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Effects of nightlife activities on urban spaces and design: a case study of Cairo, Egypt

Effects of nightlife activities on urban spaces and design: a case study of Cairo, Egypt Hyper-diversity in old communities should be rehabilitated to address various man-made changes that threaten sustainability and viability at night. This study elucidates this argument by reviewing and synthesising theoretical and empirical evidence about urban governance support regarding the participation of neighbourhood residents to improve or eliminate nightlife. The method is based on a systematic review, direct observation and interview with random samples of residents, workers and visitors in commercial and recreational places. This study criticises changes in the public space of the Al-Hussein Mosque, which led to changes in urban forms and affected the nightlife in Old Cairo. However, it asserts that the hyper-diversity of activities in public spaces because of the lack of urban govern- ance controls should consider changes in terms of the participation of vulnerable groups in nightlife. A new concep- tual framework for interpreting stakeholders’ positive and negative responses is proposed, which operates across four overlapping steps of urban governance: predicting, proposing, preparing and preventing. Keywords: Hyper-diversity, Participation, Old Cairo, Vulnerable groups, Urban governance focusing on the hyper-diversity of such activities (Tasan- Introduction Kok et al., 2014). Furthermore, several theorists have dis- Over the past two decades, there has been considerable cussed diversity and hyper-diversity from the perspective research on the diversity of urban environment charac- of spatial diversity in normal diurnal time as per mixed teristics and its influence on urban form and daily life use to achieve place vitality and social cohesion (Ahmadi, (Alipour & Ahmed, 2021; Nguyen, 2018; Sharifi, 2019). 2018; Ballet et al., 2020). In turn, hyper-diversity supports Some studies investigated the impact of the diversity of a sense of intimacy and stimulates a sense of belong- these characteristics on nightlife patterns (Kalinauskaite ing (Tasan-Kok et  al., 2014). However, a significant part et  al., 2018; Nofre et  al., 2017; Hadfield, 2015), focusing of academic work and applied research within urban on night regulations and the need for permanent struc- planning and design that discuss issues related to urban tures for night governance that challenge traditional form and daily experience (McClinchey, 2017) primarily urban management methods (Seijas & Gelders, 2021). focuses on daytime activities (Kalinauskaite et al., 2018). Moreover, the appeals to examine the reasons for the The literature on social sciences and urban studies has changing urban nightlife associated with urban transfor- discussed the theory of hyper-diversity in relation to life- mation in several public spaces in old communities with a style (Dean et al., 2018; Peterson, 2016). This theory goes historical dimension have been increasing (Kalinauskaite beyond ethnicity and socio-economic differences; it cov - et al., 2018; Peterson, 2016; van Liempt et al., 2014). ers the complex relationships between the variables that The literature on urban studies has discussed the effects occur in the urban environment because of the diversity of diversity of activities in public spaces, specifically present in each situation (Kraftl et al., 2019). Regarding the exanimation of nightlife activities, few *Correspondence: abeer.elshater@eng.asu.edu.eg studies have highlighted issues related to night-time Department of Urban Design and Planning, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt planning (Seijas & Gelders, 2021), many of which focused Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 2 of 16 on issues such as urban entertainment (Campo & Ryan, examined the urban nightlife atmosphere (Kalinauskaite 2008), night-time city (Roberts & Eldridge, 2019), night- et al., 2018). However, urban studies in general and Egyp- life atmosphere (Kalinauskaite et al., 2018), urban change tian studies in particular lack a conceptual framework (Nofre et  al., 2017) and artificial lighting (Talebian & and tools for creating harmony between residents and Riza, 2020). Meanwhile, the discussion on social sus- local entity participation in terms of urban control in tainability dimensions, especially the sustainability of old cities with a historical character. This issue requires the community in terms of social inclusion and sense of reviewing the concept of belonging and the reasons for belonging (Kohon, 2018), is scarce (Alipour & Ahmed, the loss of the sense of belonging from three perspectives: 2021; Ballet et  al., 2020). Moreover, sense of belonging (1) the increased diversity of nightlife activities in public because of urban nightlife and form changes require fur- spaces and their influence on the uniqueness of the place ther examination (Abussada et al., 2021). and its historical value, (2) overlooked participation of The literature has described sense of belonging and its vulnerable groups in development projects and their loss importance to citizens, as well as how its loss can lead of responsibility and (3) the absence of urban governance to problems (Pinkster, 2016; Yuval-Davis, 2006), such and decision-making systems that limit changes in the as the lack of place (Russo, 2021) and the willingness of characteristics of the place, especially those that stipulate vulnerable groups to care for a place as if they owned it the importance of the participation of vulnerable groups (Elshater 2019). People who initially lost their sense of in developing their local communities. belonging refuse to participate in city development and The study addresses the absence or non-implementa - become provocateurs of spatial violations in terms of the tion of urban governance and decision-making systems elements of urban form and daily life (Nofre et al., 2017). to promote the participation of vulnerable and disad- These violations frequently appear in two aspects: visual vantaged groups, specifically residents and expatriate pollutants and behavioural reactions (Chmielewski et al., workers, in developing their communities with local gov- 2016; Portella, 2014). A recent systematic review found ernments. Ignoring this problem may deteriorate urban that an individual’s sense of belonging diminishes when nightlife. one loses the ability to participate in critical decisions This study’s objectives are related to the nightlife char - about where to live; recent studies have examined this acteristics of ancient cities. The first objective is inves - problem (Peterson, 2016; Pinkster, 2016). This problem tigating the impact of over-diversified changes in the also is observed when people reject urban changes and activities of public places during night time in an Egyp- are unable to participate in required discussions, even if tian historical context, which is recognised on the facades such changes are relevant to them. Because of these fac- of buildings and constructed features of public places. tors, issue emerges that this feeling of neglect can lead This study focuses on the facades and adjacent outdoor to frustration and loss of sense of place (Elshater, 2019). spaces of new and historical buildings with uses and Generally, this feeling generates negative behaviours functions on the ground floor (Dean et  al., 2018; Kraftl towards the place or even failure to repel attacks on the et  al., 2019). The second objective is setting up a frame - place (Dastgerdi, & Luca, 2019). work that can foster societal justice and its association In this manner, an individual becomes a spectator with decision-making and participation. In terms of the from afar and does not offer interference. Therefore, the research problem, this study selects the case of Al-Hus- absence or non-implementation of urban governance sein in Cairo, Egypt, which is an old community that has and decision-making systems in order to encourage vul- a historical dimension. The study intends to demonstrate nerable and disadvantaged groups, such as residents and that the hyper-diversity of activities in public spaces is a expatriate workers, to participate in developing their predictor of changes in urban form as a spatial domain areas with their local governments is an aspect that and in nightlife as a time domain. Additionally, this may lead to urban nightlife deterioration. Thus, sense of study emphasises the impact of vulnerable groups’ non- belonging due to changes in urban nightlife, urban form participation in development projects on nightlife. This and urban governance should be investigated. change occurs through the agreement to, or prevention Studies that focus on night-time planning (van Liempt of, changes initiated by local governments, visitors or et  al., 2014) and the governance of the night-time city labourers (Nofre et  al., 2017). The study also focuses on and night-time activities are few (Hadfield, 2015; Roberts the extent of the link between these changes and sense & Eldridge, 2019; Seijas & Gelders, 2021). Such studies of belonging. This study could be beneficial to the rele - have investigated the socio-physical context, behaviour vant communities, policymakers and/or urban planners and experiences revealed from activities in public spaces as it investigates the potential advantages of the hyper- that are very apparent, such as meeting others (van diversity of nightlife activities in public spaces and their Liempt et al., 2014, p. 418). Moreover, some studies have transformation during the night. Further, it is hoped that Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 3 of 16 developing a conceptual framework and a tool will enable The results yielded 13,647 documents. The authors lim - policymakers to improve the nightlife atmosphere. ited the selection by randomly picking articles published by authors with a Scopus h-index higher than six and only including articles written in English. Books, book Data collection and processing chapters and conference proceedings were excluded from The study focuses on the effects of hyper-diversity of the list. The aim of scanning the results was to deter - nightlife activities in public spaces, which may occur mine whether the hyper-diversity of nightlife activities in among vulnerable and non-affiliated users. Such an effect public spaces improve or threaten nightlife. Data mining may also negatively affect the nightlife ambiance in old intends to investigate the effect of the absence of vulner - communities in Cairo. This study used two approaches— able and non-affiliated groups in decision-making on the namely, systematic review and observation/interview— hyper-diversity and threat of nightlife. to investigate hyper-diversity in historical sites, such as Al-Hussein. Case study setting Old Cairo (969 AD) in Egypt is an ancient city (Hassan Data mining in literature et  al., 2016); it features multiple historical monuments, The systematic review identified six topic clusters. such as the Al-Azhar Mosque (972 AD), Al-Hussein Scimago Journal & Country Rank, powered by Scopus, Mosque (1154), Khan Al-Khalili Bazaar (1882) and was used for identifying studies related to this topic. An numerous historical buildings (O’Kane, 2016). In the in-depth scoping review was conducted on 26 randomly- Al-Gamaleya District in Old Cairo, the public space of selected articles from 18 journals between 2014 and 2021 the Al-Hussein Mosque is one of the most well-known (Fig. 1). This review identified coexisting words in article historical sites in Egypt (Fig.  3). The mosque establish - titles, abstracts and keywords (see Additional file  1 and ment date is in 1873 (O’Kane, 2016). Fig. 2). Old Cairo is characterised as a mixed residential, com- These words included [TITLE–ABS–KEY (social AND mercial, religious and entertainment district with high sustainability) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY (resilience) AND population densities (600–800 persons per hectare). TITLE–ABS–KEY (nightlife) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY It is home to residents with economic classes ranging (urban AND from) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY (everyday from low to medium, and it can be considered a tourist AND lifestyle) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY (principles) OR attraction and one the most traditional areas that remain TITLE–ABS–KEY (old AND cities) OR TITLE–ABS– popular in terms of the socio-cultural morphology. These KEY (guidance AND for AND practitioners)]. attributes can be observed through the characteristics of Journals h-index 36 1. ArchitecturalScience Review………………………………. 2. Cities…………………………………………………………………… Date of 3. City andCommunity …………………………………………… 4. City,Culture andSociety ……………………………………. 27 publication 5. City,Territory andArchitecture.............................. 6. Conservation ScienceinCulturalHeritage............ 7. Future Cities andEnvironment …………………………… 8. JournalofPlanningEducation andResearch………. 9. JournalofSustainable Tourism…………………………… 10. JournalofTravel& TourismMarketing……………….. 11. Leisure/Loisir………………………………………………………. 12. Planning Practice &Research…………………………… 13. Scandinavian JournalofPsychology…………………… 14. Social &CulturalGeography ……………………………… 15. Sustainabledevelopment …………………………………. 16. Urban Planning…………………………………………………… 24 17. Urban Research &Practice................................... 