Diet and food strategies in a southern al-Andalusian urban environment during Caliphal period, Écija, Sevilla

Sarah Inskip; Gina Carroll; Andrea Waters-Rist; Olalla López-Costas

doi:10.1007/s12520-018-0694-7

Diet and food strategies in a southern al-Andalusian urban environment during Caliphal period, Écija, Sevilla

Inskip, Sarah; Carroll, Gina; Waters-Rist, Andrea; López-Costas, Olalla 2018-09-22 00:00:00 The Iberian medieval period is unique in European history due to the widespread socio-cultural changes that took place after the arrival of Arabs, Berbers and Islam in 711 AD. Recently, isotopic research has been insightful on dietary shifts, status, resource availability and the impact of environment. However, there is no published isotopic research exploring these factors in southern Iberian populations, and as the history of this area differs to the northern regions, this leaves a significant lacuna in our knowledge. This research fills this gap via isotopic analysis of human (n =66) and faunal (n = 13) samples from the 9th to the 13 15 13th century Écija, a town renowned for high temperatures and salinity. Stable carbon (δ C) and nitrogen (δ N) isotopes were assessed from rib collagen, while carbon (δ C) values were derived from enamel apatite. Human diet is consistent with C plant consumption with a very minor contribution of C plants, an interesting feature considering the suitability of Écija to C cereal 4 4 production. δ N values vary among adults, which may suggest variable animal protein consumption or isotopic variation within animal species due to differences in foddering. Consideration of δ C collagen and apatite values together may indicate sugarcane consumption, while moderate δ N values do not suggest a strong aridity or salinity effect. Comparison with other Iberian groups shows similarities relating to time and location rather than by religion, although more multi-isotopic studies combined with zooarchaeology and botany may reveal subtle differences unobservable in carbon and nitrogen collagen studies alone. . . . . . Keywords Al-Andalus Islamic archaeology Isotope Medieval Apatite Collagen Introduction and Berber expansions reached the region in AD 711. Islam became the dominant faith, and the reintroduction and dissem- This research aims to explore the dietary habits and resources ination of knowledge, via the translation of texts once lost to of the inhabitants of Écija, southern Iberia, during the the Latin west, proved to be critical to the later European Medieval period (9th to 13th centuries). There has been in- Renaissance (Menocal 2002). One of the most important and tense archaeological and historical interest in the lives of the debated issues at this time is the so-called Bagricultural^ or Medieval inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula (e.g. Alexander Bgreen revolution^, which considers the importance of chang- et al. 2015;Boone 2009; Carvajal Lopez 2013;Garcia-Garcia es in water management and technology and the 2016;Glick 1999;Imamuddin 1981;Inskip 2016;Menocal (re)introduction of certain crops to the region (see Martín 2002; al-Oumaoui et al. 2004), due to the significant and Civantos 2016; Watson 1974; but also Decker 2009). It is widespread socio-cultural changes that took place after Arab thought that there was greater cultivation of non-indigenous * Sarah Inskip Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, Social sai31@cam.ac.uk Sciences Building, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada Group Earth System Sciences, Facultade de Bioloxía, Universidade 1 de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge University, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3ER, UK Archaeological Research Laboratory, Stockholm University, 2 Wallenberglaboratoriet, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden Department of Anthropology and Archaeology and The Department of Pathology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Laboratorio de Antropología, Medicina Legal, Toxicología y 2500 University Road NW, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada Antropología Física, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain 3858 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 crops, such as sugarcane, millet, sorghum, pomegranate and aims of this paper. First, we aim to reconstruct the staple food dates, in the region (Watson 1974). Crop cycling changed, and resources consumed by the inhabitants of Écija. Second, we a better agricultural output was achieved (Reilly 1993;Glick aim to use evidence of diet to infer aspects of the physical as 1995). It is likely that there were shifts in animal husbandry well as socio-political environment in which the Écija people practices (Grau-Sologestoa 2015) and a pork taboo emerged lived. Third, and most broadly, this research will contribute (see Garcia-Garcia 