreviations AETS: apparent efficiency of energy transformation sector; Bbls: barrels; Dw: dwell; EDR: energy dependence ratio; ERFR: equipment rate of refrigerator in residential sector; GDP: gross domestic product; Gwh: giga watts hour; IFE: intensity of final energy; IMF: International Monetary Fund; IPE: intensity of primary energy; Kgoe: kilo gram oil equivalent; ktoe: thousand ton oil equivalent; kWh: kilo watts hour; LPG: liquid petroleum gas; m: Metre; MENA: Middle East and North Africa Region; MMbbls: million barrels; MR: motorization rate; MW: mega watts; MW: mega watts; PEC: Public Electricity Corporation; PGEF: generation emission; RE: renewable energy; SCFFP: specific fuel consumption of thermal power plant; SREC: shared of renewable energy capacity; Tcf: trillion cubic feet; URIC: usage rate of the installed power generation capacity. Competing interests The author declares that he has no competing interests. Author’s contributions The main contribution of this paper is that it establishes for first time an energy indicator framework in Yemen. The well-known significance of such framework for any country exposes the importance of this paper. Acknowledgement The Author would like to express his deep gratitude to Plan-Blue of France for its financial and technical support. Special thanks for RCREEE, Alcor and all Yemeni concerned entities for their help and cooperation with the Author. Received: 4 November 2015 Accepted: 21 March 2016 References 1. Missaoui R, Hassine HB, Mourtada A (2012) Energy efficiency indicators in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries 2. UN Department of policy co-ordination and sustainable development (1996) Integrating environment and development in decision-making 3. Vera I, Langlois L (2007) Energy indicators for sustainable development. Energy 32(6):875–882 4. 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Ministry of Agriculture, Sana’a 11. Ministry of Fishing (2009) Annual Reports. Ministry of Fishing, Sana’a 12. Ministry of Interior (2009) Records of Traffic Department. Ministry of Interior, Sana’a 13. Ministry of Oil and Minerals (2013) Annual reports. Ministry of Oil and Minerals, Sana’a Submit your manuscript to a 14. Public Electricity Corporation (2009) Records of Public Electricity journal and benefi t from: Corporation. PEC, Sana’a 15. Yemen Cement Corporation (2009) Annual report. Yemen Cement 7 Convenient online submission Corporation, Sana’a 7 Rigorous peer review 16. World Bank. Household energy supply and use in Yemen. World Bank; 2009. 7 Immediate publication on acceptance 7 Open access: articles freely available online 7 High visibility within the fi eld 7 Retaining the copyright to your article Submit your next manuscript at 7 springeropen.com

Journal

Future Cities and Environment – Springer Journals

Published: Apr 1, 2016

References

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    Missaoui, R; Hassine, HB; Mourtada, A
  • Integrating environment and development in decision-making
  • Energy indicators for sustainable development
    Vera, I; Langlois, L
  • Energy indicators for sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies
  • Energy indicators for tracking sustainability in developing countries
    Kemmler, A; Spren, D
  • Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics
  • Annual Reports
  • Annual Reports
  • Records of Traffic Department
  • Annual reports
  • Records of Public Electricity Corporation
  • Annual report