18. Urban Studies………………………………………………….. Fig. 1 Eighteen journals between 2014 and 2021 Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 4 of 16 Concepts Sustainabilityand resilience Urbannightlife Urbanform& everyday lifestyles 2 Resilient 6 Atmospheres Behaviour Sustainability (cultural, 9 Night-time (activity, Community development, urbanism city,and economy) Everyday (life/practices) urbandevelopment,and Nightlife 2 Festivals/Festival attributes urbanforms) Lifestyles 5 Social Urbanforms sustainability Vulnerable (groups) Guidance for Principles Approaches practitioners Oldcities People’s belonging& Lessonslearned hyper-diversity Belonging 4 Management 8 Compact(ness) Diversity Participation 3 Compactcity 24 38 Hyper-diversity Planning practice 4 Conservation 2 3 Placediversity Policy 1 Density 10 Senseof 5 Policy-makers 9 Heritage (community/place) Regulation 2 Preservation 6 44 Social (cohesion, Urbangovernance 2 Urbanchange dimension, inclusion, interactions,and justice) Fig. 2 Coexisting words and numbers refer to word appearance the population, such as clothing, food, activities, behav- over-diversification of the transformation in night-time iour and attitudes. Al-Gamaleya District encompasses activities. Figure  4 shows the urban form of Al-Hussein various types of professions, such as public and private public place (as a case study) in an abstract form and the sector employers, small private businesses and street changes in the hyper-diversity of the building uses and vendors. activities. Over time, especially at the end of the twentieth cen- tury, developers of the Al-Hussein  districts’ urban fab- ric maintained compact, dense tissue characteristics as Ethnographic and participatory study much as possible. Nevertheless, many changes occurred In ethnographic research, two methods—namely, direct owing to unplanned projects and spatial encroachments, observation and semi-structured interviews with resi- especially in terms of the hyper-diversity of activities. dents, workers and visitors—can be used to investigate The residential area in Al-Hussein seems similar to various challenges. traditional residential places in terms of its functions, The outdoor public space of Al-Hussein Mosque in Old activities, urban form and lifestyle. However, the resi- Cairo is a suitable setting to conduct direct observation. dential district characteristics in Al-Hussein in terms of This area was selected based on the regular visits con - urban form and those of many communities in Old Cairo ducted by the authors on Fridays for familiarity for data (Historic or Fatimid Cairo) appear to be traditional resi- collection. The authors conducted observations on Friday dential areas. In fact, Al-Hussein Square only slightly dif- evenings for 3 months (April to September 2020), mostly fers from its counterparts in built-up districts in terms from 7:00 PM until midnight. Fridays and Saturdays are of jobs, activities, urban form and nightlife. The urban considered days off for employees in several formal insti - form of Al-Hussein not only exerts a substantial effect tutions in the Middle East and Northern Africa. During on nightlife transformation but also changes with the the study period, Ramadan (a Hijri month in the Islamic Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 5 of 16 Fig. 3 Location of the case study of Al-Hussein Square calendar) was celebrated in Arab countries (from 23 April Elshater et  al. 2019). We observed and recorded the to 23 May 2020). behaviours of residents and visitors. Ramadan is one of the most significant religious, cul - The study obtained information about the reactions of tural, festive and recreational event in many cities. residents and visitors to the variables of hyper-diversity Ramadan is the fourth pillar of Islam, when Muslims are in nightlife activities. The authors developed a semi- required to fast from sunrise to sunset. Frequently, many structured interview through a random sample of eight Muslims venture outside their homes to take Iftar (meals residents and workers in commercial and recreational eaten by Muslims after sunset during Ramadan) and places and four visitors. The interviewees were divided Suhor (late meals before starting the feast) in restaurants into two groups according to their reason to visit. The and cafes scattered in the public spaces. The nightlife interview focused on the following questions: in certain historical sites around downtown Cairo lack documentation. Generally, small-scale venues comprise 1. Does the hyper-diversity of nightlife activities in pub- monuments and buildings, such as Al-Hussein Mosque. lic spaces improve or threaten nightlife? Selecting such context for observation enabled the 2. Does the absence of vulnerable and non-affiliated authors to document the changes that occurred in night- groups in decision-making increase the hyper-diver- life activities, especially the hyper-diversity of nightlife sity of nightlife or threaten it? activities in public spaces. We adhered to the definition of diversity and intensity of activities after identifying the Additional data were collected to address the gaps in indicators of excessive diversity from theoretical stud- our data through a limited interview with random sam- ies (Abusaada & Elshater 2021a; Campo & Ryan, 2008; ples of residents and workers in the commercial and Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 6 of 16 Fig. 4 The hyper-diversity of the uses and activities and the abstract of urban form (figure and ground) Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 7 of 16 recreational places and some visitors. The interview - and places (Peterson, 2016). Social diversity occurred ees were also separated into two groups based on their because of globalisation and the influx of immigrants into needs. The interview focused on the above-mentioned European and North American countries. These groups questions. intended to obtain better community services (Dean Focus groups discussions were led by the researchers. et  al., 2018) but may face challenges in nightlife activi- Responses from the interviewees were grouped into two ties (Nofre et al., 2017). Thus, the study investigates these categories. The first focused on functional transforma - challenges. tions, which are particularly related to the chaotic use of public spaces at night, while the second highlights Changes in the characteristics of old cities during nightlife the visual and aesthetic dimensions related to the hyper- Nofre et al. (2017) and Kalinauskaite et al. (2018) showed diversity of activities on the facades of residential, com- that marginalised societies and those who feel that they mercial and historical buildings. do not belong to a place may experience significant social The subsequent two sections discuss the results: the impacts, especially in terms of nightlife. These studies first reviews the selected articles and offers recommenda - compared the behaviours of permanent residents and tions about improving nightlife, and the second describes new consumers of the nightlife in the district of Bairro the design and experience of Cairo as a case study. Alto, Lisbon, and found that expansion and commodifi - cation are among the most influential factors that change First Results: Deductive argument in terms the characteristics of nightlife. Moreover, Kalinauskaite of nightlife and hyper‑diversity et  al. (2018) confirmed that diversity, unfamiliarity and Definition of hyper‑diversity and its relationship lack of awareness of behavioural norms may increase with belonging aggression in night-time events in North Brabant, Eind- Previous studies have defined place diversity as a form hoven, the Netherlands. Moreover, crowded streets and of social and economic mixing, that is, the combina- filth in the environment strongly affect people’s mood. tion of people with different incomes, races, household To enable urban governance in a night economy and sizes, lifestyles and non-residential activities with other a more inclusive city, urban strategies should address uses and functions of the land. In this research, diver- prevalent issues, such as licensed buildings saturation, sity denotes the dynamics, behaviour patterns, lifestyles alcohol-based definition of the night economy and dia - and activities of individuals, which add to various daily logue and cooperation between city governments and the experiences (Tasan-Kok et  al., 2014). Hyper-diversity nightlife industry (Seijas & Gelders, 2021). The literature focuses on the dense diversity of the population in terms on managing nightlife transformation has used complex of lifestyle, attitudes and activities (Kraftl et  al., 2019). methods to gather data and plan mechanisms in order to The extent of its strength or weakness is evident through address nightlife problems (Hadfield, 2015), such as over - interactions between society members according to their crowding, noise levels and traffic congestion (Abusaada behavioural situations, which are governed by the follow- & Elshater, 2021b, 2020). Moreover, previous research ing criteria: sense of belonging, dealing with strangers recommends that the nightlife economy should develop and willingness to participate. The literature documents laws and regulations using software to facilitate mobility, four concepts associated with hyper-diversity, namely, reduce noise and enhance compatibility between users of social cohesion (Ahmadi, 2018), social mobility (Alipour outdoor places (van Liempt et al., 2014; Talebian & Riza, & Ahmed, 2021), economic performance (Kalinauskaite 2020; Yun, 2021). et al., 2018) and governance (Hadfield, 2015). Some stud - ies have discussed three theoretical foundations, namely, financial health (Hassan et  al., 2016), social equity Guidelines for improving nightlife in terms of urban (Nguyen, 2018) and sustainability (Ballet et  al., 2020; governance and decision‑making Bibri et  al., 2020;  McClinchey, 2017; Seijas & Gelders, According to a systematic review, the following urban 2021). toolkit includes techniques to assist practitioners and In city planning, some studies found that structural policymakers with development plans (McClinchey, and repetitive confrontations could eliminate stereotypes 2017). This toolkit aims to achieve a liveable, resilient and and challenge prejudice (Fu et  al., 2017; Sakamoto et  al., safe nightlife in public places in the districts of the old 2018; Sharifi, 2019). Investigative studies proposed that city. Moreover, it interprets the participants of the cur- familiarity with diversity is essential for stimulating a rent ethnographic study. The kit includes three tools. sense of ‘home’ in multi-cultural and multi-ethnic com- The first discusses the hyper-diversity of nightlife activ - munities (Kohon, 2018). Against this background, this ities in public spaces and focuses on the behaviour of study defines the variety and hyper-diversity of people Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 8 of 16 long-term residents, expat workers and out-of-place visi- 3. Preventing inequalities and social exclusion by guid- tors and provides five pointers: ing citizens (Kohon, 2018). 4. Supporting urban participation and involvement 1. Articulating the hyper-diversity of activities accord- (Chen et al., 2020; Nguyen, 2018): ing to the complex relationships between the urban environment and control based on people’s everyday • Promoting public involvement in the value assess- life patterns (Tasan-Kok et al., 2014). ment of heritage (Megeirhi et al., 2020). 2. Recognising spaces for accommodation and inter- • Emphasising the local citizens’ sense of place and mingling to enhance place belonging (Tasan-Kok daily life. et al., 2014). 3. Identify the principles of the hyper-diversity of activi- 5. Expanding the notion of nocturnal governance (Sei- ties based on the relationship between people and jas & Gelders, 2021): places (Dean et al., 2018; Kraftl et al., 2019; Peterson, 2016). • Ensuring social order after dark. 4. Navigating public spaces based on familiarity (Peter- • Mediating and collaborating between socio-eco- son, 2016): nomic and cultural issues. • Familiarity provides a sense of safety and control. The third tool focuses on guidelines for entertain - • Familiarity with diversity stimulates a sense of ment zones, nightlife atmosphere, night spaces, urban home. change, unplanned nightlife and artificial lighting • Physical and social proximity enable people to feel (Campo & Ryan, 2008; Kalinauskaite et al., 2018; Nofre at home and connected to others. et  al., 2017; Talebian et  al., 2020). These guidelines • The context of hyper-diversity is related to the intend to improve the nightlife in public places in old forms of collective lifestyle. communities in relation to night-time planning (Seijas & Gelders, 2021) and heritage assets (Chen et al., 2020). 5. Discussing the aspects affected by the hyper-diversity This tool follows four guidelines: of activities during daily performances, materiality and emotion that articulate and produce social differ - 1. Improving, developing and upgrading the histori- ences, such as on-shop fronts and lampposts (Kraftl cal context to achieve high-quality performance and et al., 2019). liveability. 2. Emulating the heterotopic qualities of entertainment The second tool focuses on the necessity of urban zones (Campo & Ryan, 2008): participation/public involvement with policymakers in presenting urban guidelines. This phase focuses on five • Physical and experiential qualities project a unique pointers: nature. • Physical and experiential characteristics should be 1. Preventing chaos that violates the stipulated require- considered. ments, particularly during festivals (Fu et al., 2017): • Probable economic and social benefits have finan - cial returns to citizens. • Preventing changes in urban form, land use and • Transformation of downtown places from being activities: dangerous to exciting. • Organising festive events in a manner appropriate to the historical context. 