2017; Morales Muñiz et al. 2011). the first isotopic evidence of diet for this region, thereby im- Recently, stable isotope analyses, which have proved in- proving our understanding of Medieval Iberian dietary vari- valuable in improving understanding of dietary practices and ability across the entire peninsula. This will be achieved environments in the past (Katzenberg and Waters-Rist in through the analysis of skeletal material from the medieval press; Larsen 2015), have been used to assess dietary and Islamic cemetery in Écija, Seville province, Spain. environmental changes during this time period. For example, interesting diversity in Iberian isotope values recorded in ar- Historic background chaeological skeletons potentially relates to geography, reli- gion and social status (Alexander et al. 2015;Mundee 2009; Écija is a small urban area in the South-centre of al-Andalus, Quiros Castillo et al. 2013). However, at present, most isoto- renowned for its agricultural richness (arid-warm temperatures pic research focuses on sites from northern and central Iberia and water supply from the Genil river). The city, known as (e.g. Alexander et al. 2015; Lopez-Costas 2012; Passalacqua Astiya in the Islamic period, is situated in the Genil river valley and MacKinnon, 2015; Prevedorou et al. 2010;Quiros between the Subbetico zone to the north and Guadalquivir to Castillo et al. 2013; Mundee 2009) or the Islands (Fuller thesouth.Today, theareaiswell-known for its high salinity et al. 2010;Garcia etal. 2004; Nehlich et al. 2012), leaving (Fernandez et al. 2002). The BAltiplano de Écija^, surrounding much of the south unknown. the city, is an area traditionally dedicated to livestock and agri- The environment and history of Iberia, with the south being culture where numerous salt water lagoons are present. Écija is part of the Islamic world for far longer, are highly diverse. located between three major cities, all which were extant in the Accordingly, the lack of isotopic data for the south leaves a Medieval period. This includes Seville to the west (≈ 85 km), large gap in our regional knowledge, resulting in an incom- Córdoba to the north east (≈ 50 km) and Granada to the south plete picture of the complexity that existed in Medieval Iberia. east (≈ 170 km) (see Fig. 1). This positioning has meant that An isotopic analysis of diet for a southern Iberian population Écija has long been an important trading and strategic point would permit analyses of sociocultural change and identity. In from the Roman period onwards (Valencia Rodriguez 1988). addition, while religious and cultural factors are important in According to historic sources, Écija was captured in AD 711 the selection of food preferences, it cannot be ignored that by Tariq b. Ziyad, the year of Arab and Berber expansion into availability of resources could play a key role in what people the region (Chalmeta 1994). While it is thought that Arab ate in the past. Supplies could arrive by trade (and may not groups, especially Damascans, settled in the region, a number have been available for all the population) or could have been of sources suggest that the town contained a significant number grown locally; in this case, the climate can influence the type of local converts to Islam (Aillet 2010; Melville and Ubaydli and amount of produced food. The 9th century AD is consid- 1992). The surrounding countryside was settled by Berbers ered as the beginning of a climate anomaly known as the (Valencia Rodriguez 1988). During the medieval period, Écija Medieval Warm Period (MWP) that lasted until the 14th cen- was a multi-cultural/religious city: Muslims, Muwallads (con- tury (Broecker 2001; Martinez-Cortizas et al. 1999). During verted Christians), Mozarabs (i.e. Christians living under MWP, climate was warm and arid in the Mediterranean and Islamic rule) and Jews, with a clear Islamic influence in terms southern areas of the Iberian Peninsula, but warm and humid of economy, culture and society (Garcia Baena 2006). This in the Atlantic region (Moreno et al. 2012). Therefore, the diversity was maintained while Écija was the regional capital exploration of diet via stable isotopes for individuals who of the Cora Istiyya, which presented some economic indepen- lived in Southern Iberia during the MWP may also help us dence (Valencia Rodriguez 1988). The city itself was medium understand the role of climate in the availability of resources, to large in size with estimates of approximately 18,000 inhab- specifically the use of crops dependent on warm temperatures, itants by the 12th century (Fernandez Ugalde 2005). From the such as the C plants including sugarcane and millet. Mapping 11th century until its conquest in 1240 AD, it is believed that what is happening on a regional level could highlight impor- diversity decreased, and by the 11th century, Écija lost its inde- tant information