3. Enhancing the economy, socialisation, identity crea- • Involving residents and visitors in organising and tion, and nightlife leisure (van Liempt et al., 2014). directing the events. • Establishing drinking experiences, cultures and 2. Preparing progressive and balanced sustainable urban atmospheres through spatiality. development plans (Nguyen, 2018): • Respecting territoriality, that is, ‘being in an envi- ronment where people behave similarly’ and • Striking a balance between modern requirements appreciate its implications. and the preservation of history. • Striking a balance between multi-cultural visitors 4. Harnessing the territorial capital as represented and the stability of residents. by heritage assets for the benefit of the current and Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 9 of 16 future societies, which influence complex frame garden is situated at the centre of the square enclosed by planning practices (Kohon, 2018) and actions (Chen fences to prevent pedestrian access to this small garden. et al., 2020) from the institutional, cultural and socio- Many benches are placed nearby for resting. economic contexts: Most of the lifestyle transformation occurred in the twentieth century and progressed in the last two decades. • Providing immediate action plans that drive These changes occurred because of the widespread use changes in urban form. of technology. However, the majority of dissatisfaction • Securing government funding to advance conser- with the place is mainly with the changes in shop owners vation planning objectives. on the one hand and the actions of neighbourhood engi- • Promoting development strategies and local gov- neers in local municipalities that changed the lifestyle on ernments for projects that combine heritage, local the other hand, besides the complaint of employees in development and amenity goals. the streets, street vendors and beggars. The Al-Hussein • Avoiding fake restoration with ‘no attempt to district implemented many development projects. Ironi- depict the new as original’. cally, in 2017, a new development project was launched, which targeted three axes. The first is constructing a mosque to encompass a significant number of worshipers by expanding its internal architectural space, building Second results: observing hyper‑diversity a basement and allocating a part of the public space to in activities during nightlife become a covered outdoor courtyard for prayer. Moreo- Indirect observation ver, Al-Hussein Square provided space to facilitate entry The morphological transformations have two dimen - and exit to the mosque. The second is preserving the aes - sions. The first is physical, which includes (1) road traf - thetics and decorations of the mosque, such as restoring fic networks and pedestrian movement on arterial roads, facades, minarets, wooden ceilings, internal lighting sys- local streets, underground tunnels and public/open tems and places of ablution. Al-Hussein Mosque included spaces and (2) the construction transformations of archi- the external courtyard. The third is orienting all pedes - tectural buildings, mainly historic buildings surrounding trian traffic lanes, green areas and vertical mobility to the the public square of Al-Hussein Mosque. The second is Qibla direction. Furthermore, public space in the sur- the non-physical dimension, which describes the demo- rounding context was developed in terms of urban design graphic and socio-cultural characteristics that encom- or landscape architecture. pass nightlife transformations. An indirect observation may determine the choice of The Al-Azhar Tunnel is the primary traffic network in the data collection method. Recently, the changes that Old Cairo, separating the site into two parts. The first occurred in the public space make it seem unorganised includes the Al-Azhar Mosque, Al-Azhar University and spontaneous to meet the requirements of each land- and Al-Hussein Hospital on one side. The Al-Hussein lord or tenant. These changes occurred in the following Mosque and the public square are on the other side of context: the facade of the historic mosque and ancient the road. This public space attached to a commercial and modern buildings overlooking the space, such as area known as the Khan al- Khalili bazaar area and the shops, restaurants, cafes and juice shops. The violations North El Gamaleya axis, resulting in the partial removal in terms of the ownership of public spaces appeared in of the Bab Al-Nasr Cemetery. The central public space is the external extension of each store in the public space located in the front of the Al-Hussein Mosque and gov- and on pedestrian traffic. The mosque’s open public space ernmental office buildings. On one side, a small garden was designated for external prayer, the al-Midan Park, lies at the front of the mixed-use buildings, while the and movement paths. Vertical and horizontal plantings other side features the Al-Hussein Touristic Hotel with (palm and grass) are situated in the middle of the public services and recreational shops on the ground floor, such space with fences separating the mosque from the public as Al Dahhan Restaurant, Abou Hamza Canter Cafe, space, passers-by and street vendors. Moreover, furnish- Elzahraa Cafe and Restaurant, Layaly al Hussien cafe, ings were placed that appear in the stalls and on the out- Al-Hussein Bazaar and a pharmacy. Figure  5 shows the side fences of street vendors. activities in Al- Al Hussein Square. The design of governmental, residential and entertain - Ethnographic and participatory findings ment establishments emphasise the painting of facades in Many respondents were invited for the interview. The uniform colours. Historic architectural details are over- hyper-diversity of activities did not represent an issue looked such that several monuments have been substan- that deserved discussion among many of the participants. tially altered. In front of the mosque, an electronic canopy was constructed for people gathering to pray. A small Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 10 of 16 Fig. 5 Al-Hussein Square contains different types of spatial encroachments, owing to the hyper-diversity of activities As one participant said: ‘[…] The beauty of Al-Hus - is sold here. All kinds of smoke’. Moreover, another par- sein district includes everything needed for recreation, ticipant stated that ‘[…] the mixing of people and their prayer and food (fat and sweets) and juices, …. The closeness to the Iftar and Suhor tables make you feel as entertainment does not end with playing dice, domi- if you are with your family and make you feel reassured, noes and cards, and whoever wants it, the best smoke and happy’. Another participant came and intervened in Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 11 of 16 the conversation, ‘[…]. Never forget the spiritual atmos- [...] In fact, I see there is no real change; in this case, phere that blows on us from Al-Hussein Mosque … that Egyptians are among the people who value differ - is, something for God, Hussein’. At the time, the question ence. […] We are distinguished for being multi-eth- regarding threatening nightlife seemed to be pure fiction. nic, as you know. Participating in development projects seemed normal However, a remarkable comment from many residents for expatriate workers because they do whatever they and visitors was, ‘Why you are asking about sense of want for commercial and recreational benefits. They belonging’? Before we responded, they added that they move around their vital business environment with- belonged to the spirit of these places despite the changes. out violent interference from the local governments or Although this expression demonstrates the extent of their in a manner that does not limit their freedom. Initially, love and ideological attachment to the place, it provides a comments from lifelong residents focused on two main clear reflection of the majority’s lack of knowledge about themes: functional transformations, especially in the their basic right to develop the places. However, the chaotic use of public spaces at night, and the visual and responses indicate the prevention of all negative aspects aesthetic dimensions linked to the over-diversity of devel- that they may have been exposed to because participa- opment projects. Most residents expressed that the rede- tion is essential. Another remark is that leaving the place velopment projects primarily focused on solving traffic does not mean one stops belonging to it. In other words, movement regardless of other problems, such as those although many locals left their original place of residence related to street vendors and beggars. In a different vein, and moved to other places, they remain emotionally and the residents believe that the nightlife is bright and that spiritually connected with their land of origin. Moreo- visitors strongly cooperate. Moreover, visitors enjoy the ver, a confusion initially exists between conventional night tourism activities, such as sightseeing old monu- and smart technologies. Many interviewees believed ments, experiencing folklores and dining, entertainment that the canopy, lighting, billboards and automated teller and shopping. Many participants said, ‘We are delighted machines in front of the mosque were evidence that the with this place’. This theme pertains to the engineers of place had become quasi-smart. Further, they considered the municipality, which focus on urban form changes that these technologies made a positive contribution without considering the needs or desires of the residents. to the place and that they enhanced the charm of the This issue revolves around how certain residents discuss monuments. their sense of belonging to the Al-Hussein public space: Old Cairo is the ancient nucleus from which present- I like this place during night-time so much, and I day Cairo expanded. Although this old part of Cairo has visit it every year more than once. […] Indeed, I do been subjected to many changes throughout history in not believe that the on-going transformations from terms of civilisation, architecture and activities, it has day to night time or even during any part of the year retained its historical identity. Presently, projects for new make me lose my sense of belonging to this place. urban development are influencing the enormous emo - tional flow towards the place. Specialists are split into Other participants mentioned the following: two groups: those who advocate and those who reject the In recent years, I noticed that many changes have current events in the old district. Advocates welcome the occurred, which are pronounced in lighting systems growing interest of residents and visitors to these places. during night time. [...] I agree with you; the arrange- Meanwhile, defenders view this type of development (i.e. ment of night lighting units in the field is messy, compact cities) as one of the most appropriate responses which seems to be done personally and without prior to the requirements of the modern technological age. design. [...] Let me add that technology is changing Conversely, the refuseniks believe that several residents fast, but I have no idea about its effects on visitors’ and visitors have lost their sense of belongings because sense of belonging to the place. they refuse to participate in development projects. I do not know what you mean by smart places, […], but it is full of computers and digital advertising if Discussion and conceptual framework you are talking about technology. This article is a research on urban studies that focuses on Many owners explain their sentiments about the old neighbourhoods with a historical dimension, espe- impact of hyper-diversity in the public space: cially Old Cairo. It is written with urban planners and designers in mind and offers a conceptual framework I owned my bazaar more than 40 years ago; I feel for improving nightlife to provide support to the locals, that the ethnic differences between both residents especially vulnerable and marginalised groups, and their and visitors in this place are highly appreciated. sense of belonging to the place. This study examined Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 12 of 16 the effects of the hyper-diversity of nocturnal activities which is a stakeholder role in local communities. A sub- in public spaces and their role in reconstructing urban stantial understanding of how a site will address these nightlife experiences by preserving urban form as an issues depends on the power relationships and interests active component of urban governance laws. The above- of stakeholders, such as government agencies, permanent mentioned short review highlights the fact that less is and new residents, expatriates (marginalised groups) and known in the recent literature about changes in terms visitors. The spatial configuration is closely related to the of urban form owing to the hyper-diversity of activities patterns of the hyper-diversity of activities and continued in public spaces in old cities. Moreover, the study exam- intervention to the urban forms of public spaces. Sev- ines why and how citizens, whether residents or visitors, eral new residents and expatriate groups insist that this lose their sense of belonging, especially towards nightlife aspect is unrelated to the sense of belonging to the place, transformation. and many of them adopted this opinion about the sense The current study confirms that urban form changes of belonging primarily because of its religious and his- with the over-diversification of the diversion in night- torical values. time activities, leading to changes in urban nightlife, In terms of changes in nightlife, the interviewees which may not influence the affiliation of people to asserted that they differed only in style, Ramadan set - public spaces in old neighbourhoods with a historical tings, restaurants and cafes. However, many respondents dimension. This affiliation is dependent on the societal, stated that the Ramadan nightlife characterised these cultural, social and economic forces that transcend the public places in ancient times. Thus, they are an ancient transformation of the built environment. The challeng - religious tourist attraction not only during the month of ing problem in the issue of the sense of belonging to pub- Ramadan but also during the celebration of the birth of lic spaces refers to how one recalls these spaces because Al-Hussein Ibn Ali  (the grandson of Prophet Muham- of unplanned projects and spatial encroachment, which mad from his  daughter). In historical sites, which are gradually occurred in public spaces. deeply rooted in religious influences, these shifts in the The prevalent problem in the hyper-diversity of night - atmosphere of the nightlife do not influence the sense of life activities in public spaces refers to how one loses belonging. However, the participation of people in formal emotional focus towards these communities. The results and informal changes plays an important role in terms of of the present study have presented three factors of rethinking the nightlife atmosphere, reflecting the com - changes in urban form: (1) successive development pro- patibility of historical sites and nightlife over time. jects, which are incompatible with approaches for pre- Consistent with previous studies, the inconsistency serving areas with a historical dimension in many cases, between the chaotic interventions in historical sites (2) expatriate workers who conduct activities in sur- in terms of urban form, such as tangible (physical) ele- rounding public places and are frequently unaware of the ments (lighting and billboards in public spaces) (Berar- basics of place preservation because of differences in per - dinis et  al., 2015), whether traditional or contemporary, sonality and cultural background and (3) new residents with the characteristics of urban environments is wor- in residential buildings surrounding the site, the majority thy of discussion. This inconsistency exerts a consider - of which are expatriates from various areas who work in able impact on unplanned nightlife (Campo et al., 2008), those areas and have replaced long-term residents. which may lead to the loss of a sense of belonging (Pink- These results indicated that the feeling of belonging is ster, 2016) for residents and visitors. Comparing our not causally related to the change in