about what was happening on a much wider pendence to Carmona and eventually Seville (Guichard and scale during this critical time period. Soravia, 2005). Based on this information, Islamic Écija is the Accordingly, a multi-isotope study assessing stable carbon 13 15 perfect example of an urban population whose economy was (δ C) from collagen and enamel apatite and nitrogen (δ N) based on agriculture and livestock, with different socioeconom- from sixty six humans and thirteen animals from the Medieval ic phases (ibid) making it ideal for study. site of Écija in southcentral Iberia is used to meet the three A Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3859 Fig. 1 Map locating Écija in 10°W 5°W 0° comparison to Seville, Granada and Córdoba A Lazada Asturias !( Jaca Tauste Zaragoza Gandia Eivissa Córdoba ! Seville Écija Granada 5°W 0° MOR OC C O Córdoba Écija Seville Granada 050 100 150 Kilometres Medieval diet in al-Andalus and Écija 2016). It is possible that these were grown in the Écija region (García Baena 2006), as the climate is particularly suited to In general, historic sources and zooarchaeology suggest that their cultivation. Sugarcane may have arrived first to southern Medieval Iberian populations had a diet consisting of cereals and eastern Iberia during the 9th century for family consump- and meats (Morales Muñiz et al. 2011; Salas-Salvado et al. tion as is mentioned in the 10th century agricultural Calendar 2006). Écija is recorded as an important town for cereal pro- of Cordoba (Sato 2015) and it may have become an export duction (Imamuddin 1981), especially wheat and barley product only several centuries later (Perez Vidal 1973). In (García-Baena 2006). A number of new cereals, such as sor- other Islamic lands, the relationship between sugar consump- ghum, are thought to have been introduced into Iberia during tion and Ramadan is recorded in poetry by the 9th century, the Medieval period (Glick 1999). Millets were probably in- potentially making it a desirable plant (Sato 2015). While troduced during the Early or Late Bronze Age (López-Costas there are strong doubts surrounding the possibility to detect et al. 2015) and became extremely popular in some regions, the consumption of sugarcane from isotopic ratios from bone such as northwestern Iberia (López-Costas and Müldner collagen, because the protein content is low, a reconstruction ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN U I V I 35°N 40°N 40°N 45°N 3860 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 combining collagen and bioapatite, as employed here, could brief explanation will be provided. Nitrogen isotope ratios reveal if this product was an important part of the diet (δ N) in the protein component of bone, collagen, pre- (O’Leary 1988). A number of Islamic texts also mention the dominately reflect the trophic level of the proteins that use of legumes including chickpeas, lentils and beans for mak- individuals consume (Bocherens and Drukker 2003; ing bread (García Sánchez 1995). Olives, honey, raisins, meat, DeNiro and Epstein 1981;Minagawaand Wada 1984). almonds, chestnut and saffron are also reported to be impor- This allows researchers to reconstruct the types of animal tant products of Écija (García Baena 2006; Melville and and/or plant proteins that were dietary staples. Marine Ubaydli 1992) and were viewed as nutritious (Salas-Salvado ecosystems have more steps in the foodweb and thus et al. 2006). Dairy products were likely an important part of reach higher trophic levels with higher δ N values than diet, as well as fruit and vegetables, which grew in abundance terrestrial ecosystems (Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984); in in the region. Salt was also exploited in the nearby region many freshwater ecosystems, the same is true, with top (García-Dils de la Vega et al. 2009). trophic level species having high δ N values (e.g. Historical sources suggest that cattle (beef) and especially Katzenberg et al. 2010). Breastfeeding infants will exhibit sheep (mutton) were the main sources of meat for Islamic δ Nvalues2–4‰ higher than their mother, which de- inhabitants (Morales Muñiz et al. 2011), and Écija is thought cline during the weaning process (Fuller et al. 2006). to be no exception (García Baena 2006). This trend appears to Stable carbon isotope ratios in bone collagen (δ C ) coll be borne out by recent zooarchaeological research in nearby are useful in distinguishing between plants that use differ- Córdoba and Granada (Garcia-Garcia 2016, 2017) and Islamic ent photosynthetic pathways (C vs. C plants) (DeNiro 3 4 Portugal (Grau-Sologestoa 2015). This research has hinted at and Epstein 1978; Vogel and van de Merwe 1977). C the formation of structured caprine herding system from the plants include rice, wheat and barley while C plants in- 10th century (see discussions in Garcia-Garcia 