nightlife experiences results with those of previous studies, we found that as a result of the hyper-diversity of activities, despite their the problem is that these interventions appear in two increase and presumed attack on the place. Although the aspects. The first denotes the similar findings regard - sense of belonging will remain extraordinarily strong, the ing the patters on the negative aspects of the inability to result in terms of dissatisfaction with the current events adapt to the context, which was exacerbated during and ranges from leaving the place (permanent residents) to after development projects (Megeirhi et  al., 2020). The the lack of intent to revisit, in the case of visitors. second is the chaotic interventions of citizens, whether These differences between loss of affiliation and dissat - residents or owners of commercial and recreational isfaction are related to two issues. The first is the ability spaces. Compared to the present study, previous studies of people in adapting to different types of activities that suggested that urban nightlife in public spaces changed are suited to nightlife needs. Successful conservation because of the residents’ spatial encroachments or visi- approaches have linked the fundamentalism of histori- tors’ aggressive behaviour, such as ‘harsh interactions cal public spaces with the evolving needs of the people. between people, or frustration-induced pushes and ver- The second issue pertains to the role of people to par - balizations’ (Kalinauskaite et  al., 2018, p. 224). Moreo- ticipate in development projects and preserve the place, ver, Peterson (2016) noted that the hyper-diversification Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 13 of 16 in peoples’ lifestyles, attitudes and activity patterns can interventions and abuses by stakeholders and spatial complicate their sense of belonging (Berzano & Gen- encroachments as well as aggressive behaviour of mar- ova, 2020). Meanwhile, Pinkster (2016) implicitly con- ginalised groups. firmed that the hyper-diversity of activities led to a loss of Therefore, conducting observation and random inter - belonging: ‘collective memories and shared symbolism of views was useful in understanding how the popula- community’ are crucial to belonging (p. 18). Several stud- tion valued their urban origins and their awareness of ies have demonstrated that the relationship between the changes induced by marginalised groups. In this context, hyper-diversity of activities and sense of belonging, espe- urban form exerts a strong effect on nightlife transforma - cially at night, is relevant to the municipalities’ authority tion. Moreover, the results indicate that the range of the (Seijas &  Gelders, 2021; Abusaada et  al., 2021). Moreo- hyper-diversity of activities, such as unplanned projects ver, the negative impacts of spatial encroachment may be and spatial encroachments, can increase the loss of sense latent in terms of citizens’ participation in development of belonging in public spaces in the city’s old communi- projects (Sakamoto et al., 2018). ties. The conceptual framework involves two phases on exploring and initiating the improvement in nightlife through 4 pillars, namely, predicting, proposing, prepar- The four Ps in the conceptual framework ing and preventing, which include 12 steps (Fig. 6): This study provides suggestions for policymakers for informed decision-making in improving nightlife Stage one: Exploring the positive and negative aspects through the participation of vulnerable groups. A con- ceptual framework has been established based on stake- I. Predicting the unplanned interventions of urban holders’ positive and negative responses in terms of two form and spatial encroachment at present and in issues. The first is supporting the local authorities in the future by providing a detailed overview of (1) urban participation in all development projects (Ahmed, the goals of the local authorities and other stake- 2018). The second is drafting laws that limit unplanned PHASE PHASE An informed decisions- Exploring the making negave aspects The four (Ps) B) Proposing C) Preparing D) Preventing A) Predicting Unplanned intervenons & Strategic plan Cizens’ behaviours Urban toolkits Urban governance regimes spaal encroachments Step Step Step Step 11 12 Step Step 09 Step V 03 Codes Step Step III prohibited Manuals 02 II Virtual reality 06 places Step 7 Step Step Interviews Urban Quesonnaires Maps IV parcipaon Reorganizing Need or not to Appreciang local authority need the context stakeholders Enhancing A regulaon for acvies urban control Overview Invesgaon In public Urban form The hyper-diversity People’s Prevent spaal Improving Prevent spaal spaces transformaons of acvies Belonging encroachments Nightlife encroachments Objecves Experimental Database procedures Fig. 6 Conceptual framework Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 14 of 16 holders on the transformation that influence urban should determine changes over time in certified histori - form and (2) the experimental procedures during cal documents, such as governmental digital maps and the investigation of the need (or un-need) for the photographic documentation of the place from previous hyper-diversity of activities. studies to avoid subjectivity and bias. II. Predicting the behaviour of long-term residents, However, data availability will remain a challenge for expatriate workers and visitors through a database studies that evaluate changes in urban form at the local that includes (3) the results of questionnaires and level in some Global South countries. However, this study interviews with citizens to determine the extent of focused primarily on public spaces in Old Cairo. Future their sense of belonging to the place and their per- studies can include more public spaces in different situ - ceptions of hyper-diversity. Lastly, (4) virtual reality ations to explore the hyper-diversity of activities related programs should be created based on all data and to the shift in social cohesion and thus potentially prove expectations should be formulated. the findings recorded in this article. Such studies can fol - low the same process to identify the subjective factors that affect the sense of belonging in other living environ - ments, such smart and sustainable cities. Stage two: Informed decision‑making Owing to the lack of funding and human resources, the semi-structured interview results are based on only III. Proposing a strategic development plan related to 12 participants. Therefore, we recommend that subse - the hyper-diversity of activities by (5) reorganising quent studies conduct a year-round survey to improve the hyper-diversity of activities in each urban space the findings’ accuracy and obtain opinions from more at present and in the future, (6) appreciating the visitors during other seasons. Additionally, there is a current context to meet future needs and (7) for- severe limitation associated with the lack of investigating mulating a regulation for urban control to prevent the implications of the hyper-diversity of activities and spatial encroachment. the sense of belonging associated with the participants’ IV. Preparing guidelines to improve nightlife based role. Furthermore, the proposed method considers the on participation by (8) enhancing the efficiency of digital methods and accounts for the degree of impor- economic, socio-cultural and technological activi- tance depending only on limited interview data from five ties, (9) increasing the involvement and awareness experts to define the results presented in this paper. of stakeholders, such as local authorities, residents, Therefore, to generalise the aforementioned influence owners of shops, workers and visitors. on the urban toolkits’ conceptual framework, studies V. Preventing future encroachments that impact that consider a broader expert range of participants and urban form by (10) preparing a map of prohib- a wider spread of metropolitan areas with more diverse ited places for violations of citizens, (11) creating functions are required. Besides, as the boundary of par- a guide for prohibited places for future encroach- ticipants’ responses was pre-selected, there is a possibil- ment and (12) framing urban governance schemes ity of bias in the interview questions. by establishing laws and regulations to prevent encroachment. Conclusions Lack of knowledge of the hidden potentials of differentia - Limitations and future research tions is a topic worth exploring. This lack of knowledge Despite its success, this study has its limitations. While correlates with the concept that citizens cannot make studies on urban governance and sense of belonging are their own decisions. This study discussed how citizens abundant, research on the link between them and urban welcome changes in their public space and sympathised form and nightlife change is limited. Prior studies are with peers, even if the results do not fit many paradigms limited to a subset of data collected from a few published in urban planning and design. However, this study can articles in international journals. Therefore, future stud - accept claims that accommodating citizens’ reactions to ies should consider unpublished or grey literature, such their public space is essential to understand and study as research reports, government reports, dissertations, to generalise the most appropriate. This aspect is better webcasts, poster sessions, presentations, conference pro- than imposing designs that do not suit citizens’ intellec- ceedings and PowerPoint presentations. Two of the study tual orientations. Even if this study is limited and falls limitations are the ability of the authors and availability short of the ideas and practices of academics, the experi- of data. Furthermore, this study is limited to the authors’ ences that occur within cities include citizens, residents experiences and knowledge in identifying transforma- or visitors and key stakeholders, and each factor plays tions in urban form in the study area. Thus, future studies roles related to two changes, namely, urban form and the Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 15 of 16 metamorphosis of nightlife. This study investigated the researchers and many others concerned with issues of phenomenon further and endeavoured to eliminate the hyper-diversity and place belonging. In conclusion, inves- current challenges to engaging with complex aspects, tigating urban nightlife in public spaces is valuable for experiences, atmosphere and sense of belonging. understanding several physical and non-physical changes These constructs interact with changes in urban form that occur in many historical sites in several Global South and public spaces. However, a closer inspection of the lit- cities. However, the proposed toolkit at the conceptual erature reveals several research gaps and shortcomings. level may require further development through empirical Despite the wealth of literature, studies on the impacts testing. of these technologies on urban nightlife transforma- tion are lacking. Notably, in terms of loss of belonging, a Supplementary Information deeper understanding of these parameters is required to The online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s40410- 022- 00150-9. reconstruct atmospheres based on cooperation between citizens and local communities. This study makes three Additional file 1: Appendix S1. The coexistence keywords in the title contributions to address public spaces in old communi- and abstract of 26 articles in 18 Journals between 2014 and 2021. ties with a historical dimension: Acknowledgements 1. This study explained the concepts used in this arti - Throughout the writing of this piece of work, the authors of the present cle, such as hyper-diversity, sense of belonging, urban work would like to thank our interviewees. This work has received a great form, nightlife experience and urban governance. It deal of support and insights during the interviews. The authors also wish to acknowledge the editor and reviewers in City, Territory and Architecture for their identified the key aspects of the interaction between constructive feedback and during the review process. these concepts to demonstrate their conflicts and complications and how research objectives and les- Authors’ contributions The authors, AE and HA, of the present work declared that their role in sons can be used to operationalise these concepts. conducting this research was distributed equally; they both conceived and 2. This study provided a thorough review of data on the designed the analysis and contributed to the data discussion. They also relationship between urban form and nightlife and declared that the work presented here is solely on their own responsibility. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. emphasised the necessity of social participation in contrast with changes in urban form. Funding 3. Finally, with the current revival of interest in rehabili- This research is funded by Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) under the STDF Basic & Applied Research Grants (STDF- tation issues in historical sites, one of the disadvan- BARG), Basic Sciences Research Program, Non-Industrial Sector under grant tages is focusing mainly on urban forms that ignore number STDF-BARG 37234. concepts such as social cohesion and social capital. Availability of data and materials us Th , examining the psychological nature of a place’s The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are users can enable gaining knowledge about cultural available within the article and its additional file. and social backgrounds and restraining from mak- ing meta-decisions that conflict with this nature, Declarations regardless if such decisions are consistent with the Competing interests principles of high-quality design and planning. Sev- The authors declare that they have no competing interests. eral academics and decision-makers believe that they are more aware of the people who use the place. This Author details Department of Urban Design and Planning, Ain Shams University, Cairo, study found that several decisions let to hit the wall Egypt. Architecture Department, Housing and Building National Research by the users of the place. Additionally, some deci- Center (HBRC), Cairo, Egypt. sions struck the wall from users of the place even if Received: 24 September 2021 Accepted: 26 January 2022 they were sound and serve material interests because they were inconsistent with their lives or behaviour. 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Effects of nightlife activities on urban spaces and design: a case study of Cairo, Egypt