2017). Salas- clude maize, sugarcane, sorghum and millet. Stable car- Salvado et al. (2006) suggest that meat consumption by ordi- bon isotopes are also used to identify the consumption of nary people was probably limited to special occasions, and marine, and sometimes freshwater foods, as aquatic plants infrequent on the tables of the poor. Zooarchaeological studies utilise different carbon sources (i.e. mostly dissolved car- show a decline in the consumption of pig with the advent of bonates) than terrestrial plants (i.e. atmospheric CO ) the Islamic period (Garcia-Garcia 2016; Morales Muñiz et al. thereby passing along a distinctive δ C ratio to species 2011); however, pig remains occasionally appear at Islamic higher in the trophic chain (Chisholm et al. 1983; sites even if in low amounts, which may relate to necessity, Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984). status, presence of Christian groups or indifference (see In contrast to bone, which continuously remodels through- Garcia-Garcia 2016). Accordingly, consumption of pork out life and provides a record of diet for the last ten or more should not be ruled out. In nearby Granada and Córdoba, a years of life in adults (Hedges et al. 2007), the isotopic anal- high quantity of rabbit remains was identified (Garcia-Garcia yses of enamel from different teeth reveals values that were 2016, 2017). With wild animals, their discovery fits with no- obtained for different ages in subadulthood. Enamel only tions that some people, especially of high status, may have forms in infancy and childhood and thereafter does not under- hunted and eaten game. This could also include deer and go remodelling. The enamel of deciduous molars begins wild birds. As Écija is on a river, river resources may be forming in utero and is complete prior to the first postnatal consumed. However, there is little data on fresh water year (Liversidge and Molleson 2004). The permanent first exploitation in the Islamic period in Écija. The river had molar enamel begins formation around birth and is completed silted up after the Roman period; however, some regula- by the age of about three years; the enamel of the permanent tions for fishing the Genil exist from 15th to 17th centu- second molar begins formation around three years and is com- ries AD (Hernández Iñigo 1997). pleted by six to seven years of age; and finally, third molar enamel begins formation from eight to nine years being com- pleted by eleven to twelve years of age (Reid and Dean 2006; Stable isotopes and dietary reconstruction derived from Northern European population data). The stable carbon isotope ratio of tooth enamel apatite As the analysis of stable isotopes for dietary reconstruc- (δ C ) is a better reflection of whole diet, including protein, ap tion is well-established and widely utilised in carbohydrate and fat, than δ C from collagen which is de- bioarchaeology, and the mechanisms underlying stable rived more heavily from the protein component of diet isotope fractionation within and between tissues and eco- (Ambrose and Norr 1993; Krueger and Sullivan 1984;Lee- systems have been outlined in extensive detail elsewhere Thorp et al. 1989; Tieszen and Fagre (1993). The comparison (Ambrose et al. 1997; DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981; of δ C ratios from protein vs. apatite components of biolog- Katzenberg and Waters-Rist in press; Lee-Thorp and van ical tissues has been successful in more effectively discerning der Merwe 1987; van der Merwe and Vogel 1978), only a among dietary behaviours. Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3861 Table 2 Number of adults, males, females and subadults used Materials according to period Human samples Period Female Male Unsexed adult Subadult Infant Total Early 6 12 1 5 3 27 The cemetery in the El Salon region of Écija (location 37 32′ Late 5 7 0 4 1 17 27.89 N, 5 04′45.49 W) is thought to have been the major Unknown 6 5 5 5 1 22 burial place for the city (Garcia Baena 2006). It was mainly Total 17 24 6 14 5 66 used between the 9th and the 13th centuries AD, with the majority of burials dating to the Caliphal period (10th–11th centuries) (Romo Salas n.d.). By 2004, over 4500 individuals Faunal material had been excavated and are now stored at the Municipal Museum in Écija. These skeletons were distributed over seven Due to the lack of previous comparable isotopic studies for layers in three different areas of the square. Here, the seven this region, a faunal isotopic baseline was created. We collect- periods of burial have been divided into Early (7th–3rd phases) ed 13 bones from animals excavated from different archaeo- and Late (1st–2nd phases) cemetery layers. Men, women, and logical layers of the cemetery at Écija. Unfortunately, we do children of all ages are represented in all layers. The funerary not know what layers the animal bones originate from