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Abstract

Hyper-diversity in old communities should be rehabilitated to address various man-made changes that threaten sustainability and viability at night. This study elucidates this argument by reviewing and synthesising theoretical and empirical evidence about urban governance support regarding the participation of neighbourhood residents to improve or eliminate nightlife. The method is based on a systematic review, direct observation and interview with random samples of residents, workers and visitors in commercial and recreational places. This study criticises changes in the public space of the Al-Hussein Mosque, which led to changes in urban forms and affected the nightlife in Old Cairo. However, it asserts that the hyper-diversity of activities in public spaces because of the lack of urban govern- ance controls should consider changes in terms of the participation of vulnerable groups in nightlife. A new concep- tual framework for interpreting stakeholders’ positive and negative responses is proposed, which operates across four overlapping steps of urban governance: predicting, proposing, preparing and preventing. Keywords: Hyper-diversity, Participation, Old Cairo, Vulnerable groups, Urban governance focusing on the hyper-diversity of such activities (Tasan- Introduction Kok et al., 2014). Furthermore, several theorists have dis- Over the past two decades, there has been considerable cussed diversity and hyper-diversity from the perspective research on the diversity of urban environment charac- of spatial diversity in normal diurnal time as per mixed teristics and its influence on urban form and daily life use to achieve place vitality and social cohesion (Ahmadi, (Alipour & Ahmed, 2021; Nguyen, 2018; Sharifi, 2019). 2018; Ballet et al., 2020). In turn, hyper-diversity supports Some studies investigated the impact of the diversity of a sense of intimacy and stimulates a sense of belong- these characteristics on nightlife patterns (Kalinauskaite ing (Tasan-Kok et  al., 2014). However, a significant part et  al., 2018; Nofre et  al., 2017; Hadfield, 2015), focusing of academic work and applied research within urban on night regulations and the need for permanent struc- planning and design that discuss issues related to urban tures for night governance that challenge traditional form and daily experience (McClinchey, 2017) primarily urban management methods (Seijas & Gelders, 2021). focuses on daytime activities (Kalinauskaite et al., 2018). Moreover, the appeals to examine the reasons for the The literature on social sciences and urban studies has changing urban nightlife associated with urban transfor- discussed the theory of hyper-diversity in relation to life- mation in several public spaces in old communities with a style (Dean et al., 2018; Peterson, 2016). This theory goes historical dimension have been increasing (Kalinauskaite beyond ethnicity and socio-economic differences; it cov - et al., 2018; Peterson, 2016; van Liempt et al., 2014). ers the complex relationships between the variables that The literature on urban studies has discussed the effects occur in the urban environment because of the diversity of diversity of activities in public spaces, specifically present in each situation (Kraftl et al., 2019). Regarding the exanimation of nightlife activities, few *Correspondence: abeer.elshater@eng.asu.edu.eg studies have highlighted issues related to night-time Department of Urban Design and Planning, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt planning (Seijas & Gelders, 2021), many of which focused Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 2 of 16 on issues such as urban entertainment (Campo & Ryan, examined the urban nightlife atmosphere (Kalinauskaite 2008), night-time city (Roberts & Eldridge, 2019), night- et al., 2018). However, urban studies in general and Egyp- life atmosphere (Kalinauskaite et al., 2018), urban change tian studies in particular lack a conceptual framework (Nofre et  al., 2017) and artificial lighting (Talebian & and tools for creating harmony between residents and Riza, 2020). Meanwhile, the discussion on social sus- local entity participation in terms of urban control in tainability dimensions, especially the sustainability of old cities with a historical character. This issue requires the community in terms of social inclusion and sense of reviewing the concept of belonging and the reasons for belonging (Kohon, 2018), is scarce (Alipour & Ahmed, the loss of the sense of belonging from three perspectives: 2021; Ballet et  al., 2020). Moreover, sense of belonging (1) the increased diversity of nightlife activities in public because of urban nightlife and form changes require fur- spaces and their influence on the uniqueness of the place ther examination (Abussada et al., 2021). and its historical value, (2) overlooked participation of The literature has described sense of belonging and its vulnerable groups in development projects and their loss importance to citizens, as well as how its loss can lead of responsibility and (3) the absence of urban governance to problems (Pinkster, 2016; Yuval-Davis, 2006), such and decision-making systems that limit changes in the as the lack of place (Russo, 2021) and the willingness of characteristics of the place, especially those that stipulate vulnerable groups to care for a place as if they owned it the importance of the participation of vulnerable groups (Elshater 2019). People who initially lost their sense of in developing their local communities. belonging refuse to participate in city development and The study addresses the absence or non-implementa - become provocateurs of spatial violations in terms of the tion of urban governance and decision-making systems elements of urban form and daily life (Nofre et al., 2017). to promote the participation of vulnerable and disad- These violations frequently appear in two aspects: visual vantaged groups, specifically residents and expatriate pollutants and behavioural reactions (Chmielewski et al., workers, in developing their communities with local gov- 2016; Portella, 2014). A recent systematic review found ernments. Ignoring this problem may deteriorate urban that an individual’s sense of belonging diminishes when nightlife. one loses the ability to participate in critical decisions This study’s objectives are related to the nightlife char - about where to live; recent studies have examined this acteristics of ancient cities. The first objective is inves - problem (Peterson, 2016; Pinkster, 2016). This problem tigating the impact of over-diversified changes in the also is observed when people reject urban changes and activities of public places during night time in an Egyp- are unable to participate in required discussions, even if tian historical context, which is recognised on the facades such changes are relevant to them. Because of these fac- of buildings and constructed features of public places. tors, issue emerges that this feeling of neglect can lead This study focuses on the facades and adjacent outdoor to frustration and loss of sense of place (Elshater, 2019). spaces of new and historical buildings with uses and Generally, this feeling generates negative behaviours functions on the ground floor (Dean et  al., 2018; Kraftl towards the place or even failure to repel attacks on the et  al., 2019). The second objective is setting up a frame - place (Dastgerdi, & Luca, 2019). work that can foster societal justice and its association In this manner, an individual becomes a spectator with decision-making and participation. In terms of the from afar and does not offer interference. Therefore, the research problem, this study selects the case of Al-Hus- absence or non-implementation of urban governance sein in Cairo, Egypt, which is an old community that has and decision-making systems in order to encourage vul- a historical dimension. The study intends to demonstrate nerable and disadvantaged groups, such as residents and that the hyper-diversity of activities in public spaces is a expatriate workers, to participate in developing their predictor of changes in urban form as a spatial domain areas with their local governments is an aspect that and in nightlife as a time domain. Additionally, this may lead to urban nightlife deterioration. Thus, sense of study emphasises the impact of vulnerable groups’ non- belonging due to changes in urban nightlife, urban form participation in development projects on nightlife. This and urban governance should be investigated. change occurs through the agreement to, or prevention Studies that focus on night-time planning (van Liempt of, changes initiated by local governments, visitors or et  al., 2014) and the governance of the night-time city labourers (Nofre et  al., 2017). The study also focuses on and night-time activities are few (Hadfield, 2015; Roberts the extent of the link between these changes and sense & Eldridge, 2019; Seijas & Gelders, 2021). Such studies of belonging. This study could be beneficial to the rele - have investigated the socio-physical context, behaviour vant communities, policymakers and/or urban planners and experiences revealed from activities in public spaces as it investigates the potential advantages of the hyper- that are very apparent, such as meeting others (van diversity of nightlife activities in public spaces and their Liempt et al., 2014, p. 418). Moreover, some studies have transformation during the night. Further, it is hoped that Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 3 of 16 developing a conceptual framework and a tool will enable The results yielded 13,647 documents. The authors lim - policymakers to improve the nightlife atmosphere. ited the selection by randomly picking articles published by authors with a Scopus h-index higher than six and only including articles written in English. Books, book Data collection and processing chapters and conference proceedings were excluded from The study focuses on the effects of hyper-diversity of the list. The aim of scanning the results was to deter - nightlife activities in public spaces, which may occur mine whether the hyper-diversity of nightlife activities in among vulnerable and non-affiliated users. Such an effect public spaces improve or threaten nightlife. Data mining may also negatively affect the nightlife ambiance in old intends to investigate the effect of the absence of vulner - communities in Cairo. This study used two approaches— able and non-affiliated groups in decision-making on the namely, systematic review and observation/interview— hyper-diversity and threat of nightlife. to investigate hyper-diversity in historical sites, such as Al-Hussein. Case study setting Old Cairo (969 AD) in Egypt is an ancient city (Hassan Data mining in literature et  al., 2016); it features multiple historical monuments, The systematic review identified six topic clusters. such as the Al-Azhar Mosque (972 AD), Al-Hussein Scimago Journal & Country Rank, powered by Scopus, Mosque (1154), Khan Al-Khalili Bazaar (1882) and was used for identifying studies related to this topic. An numerous historical buildings (O’Kane, 2016). In the in-depth scoping review was conducted on 26 randomly- Al-Gamaleya District in Old Cairo, the public space of selected articles from 18 journals between 2014 and 2021 the Al-Hussein Mosque is one of the most well-known (Fig. 1). This review identified coexisting words in article historical sites in Egypt (Fig.  3). The mosque establish - titles, abstracts and keywords (see Additional file  1 and ment date is in 1873 (O’Kane, 2016). Fig. 2). Old Cairo is characterised as a mixed residential, com- These words included [TITLE–ABS–KEY (social AND mercial, religious and entertainment district with high sustainability) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY (resilience) AND population densities (600–800 persons per hectare). TITLE–ABS–KEY (nightlife) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY It is home to residents with economic classes ranging (urban AND from) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY (everyday from low to medium, and it can be considered a tourist AND lifestyle) OR TITLE–ABS–KEY (principles) OR attraction and one the most traditional areas that remain TITLE–ABS–KEY (old AND cities) OR TITLE–ABS– popular in terms of the socio-cultural morphology. These KEY (guidance AND for AND practitioners)]. attributes can be observed through the characteristics of Journals h-index 36 1. ArchitecturalScience Review………………………………. 2. Cities…………………………………………………………………… Date of 3. City andCommunity …………………………………………… 4. City,Culture andSociety ……………………………………. 27 publication 5. City,Territory andArchitecture.............................. 6. Conservation ScienceinCulturalHeritage............ 7. Future Cities andEnvironment …………………………… 8. JournalofPlanningEducation andResearch………. 9. JournalofSustainable Tourism…………………………… 10. JournalofTravel& TourismMarketing……………….. 11. Leisure/Loisir………………………………………………………. 12. Planning Practice &Research…………………………… 13. Scandinavian JournalofPsychology…………………… 14. Social &CulturalGeography ……………………………… 15. Sustainabledevelopment …………………………………. 16. Urban Planning…………………………………………………… 24 17. Urban Research &Practice................................... 18. Urban Studies………………………………………………….. Fig. 1 Eighteen journals between 2014 and 2021 Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 4 of 16 Concepts Sustainabilityand resilience Urbannightlife Urbanform& everyday lifestyles 2 Resilient 6 Atmospheres Behaviour Sustainability (cultural, 9 Night-time (activity, Community development, urbanism city,and economy) Everyday (life/practices) urbandevelopment,and Nightlife 2 Festivals/Festival attributes urbanforms) Lifestyles 5 Social Urbanforms sustainability Vulnerable (groups) Guidance for Principles Approaches practitioners Oldcities People’s belonging& Lessonslearned hyper-diversity Belonging 4 Management 8 Compact(ness) Diversity Participation 3 Compactcity 24 38 Hyper-diversity Planning practice 4 Conservation 2 3 Placediversity Policy 1 Density 10 Senseof 5 Policy-makers 9 Heritage (community/place) Regulation 2 Preservation 6 44 Social (cohesion, Urbangovernance 2 Urbanchange dimension, inclusion, interactions,and justice) Fig. 2 Coexisting words and numbers refer to word appearance the population, such as clothing, food, activities, behav- over-diversification of the transformation in night-time iour and attitudes. Al-Gamaleya District encompasses activities. Figure  4 shows the urban form of Al-Hussein various types of professions, such as public and private public place (as a case study) in an abstract form and the sector employers, small private businesses and street changes in the hyper-diversity of the building uses and vendors. activities. Over time, especially at the end of the twentieth cen- tury, developers of the Al-Hussein  districts’ urban fab- ric maintained compact, dense tissue characteristics as Ethnographic and participatory study much as possible. Nevertheless, many changes occurred In ethnographic research, two methods—namely, direct owing to unplanned projects and spatial encroachments, observation and semi-structured interviews with resi- especially in terms of the hyper-diversity of activities. dents, workers and visitors—can be used to investigate The residential area in Al-Hussein seems similar to various challenges. traditional residential places in terms of its functions, The outdoor public space of Al-Hussein Mosque in Old activities, urban form and lifestyle. However, the resi- Cairo is a suitable setting to conduct direct observation. dential district characteristics in Al-Hussein in terms of This area was selected based on the regular visits con - urban form and those of many communities in Old Cairo ducted by the authors on Fridays for familiarity for data (Historic or Fatimid Cairo) appear to be traditional resi- collection. The authors conducted observations on Friday dential areas. In fact, Al-Hussein Square only slightly dif- evenings for 3 months (April to September 2020), mostly fers from its counterparts in built-up districts in terms from 7:00 PM until midnight. Fridays and Saturdays are of jobs, activities, urban form and nightlife. The urban considered days off for employees in several formal insti - form of Al-Hussein not only exerts a substantial effect tutions in the Middle East and Northern Africa. During on nightlife transformation but also changes with the the study period, Ramadan (a Hijri month in the Islamic Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 5 of 16 Fig. 3 Location of the case study of Al-Hussein Square calendar) was celebrated in Arab countries (from 23 April Elshater et  al. 2019). We observed and recorded the to 23 May 2020). behaviours of residents and visitors. Ramadan is one of the most significant religious, cul - The study obtained information about the reactions of tural, festive and recreational event in many cities. residents and visitors to the variables of hyper-diversity Ramadan is the fourth pillar of Islam, when Muslims are in nightlife activities. The authors developed a semi- required to fast from sunrise to sunset. Frequently, many structured interview through a random sample of eight Muslims venture outside their homes to take Iftar (meals residents and workers in commercial and recreational eaten by Muslims after sunset during Ramadan) and places and four visitors. The interviewees were divided Suhor (late meals before starting the feast) in restaurants into two groups according to their reason to visit. The and cafes scattered in the public spaces. The nightlife interview focused on the following questions: in certain historical sites around downtown Cairo lack documentation. Generally, small-scale venues comprise 1. Does the hyper-diversity of nightlife activities in pub- monuments and buildings, such as Al-Hussein Mosque. lic spaces improve or threaten nightlife? Selecting such context for observation enabled the 2. Does the absence of vulnerable and non-affiliated authors to document the changes that occurred in night- groups in decision-making increase the hyper-diver- life activities, especially the hyper-diversity of nightlife sity of nightlife or threaten it? activities in public spaces. We adhered to the definition of diversity and intensity of activities after identifying the Additional data were collected to address the gaps in indicators of excessive diversity from theoretical stud- our data through a limited interview with random sam- ies (Abusaada & Elshater 2021a; Campo & Ryan, 2008; ples of residents and workers in the commercial and Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 6 of 16 Fig. 4 The hyper-diversity of the uses and activities and the abstract of urban form (figure and ground) Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 7 of 16 recreational places and some visitors. The interview - and places (Peterson, 2016). Social diversity occurred ees were also separated into two groups based on their because of globalisation and the influx of immigrants into needs. The interview focused on the above-mentioned European and North American countries. These groups questions. intended to obtain better community services (Dean Focus groups discussions were led by the researchers. et  al., 2018) but may face challenges in nightlife activi- Responses from the interviewees were grouped into two ties (Nofre et al., 2017). Thus, the study investigates these categories. The first focused on functional transforma - challenges. tions, which are particularly related to the chaotic use of public spaces at night, while the second highlights Changes in the characteristics of old cities during nightlife the visual and aesthetic dimensions related to the hyper- Nofre et al. (2017) and Kalinauskaite et al. (2018) showed diversity of activities on the facades of residential, com- that marginalised societies and those who feel that they mercial and historical buildings. do not belong to a place may experience significant social The subsequent two sections discuss the results: the impacts, especially in terms of nightlife. These studies first reviews the selected articles and offers recommenda - compared the behaviours of permanent residents and tions about improving nightlife, and the second describes new consumers of the nightlife in the district of Bairro the design and experience of Cairo as a case study. Alto, Lisbon, and found that expansion and commodifi - cation are among the most influential factors that change First Results: Deductive argument in terms the characteristics of nightlife. Moreover, Kalinauskaite of nightlife and hyper‑diversity et  al. (2018) confirmed that diversity, unfamiliarity and Definition of hyper‑diversity and its relationship lack of awareness of behavioural norms may increase with belonging aggression in night-time events in North Brabant, Eind- Previous studies have defined place diversity as a form hoven, the Netherlands. Moreover, crowded streets and of social and economic mixing, that is, the combina- filth in the environment strongly affect people’s mood. tion of people with different incomes, races, household To enable urban governance in a night economy and sizes, lifestyles and non-residential activities with other a more inclusive city, urban strategies should address uses and functions of the land. In this research, diver- prevalent issues, such as licensed buildings saturation, sity denotes the dynamics, behaviour patterns, lifestyles alcohol-based definition of the night economy and dia - and activities of individuals, which add to various daily logue and cooperation between city governments and the experiences (Tasan-Kok et  al., 2014). Hyper-diversity nightlife industry (Seijas & Gelders, 2021). The literature focuses on the dense diversity of the population in terms on managing nightlife transformation has used complex of lifestyle, attitudes and activities (Kraftl et  al., 2019). methods to gather data and plan mechanisms in order to The extent of its strength or weakness is evident through address nightlife problems (Hadfield, 2015), such as over - interactions between society members according to their crowding, noise levels and traffic congestion (Abusaada behavioural situations, which are governed by the follow- & Elshater, 2021b, 2020). Moreover, previous research ing criteria: sense of belonging, dealing with strangers recommends that the nightlife economy should develop and willingness to participate. The literature documents laws and regulations using software to facilitate mobility, four concepts associated with hyper-diversity, namely, reduce noise and enhance compatibility between users of social cohesion (Ahmadi, 2018), social mobility (Alipour outdoor places (van Liempt et al., 2014; Talebian & Riza, & Ahmed, 2021), economic performance (Kalinauskaite 2020; Yun, 2021). et al., 2018) and governance (Hadfield, 2015). Some stud - ies have discussed three theoretical foundations, namely, financial health (Hassan et  al., 2016), social equity Guidelines for improving nightlife in terms of urban (Nguyen, 2018) and sustainability (Ballet et  al., 2020; governance and decision‑making Bibri et  al., 2020;  McClinchey, 2017; Seijas & Gelders, According to a systematic review, the following urban 2021). toolkit includes techniques to assist practitioners and In city planning, some studies found that structural policymakers with development plans (McClinchey, and repetitive confrontations could eliminate stereotypes 2017). This toolkit aims to achieve a liveable, resilient and and challenge prejudice (Fu et  al., 2017; Sakamoto et  al., safe nightlife in public places in the districts of the old 2018; Sharifi, 2019). Investigative studies proposed that city. Moreover, it interprets the participants of the cur- familiarity with diversity is essential for stimulating a rent ethnographic study. The kit includes three tools. sense of ‘home’ in multi-cultural and multi-ethnic com- The first discusses the hyper-diversity of nightlife activ - munities (Kohon, 2018). Against this background, this ities in public spaces and focuses on the behaviour of study defines the variety and hyper-diversity of people Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 8 of 16 long-term residents, expat workers and out-of-place visi- 3. Preventing inequalities and social exclusion by guid- tors and provides five pointers: ing citizens (Kohon, 2018). 4. Supporting urban participation and involvement 1. Articulating the hyper-diversity of activities accord- (Chen et al., 2020; Nguyen, 2018): ing to the complex relationships between the urban environment and control based on people’s everyday • Promoting public involvement in the value assess- life patterns (Tasan-Kok et al., 2014). ment of heritage (Megeirhi et al., 2020). 2. Recognising spaces for accommodation and inter- • Emphasising the local citizens’ sense of place and mingling to enhance place belonging (Tasan-Kok daily life. et al., 2014). 3. Identify the principles of the hyper-diversity of activi- 5. Expanding the notion of nocturnal governance (Sei- ties based on the relationship between people and jas & Gelders, 2021): places (Dean et al., 2018; Kraftl et al., 2019; Peterson, 2016). • Ensuring social order after dark. 4. Navigating public spaces based on familiarity (Peter- • Mediating and collaborating between socio-eco- son, 2016): nomic and cultural issues. • Familiarity provides a sense of safety and control. The third tool focuses on guidelines for entertain - • Familiarity with diversity stimulates a sense of ment zones, nightlife atmosphere, night spaces, urban home. change, unplanned nightlife and artificial lighting • Physical and social proximity enable people to feel (Campo & Ryan, 2008; Kalinauskaite et al., 2018; Nofre at home and connected to others. et  al., 2017; Talebian et  al., 2020). These guidelines • The context of hyper-diversity is related to the intend to improve the nightlife in public places in old forms of collective lifestyle. communities in relation to night-time planning (Seijas & Gelders, 2021) and heritage assets (Chen et al., 2020). 5. Discussing the aspects affected by the hyper-diversity This tool follows four guidelines: of activities during daily performances, materiality and emotion that articulate and produce social differ - 1. Improving, developing and upgrading the histori- ences, such as on-shop fronts and lampposts (Kraftl cal context to achieve high-quality performance and et al., 2019). liveability. 2. Emulating the heterotopic qualities of entertainment The second tool focuses on the necessity of urban zones (Campo & Ryan, 2008): participation/public involvement with policymakers in presenting urban guidelines. This phase focuses on five • Physical and experiential qualities project a unique pointers: nature. • Physical and experiential characteristics should be 1. Preventing chaos that violates the stipulated require- considered. ments, particularly during festivals (Fu et al., 2017): • Probable economic and social benefits have finan - cial returns to citizens. • Preventing changes in urban form, land use and • Transformation of downtown places from being activities: dangerous to exciting. • Organising festive events in a manner appropriate to the historical context. 3. Enhancing the economy, socialisation, identity crea- • Involving residents and visitors in organising and tion, and nightlife leisure (van Liempt et al., 2014). directing the events. • Establishing drinking experiences, cultures and 2. Preparing progressive and balanced sustainable urban atmospheres through spatiality. development plans (Nguyen, 2018): • Respecting territoriality, that is, ‘being in an envi- ronment where people behave similarly’ and • Striking a balance between modern requirements appreciate its implications. and the preservation of history. • Striking a balance between multi-cultural visitors 4. Harnessing the territorial capital as represented and the stability of residents. by heritage assets for the benefit of the current and Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 9 of 16 future societies, which influence complex frame garden is situated at the centre of the square enclosed by planning practices (Kohon, 2018) and actions (Chen fences to prevent pedestrian access to this small garden. et al., 2020) from the institutional, cultural and socio- Many benches are placed nearby for resting. economic contexts: Most of the lifestyle transformation occurred in the twentieth century and progressed in the last two decades. • Providing immediate action plans that drive These changes occurred because of the widespread use changes in urban form. of technology. However, the majority of dissatisfaction • Securing government funding to advance conser- with the place is mainly with the changes in shop owners vation planning objectives. on the one hand and the actions of neighbourhood engi- • Promoting development strategies and local gov- neers in local municipalities that changed the lifestyle on ernments for projects that combine heritage, local the other hand, besides the complaint of employees in development and amenity goals. the streets, street vendors and beggars. The Al-Hussein • Avoiding fake restoration with ‘no attempt to district implemented many development projects. Ironi- depict the new as original’. cally, in 2017, a new development project was launched, which targeted three axes. The first is constructing a mosque to encompass a significant number of worshipers by expanding its internal architectural space, building Second results: observing hyper‑diversity a basement and allocating a part of the public space to in activities during nightlife become a covered outdoor courtyard for prayer. Moreo- Indirect observation ver, Al-Hussein Square provided space to facilitate entry The morphological transformations have two dimen - and exit to the mosque. The second is preserving the aes - sions. The first is physical, which includes (1) road traf - thetics and decorations of the mosque, such as restoring fic networks and pedestrian movement on arterial roads, facades, minarets, wooden ceilings, internal lighting sys- local streets, underground tunnels and public/open tems and places of ablution. Al-Hussein Mosque included spaces and (2) the construction transformations of archi- the external courtyard. The third is orienting all pedes - tectural buildings, mainly historic buildings surrounding trian traffic lanes, green areas and vertical mobility to the the public square of Al-Hussein Mosque. The second is Qibla direction. Furthermore, public space in the sur- the non-physical dimension, which describes the demo- rounding context was developed in terms of urban design graphic and socio-cultural characteristics that encom- or landscape architecture. pass nightlife transformations. An indirect observation may determine the choice of The Al-Azhar Tunnel is the primary traffic network in the data collection method. Recently, the changes that Old Cairo, separating the site into two parts. The first occurred in the public space make it seem unorganised includes the Al-Azhar Mosque, Al-Azhar University and spontaneous to meet the requirements of each land- and Al-Hussein Hospital on one side. The Al-Hussein lord or tenant. These changes occurred in the following Mosque and the public square are on the other side of context: the facade of the historic mosque and ancient the road. This public space attached to a commercial and modern buildings overlooking the space, such as area known as the Khan al- Khalili bazaar area and the shops, restaurants, cafes and juice shops. The violations North El Gamaleya axis, resulting in the partial removal in terms of the ownership of public spaces appeared in of the Bab Al-Nasr Cemetery. The central public space is the external extension of each store in the public space located in the front of the Al-Hussein Mosque and gov- and on pedestrian traffic. The mosque’s open public space ernmental office buildings. On one side, a small garden was designated for external prayer, the al-Midan Park, lies at the front of the mixed-use buildings, while the and movement paths. Vertical and horizontal plantings other side features the Al-Hussein Touristic Hotel with (palm and grass) are situated in the middle of the public services and recreational shops on the ground floor, such space with fences separating the mosque from the public as Al Dahhan Restaurant, Abou Hamza Canter Cafe, space, passers-by and street vendors. Moreover, furnish- Elzahraa Cafe and Restaurant, Layaly al Hussien cafe, ings were placed that appear in the stalls and on the out- Al-Hussein Bazaar and a pharmacy. Figure  5 shows the side fences of street vendors. activities in Al- Al Hussein Square. The design of governmental, residential and entertain - Ethnographic and participatory findings ment establishments emphasise the painting of facades in Many respondents were invited for the interview. The uniform colours. Historic architectural details are over- hyper-diversity of activities did not represent an issue looked such that several monuments have been substan- that deserved discussion among many of the participants. tially altered. In front of the mosque, an electronic canopy was constructed for people gathering to pray. A small Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 10 of 16 Fig. 5 Al-Hussein Square contains different types of spatial encroachments, owing to the hyper-diversity of activities As one participant said: ‘[…] The beauty of Al-Hus - is sold here. All kinds of smoke’. Moreover, another par- sein district includes everything needed for recreation, ticipant stated that ‘[…] the mixing of people and their prayer and food (fat and sweets) and juices, …. The closeness to the Iftar and Suhor tables make you feel as entertainment does not end with playing dice, domi- if you are with your family and make you feel reassured, noes and cards, and whoever wants it, the best smoke and happy’. Another participant came and intervened in Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 11 of 16 the conversation, ‘[…]. Never forget the spiritual atmos- [...] In fact, I see there is no real change; in this case, phere that blows on us from Al-Hussein Mosque … that Egyptians are among the people who value differ - is, something for God, Hussein’. At the time, the question ence. […] We are distinguished for being multi-eth- regarding threatening nightlife seemed to be pure fiction. nic, as you know. Participating in development projects seemed normal However, a remarkable comment from many residents for expatriate workers because they do whatever they and visitors was, ‘Why you are asking about sense of want for commercial and recreational benefits. They belonging’? Before we responded, they added that they move around their vital business environment with- belonged to the spirit of these places despite the changes. out violent interference from the local governments or Although this expression demonstrates the extent of their in a manner that does not limit their freedom. Initially, love and ideological attachment to the place, it provides a comments from lifelong residents focused on two main clear reflection of the majority’s lack of knowledge about themes: functional transformations, especially in the their basic right to develop the places. However, the chaotic use of public spaces at night, and the visual and responses indicate the prevention of all negative aspects aesthetic dimensions linked to the over-diversity of devel- that they may have been exposed to because participa- opment projects. Most residents expressed that the rede- tion is essential. Another remark is that leaving the place velopment projects primarily focused on solving traffic does not mean one stops belonging to it. In other words, movement regardless of other problems, such as those although many locals left their original place of residence related to street vendors and beggars. In a different vein, and moved to other places, they remain emotionally and the residents believe that the nightlife is bright and that spiritually connected with their land of origin. Moreo- visitors strongly cooperate. Moreover, visitors enjoy the ver, a confusion initially exists between conventional night tourism activities, such as sightseeing old monu- and smart technologies. Many interviewees believed ments, experiencing folklores and dining, entertainment that the canopy, lighting, billboards and automated teller and shopping. Many participants said, ‘We are delighted machines in front of the mosque were evidence that the with this place’. This theme pertains to the engineers of place had become quasi-smart. Further, they considered the municipality, which focus on urban form changes that these technologies made a positive contribution without considering the needs or desires of the residents. to the place and that they enhanced the charm of the This issue revolves around how certain residents discuss monuments. their sense of belonging to the Al-Hussein public space: Old Cairo is the ancient nucleus from which present- I like this place during night-time so much, and I day Cairo expanded. Although this old part of Cairo has visit it every year more than once. […] Indeed, I do been subjected to many changes throughout history in not believe that the on-going transformations from terms of civilisation, architecture and activities, it has day to night time or even during any part of the year retained its historical identity. Presently, projects for new make me lose my sense of belonging to this place. urban development are influencing the enormous emo - tional flow towards the place. Specialists are split into Other participants mentioned the following: two groups: those who advocate and those who reject the In recent years, I noticed that many changes have current events in the old district. Advocates welcome the occurred, which are pronounced in lighting systems growing interest of residents and visitors to these places. during night time. [...] I agree with you; the arrange- Meanwhile, defenders view this type of development (i.e. ment of night lighting units in the field is messy, compact cities) as one of the most appropriate responses which seems to be done personally and without prior to the requirements of the modern technological age. design. [...] Let me add that technology is changing Conversely, the refuseniks believe that several residents fast, but I have no idea about its effects on visitors’ and visitors have lost their sense of belongings because sense of belonging to the place. they refuse to participate in development projects. I do not know what you mean by smart places, […], but it is full of computers and digital advertising if Discussion and conceptual framework you are talking about technology. This article is a research on urban studies that focuses on Many owners explain their sentiments about the old neighbourhoods with a historical dimension, espe- impact of hyper-diversity in the public space: cially Old Cairo. It is written with urban planners and designers in mind and offers a conceptual framework I owned my bazaar more than 40 years ago; I feel for improving nightlife to provide support to the locals, that the ethnic differences between both residents especially vulnerable and marginalised groups, and their and visitors in this place are highly appreciated. sense of belonging to the place. This study examined Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 12 of 16 the effects of the hyper-diversity of nocturnal activities which is a stakeholder role in local communities. A sub- in public spaces and their role in reconstructing urban stantial understanding of how a site will address these nightlife experiences by preserving urban form as an issues depends on the power relationships and interests active component of urban governance laws. The above- of stakeholders, such as government agencies, permanent mentioned short review highlights the fact that less is and new residents, expatriates (marginalised groups) and known in the recent literature about changes in terms visitors. The spatial configuration is closely related to the of urban form owing to the hyper-diversity of activities patterns of the hyper-diversity of activities and continued in public spaces in old cities. Moreover, the study exam- intervention to the urban forms of public spaces. Sev- ines why and how citizens, whether residents or visitors, eral new residents and expatriate groups insist that this lose their sense of belonging, especially towards nightlife aspect is unrelated to the sense of belonging to the place, transformation. and many of them adopted this opinion about the sense The current study confirms that urban form changes of belonging primarily because of its religious and his- with the over-diversification of the diversion in night- torical values. time activities, leading to changes in urban nightlife, In terms of changes in nightlife, the interviewees which may not influence the affiliation of people to asserted that they differed only in style, Ramadan set - public spaces in old neighbourhoods with a historical tings, restaurants and cafes. However, many respondents dimension. This affiliation is dependent on the societal, stated that the Ramadan nightlife characterised these cultural, social and economic forces that transcend the public places in ancient times. Thus, they are an ancient transformation of the built environment. The challeng - religious tourist attraction not only during the month of ing problem in the issue of the sense of belonging to pub- Ramadan but also during the celebration of the birth of lic spaces refers to how one recalls these spaces because Al-Hussein Ibn Ali  (the grandson of Prophet Muham- of unplanned projects and spatial encroachment, which mad from his  daughter). In historical sites, which are gradually occurred in public spaces. deeply rooted in religious influences, these shifts in the The prevalent problem in the hyper-diversity of night - atmosphere of the nightlife do not influence the sense of life activities in public spaces refers to how one loses belonging. However, the participation of people in formal emotional focus towards these communities. The results and informal changes plays an important role in terms of of the present study have presented three factors of rethinking the nightlife atmosphere, reflecting the com - changes in urban form: (1) successive development pro- patibility of historical sites and nightlife over time. jects, which are incompatible with approaches for pre- Consistent with previous studies, the inconsistency serving areas with a historical dimension in many cases, between the chaotic interventions in historical sites (2) expatriate workers who conduct activities in sur- in terms of urban form, such as tangible (physical) ele- rounding public places and are frequently unaware of the ments (lighting and billboards in public spaces) (Berar- basics of place preservation because of differences in per - dinis et  al., 2015), whether traditional or contemporary, sonality and cultural background and (3) new residents with the characteristics of urban environments is wor- in residential buildings surrounding the site, the majority thy of discussion. This inconsistency exerts a consider - of which are expatriates from various areas who work in able impact on unplanned nightlife (Campo et al., 2008), those areas and have replaced long-term residents. which may lead to the loss of a sense of belonging (Pink- These results indicated that the feeling of belonging is ster, 2016) for residents and visitors. Comparing our not causally related to the change in nightlife experiences results with those of previous studies, we found that as a result of the hyper-diversity of activities, despite their the problem is that these interventions appear in two increase and presumed attack on the place. Although the aspects. The first denotes the similar findings regard - sense of belonging will remain extraordinarily strong, the ing the patters on the negative aspects of the inability to result in terms of dissatisfaction with the current events adapt to the context, which was exacerbated during and ranges from leaving the place (permanent residents) to after development projects (Megeirhi et  al., 2020). The the lack of intent to revisit, in the case of visitors. second is the chaotic interventions of citizens, whether These differences between loss of affiliation and dissat - residents or owners of commercial and recreational isfaction are related to two issues. The first is the ability spaces. Compared to the present study, previous studies of people in adapting to different types of activities that suggested that urban nightlife in public spaces changed are suited to nightlife needs. Successful conservation because of the residents’ spatial encroachments or visi- approaches have linked the fundamentalism of histori- tors’ aggressive behaviour, such as ‘harsh interactions cal public spaces with the evolving needs of the people. between people, or frustration-induced pushes and ver- The second issue pertains to the role of people to par - balizations’ (Kalinauskaite et  al., 2018, p. 224). Moreo- ticipate in development projects and preserve the place, ver, Peterson (2016) noted that the hyper-diversification Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 13 of 16 in peoples’ lifestyles, attitudes and activity patterns can interventions and abuses by stakeholders and spatial complicate their sense of belonging (Berzano & Gen- encroachments as well as aggressive behaviour of mar- ova, 2020). Meanwhile, Pinkster (2016) implicitly con- ginalised groups. firmed that the hyper-diversity of activities led to a loss of Therefore, conducting observation and random inter - belonging: ‘collective memories and shared symbolism of views was useful in understanding how the popula- community’ are crucial to belonging (p. 18). Several stud- tion valued their urban origins and their awareness of ies have demonstrated that the relationship between the changes induced by marginalised groups. In this context, hyper-diversity of activities and sense of belonging, espe- urban form exerts a strong effect on nightlife transforma - cially at night, is relevant to the municipalities’ authority tion. Moreover, the results indicate that the range of the (Seijas &  Gelders, 2021; Abusaada et  al., 2021). Moreo- hyper-diversity of activities, such as unplanned projects ver, the negative impacts of spatial encroachment may be and spatial encroachments, can increase the loss of sense latent in terms of citizens’ participation in development of belonging in public spaces in the city’s old communi- projects (Sakamoto et al., 2018). ties. The conceptual framework involves two phases on exploring and initiating the improvement in nightlife through 4 pillars, namely, predicting, proposing, prepar- The four Ps in the conceptual framework ing and preventing, which include 12 steps (Fig. 6): This study provides suggestions for policymakers for informed decision-making in improving nightlife Stage one: Exploring the positive and negative aspects through the participation of vulnerable groups. A con- ceptual framework has been established based on stake- I. Predicting the unplanned interventions of urban holders’ positive and negative responses in terms of two form and spatial encroachment at present and in issues. The first is supporting the local authorities in the future by providing a detailed overview of (1) urban participation in all development projects (Ahmed, the goals of the local authorities and other stake- 2018). The second is drafting laws that limit unplanned PHASE PHASE An informed decisions- Exploring the making negave aspects The four (Ps) B) Proposing C) Preparing D) Preventing A) Predicting Unplanned intervenons & Strategic plan Cizens’ behaviours Urban toolkits Urban governance regimes spaal encroachments Step Step Step Step 11 12 Step Step 09 Step V 03 Codes Step Step III prohibited Manuals 02 II Virtual reality 06 places Step 7 Step Step Interviews Urban Quesonnaires Maps IV parcipaon Reorganizing Need or not to Appreciang local authority need the context stakeholders Enhancing A regulaon for acvies urban control Overview Invesgaon In public Urban form The hyper-diversity People’s Prevent spaal Improving Prevent spaal spaces transformaons of acvies Belonging encroachments Nightlife encroachments Objecves Experimental Database procedures Fig. 6 Conceptual framework Elshater and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 14 of 16 holders on the transformation that influence urban should determine changes over time in certified histori - form and (2) the experimental procedures during cal documents, such as governmental digital maps and the investigation of the need (or un-need) for the photographic documentation of the place from previous hyper-diversity of activities. studies to avoid subjectivity and bias. II. Predicting the behaviour of long-term residents, However, data availability will remain a challenge for expatriate workers and visitors through a database studies that evaluate changes in urban form at the local that includes (3) the results of questionnaires and level in some Global South countries. However, this study interviews with citizens to determine the extent of focused primarily on public spaces in Old Cairo. Future their sense of belonging to the place and their per- studies can include more public spaces in different situ - ceptions of hyper-diversity. Lastly, (4) virtual reality ations to explore the hyper-diversity of activities related programs should be created based on all data and to the shift in social cohesion and thus potentially prove expectations should be formulated. the findings recorded in this article. Such studies can fol - low the same process to identify the subjective factors that affect the sense of belonging in other living environ - ments, such smart and sustainable cities. Stage two: Informed decision‑making Owing to the lack of funding and human resources, the semi-structured interview results are based on only III. Proposing a strategic development plan related to 12 participants. Therefore, we recommend that subse - the hyper-diversity of activities by (5) reorganising quent studies conduct a year-round survey to improve the hyper-diversity of activities in each urban space the findings’ accuracy and obtain opinions from more at present and in the future, (6) appreciating the visitors during other seasons. Additionally, there is a current context to meet future needs and (7) for- severe limitation associated with the lack of investigating mulating a regulation for urban control to prevent the implications of the hyper-diversity of activities and spatial encroachment. the sense of belonging associated with the participants’ IV. Preparing guidelines to improve nightlife based role. Furthermore, the proposed method considers the on participation by (8) enhancing the efficiency of digital methods and accounts for the degree of impor- economic, socio-cultural and technological activi- tance depending only on limited interview data from five ties, (9) increasing the involvement and awareness experts to define the results presented in this paper. of stakeholders, such as local authorities, residents, Therefore, to generalise the aforementioned influence owners of shops, workers and visitors. on the urban toolkits’ conceptual framework, studies V. Preventing future encroachments that impact that consider a broader expert range of participants and urban form by (10) preparing a map of prohib- a wider spread of metropolitan areas with more diverse ited places for violations of citizens, (11) creating functions are required. Besides, as the boundary of par- a guide for prohibited places for future encroach- ticipants’ responses was pre-selected, there is a possibil- ment and (12) framing urban governance schemes ity of bias in the interview questions. by establishing laws and regulations to prevent encroachment. Conclusions Lack of knowledge of the hidden potentials of differentia - Limitations and future research tions is a topic worth exploring. This lack of knowledge Despite its success, this study has its limitations. While correlates with the concept that citizens cannot make studies on urban governance and sense of belonging are their own decisions. This study discussed how citizens abundant, research on the link between them and urban welcome changes in their public space and sympathised form and nightlife change is limited. Prior studies are with peers, even if the results do not fit many paradigms limited to a subset of data collected from a few published in urban planning and design. However, this study can articles in international journals. Therefore, future stud - accept claims that accommodating citizens’ reactions to ies should consider unpublished or grey literature, such their public space is essential to understand and study as research reports, government reports, dissertations, to generalise the most appropriate. This aspect is better webcasts, poster sessions, presentations, conference pro- than imposing designs that do not suit citizens’ intellec- ceedings and PowerPoint presentations. Two of the study tual orientations. Even if this study is limited and falls limitations are the ability of the authors and availability short of the ideas and practices of academics, the experi- of data. Furthermore, this study is limited to the authors’ ences that occur within cities include citizens, residents experiences and knowledge in identifying transforma- or visitors and key stakeholders, and each factor plays tions in urban form in the study area. Thus, future studies roles related to two changes, namely, urban form and the Elsha ter and Abusaada City, Territory and Architecture (2022) 9:5 Page 15 of 16 metamorphosis of nightlife. This study investigated the researchers and many others concerned with issues of phenomenon further and endeavoured to eliminate the hyper-diversity and place belonging. In conclusion, inves- current challenges to engaging with complex aspects, tigating urban nightlife in public spaces is valuable for experiences, atmosphere and sense of belonging. understanding several physical and non-physical changes These constructs interact with changes in urban form that occur in many historical sites in several Global South and public spaces. However, a closer inspection of the lit- cities. However, the proposed toolkit at the conceptual erature reveals several research gaps and shortcomings. level may require further development through empirical Despite the wealth of literature, studies on the impacts testing. of these technologies on urban nightlife transforma- tion are lacking. Notably, in terms of loss of belonging, a Supplementary Information deeper understanding of these parameters is required to The online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s40410- 022- 00150-9. reconstruct atmospheres based on cooperation between citizens and local communities. This study makes three Additional file 1: Appendix S1. The coexistence keywords in the title contributions to address public spaces in old communi- and abstract of 26 articles in 18 Journals between 2014 and 2021. ties with a historical dimension: Acknowledgements 1. This study explained the concepts used in this arti - Throughout the writing of this piece of work, the authors of the present cle, such as hyper-diversity, sense of belonging, urban work would like to thank our interviewees. This work has received a great form, nightlife experience and urban governance. It deal of support and insights during the interviews. The authors also wish to acknowledge the editor and reviewers in City, Territory and Architecture for their identified the key aspects of the interaction between constructive feedback and during the review process. these concepts to demonstrate their conflicts and complications and how research objectives and les- Authors’ contributions The authors, AE and HA, of the present work declared that their role in sons can be used to operationalise these concepts. conducting this research was distributed equally; they both conceived and 2. This study provided a thorough review of data on the designed the analysis and contributed to the data discussion. They also relationship between urban form and nightlife and declared that the work presented here is solely on their own responsibility. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. emphasised the necessity of social participation in contrast with changes in urban form. Funding 3. Finally, with the current revival of interest in rehabili- This research is funded by Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) under the STDF Basic & Applied Research Grants (STDF- tation issues in historical sites, one of the disadvan- BARG), Basic Sciences Research Program, Non-Industrial Sector under grant tages is focusing mainly on urban forms that ignore number STDF-BARG 37234. concepts such as social cohesion and social capital. Availability of data and materials us Th , examining the psychological nature of a place’s The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are users can enable gaining knowledge about cultural available within the article and its additional file. and social backgrounds and restraining from mak- ing meta-decisions that conflict with this nature, Declarations regardless if such decisions are consistent with the Competing interests principles of high-quality design and planning. Sev- The authors declare that they have no competing interests. eral academics and decision-makers believe that they are more aware of the people who use the place. This Author details Department of Urban Design and Planning, Ain Shams University, Cairo, study found that several decisions let to hit the wall Egypt. Architecture Department, Housing and Building National Research by the users of the place. Additionally, some deci- Center (HBRC), Cairo, Egypt. sions struck the wall from users of the place even if Received: 24 September 2021 Accepted: 26 January 2022 they were sound and serve material interests because they were inconsistent with their lives or behaviour. 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Journal

"City, Territory and Architecture" – Springer Journals

Published: Feb 10, 2022

Keywords: Hyper-diversity; Participation; Old Cairo; Vulnerable groups; Urban governance

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