as this rite was clearly Islamic in nature, with nearly all individuals was not recorded during excavation. Bone samples from five buried on their right side with their face in the direction of caprine (sheep or goat), six cattle, one pig and one rabbit were Mecca (Inskip 2016;RomoSalas n.d.). While most individuals analysed. All specimens were adult. It was not possible to were in simple graves, there was some variation in grave struc- determine if the pig or rabbit were domestic or wild speci- ture, and it is believed that the burials represent a cross-section mens. The presence of cut marks together with the settlement of society (Romo Salas n.d.). The macroscopic preservation of context suggests that they were butchered and consumed. bone is generally good, but overcrowding resulted in some intercutting of burials. For the purpose of this study, only in- dividuals from single burials were used. A total of 61 human Collagen extraction and mass spectrometry rib samples from 61 different individuals were used for δ C coll and δ N analysis. Fifty teeth from 47 individuals were sam- We sampled rib bone fragments rather than sawing from intact pled for δ C analysis (M1 = 12, M2 = 12 and M3 = 26). In ap ribs. This was done to restrict the amount of destructive sam- total, 66 different individuals were analysed. Age and sex were pling and to preserve intact elements for future research. previously estimated from Inskip (2013) and the unpublished Collagen extraction and purification took place at the depart- osteological report (Romo Salas n.d.). In the current study, ments of Archaeology at Leiden University and University of individuals were classed as adult at approximately 16 years Reading using two different protocols. Fifty-four human sam- or over. Young adults were between 16 and 35 years, middle ples were analysed using a modified Sealy method (Sealy adults were between 35 and 50 years, and old adults were 1986;Sealy 2010). All rib samples were placed in a bath of 50 years+. Within the subadult category, the majority of indi- distilled water (dH O) and cleaned ultrasonically. Samples viduals are between 2 and 6 years, with only two individuals 2 were demineralized in a 1% solution of HCl, changed every between 12 and 16 years. Infants were less than 2 years. 24–38 h until complete. All samples were rinsed with dH 0 Table 1 outlines the demographic composition of the sample; 2 prior to the NaOH bath. They were gelatinized by the HCl step Table 2 outlines the number of individuals in each phase. prior to transferring them into the NaOH bath. Samples were Table 1 Number of adults, males, females and subadults used in this considered sufficiently demineralized upon the formation of a study, and sample numbers for collagen and enamel extraction milky-white pseudomorph which could be easily pierced with a sterilised needle. Intact collagen pseudomorphs were then Group C and N Cand Total individuals collagen O apatite analysed* transferred to a 0.125 M solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for 20 h to remove humic contaminants and then Males 20 21 24 rinsed and soaked in dH O until a neutral pH (7) was Females 15 12 17 achieved. Samples were then freeze-dried. At Vrije Unsexed adult 3 4 6 Universiteit, Amsterdam, collagen samples were combusted Subadult 12 9 14 using a Thermo-Scientific Flash 2000 organic elemental Infant 5 1 5 analyser with the resultant gases introduced into the Delta V Total 55 47 66 plus isotope ratio mass spectrometer via a continuous flow (Conflo) inlet. USGS40, USG41, USG42 and glycine were * Note, some individuals were not analysed for both collagen and apatite used as reference standards. due to preservation or completeness 3862 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 All faunal samples and samples from seven human adults Carbon isotope values were measured using a Finnigan were processed following the method described by Longin DeltaPlus isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Pre-treated enamel (1971) with modifications recommended by Collins and samples (0.19–2.1 mg) were transferred into sterilised mass Galley (1998), according to the protocol described in Britton spectrometry tubes and reacted with phosphoric acid (H PO ) 3 4 et al. (2008). The NaOH step was not applied. Carbon and at 72 °C to produce gaseous carbon dioxide. The resultant gas nitrogen stable isotope ratios were measured in duplicate on a was isolated on a Gasbench II universal automated interface. Europa 20-20 isotope ratio mass spectrometer coupled to a As a measure of reproducibility and quality control, IAEA- Sercon elemental analyser at the University of Reading. CO1 was used as a reference standard (see Table 3). Standard Isotopic values are reported as δ values in per thousand (‰). deviations of repeated measurements of laboratory standards Stable carbon isotope values are reported relative to the were 0.16‰ for δ C. Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) marine limestone stan- dard, and nitrogen isotope values are reported relative to the Statistical analysis international nitrogen standard, air. Precision of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope measure- Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS statis- ments, determined via repeated analysis of an internal labora- tical software (version 22.0 for Windows 8). A Shapiro– tory standard, is ± 0.2‰ for both methods. No significant Wilk’s test of normality and a visual inspection of the asso- differences were found due to the extraction method (U test ciated histograms, normal Q–Q plots and box–plots, indi- between human adult samples n = 28 and 7: M-W test U = cate that both the human bone collagen δ C (W(55) = 13 15 15 78.000, p = 0.43 for δ C; U = 83.000, p = 0.56 for δ N). 0.887, p = < 0.0001) and δ N (W(55) = 0.931, p =< Accordingly, all samples are considered together. 0.004) datasets and the enamel apatite δ C (W(52) = The quality (preservation; degree of contamination) of the 0.815, p = < 0.00001) datasets are non-normally distributed. isotopic data garnered from each bone collagen sample was A Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance verified equal- measured according to disciplinary standards: atomic C/N ra- ity of variances in the δ C (F(2, 52) = 0.273, p =0.762) and tio, collagen yield, and percentage C and N by weight δ N (F(2, 52) = 0.584, p = 0.561) human bone collagen and (Ambrose 1990; Ambrose and Norr 1993; Bocherens et al. the δ C (F(2, 49) = 0.562, p = 0.574) enamel apatite 1991; DeNiro 1985; DeNiro and Weiner 1988; Schoeinger dataset. Given the relatively small sample sizes and the 1989; van Klinken 1999) (see Table 3). non-normal distribution of the data, non-parametric statisti- cal analyses were employed. The Wilcoxon–Mann– Whitney U test was used for the comparison of the two Dental samples samples, and a Kruskal–Wallis H test was used for compar- ison of three or more groups (i.e. between tooth types). A Enamel apatite and mass spectrometry Standard enamel ap- Dunn’s pairwise comparison test was used as a post-hoc atite extraction and preparation procedures were based on test, whenever a Kruskal–Wallis H test was rejected. Lee-Thorp et al. (1997). All dental samples were cleaned Significance level (α) was setat0.05. using a diamond-tipped dremel, and the underlying enamel was sampled in bulk. Bulk sampling involved harvesting enamel evenly across the entire surface of the tooth, from just Results above the CEJ to just below the occlusal surface. Approximately 10 mg of powdered enamel apatite was col- Stable isotope values for all samples are presented in Table 3 lected from each tooth. Faunal samples were prepared simi- and are visually depicted in Fig. 2a. larly. Powdered samples were loaded into marked 2 ml micro- centrifuge tubes and soaked in a 0.1 M commercial liquid Quality control bleach solution for 45 min, in order to eliminate organic and biogenic contaminants. Samples were then centrifuged. Of the original 61 human rib samples, six failed for poor The bleach solution was then removed from the enamel pre- quality of the extracted collagen (no collagen, C/N out of cipitate using a pipette, and the sample was rinsed with dH 0. range). The remaining fifty-five human and thirteen fau- A total of three rinse-centrifuge cycles were conducted. The nal collagen samples had C/N ratios between 2.9 and 3.6 enamel was then reacted in 0.1 M of acetic acid (CH COOH) which is considered good-quality collagen (Van Klinken for 15 min to remove soluble diagenetic carbonates. Samples 1999). Collagen yields were generally low and ranged were rinse-centrifuged for another three times with distilled between 10.1 and 0.1. The arid environment in Écija is water and then freeze-dried. probably the reason for the low recovery rates of collagen in the bone. The vast majority of the samples (63/67) had 8% sodium hypochlorite in distilled water. percent nitrogen (wt% N) in collagen values above 10% Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3863 Table 3 Sample numbers, cemetery period, sex, age, tooth type and stable isotope data for all samples 13 13 15 Sample code Period Sex Age Tooth ‰ δ C Element ‰ δ C ‰ δ N Atomic C/N %N wt %C wt Collagen yield app coll 11931 Un ? ? LM2 − 6.54 –– – – – – – 1869 E N/A Infant –– Rib − 18.9 12.9 2.9 13.8 41.2 5.2 2170 E N/A Infant –– Rib − 18.4 12.6 3 14.5 35 7.8 2527 Un N/A Infant –– Rib − 19.3 9.5 3.3 14.3 38.8 4.3 6447 E N/A Infant –– Rib − 19.6 12.9 3.2 13.6 40 3.6 11916 E N/A Infant LM2 − 10.3 Rib − 19.2 9.2 3.2 13.8 37.3 5.6 2030 Un N/A Subadult UM1 − 11.7 Rib − 18.6 13.6 3.2 14.1 40.3 2.9 2772 Un N/A Subadult –– Rib − 18.7 11.6 3.4 13.9 39.9 2 4421 L N/A Subadult UM1 − 11.6 Rib − 19.6 12.2 3.3 13.7 41.1 2.1 4574 L N/A Subadult LM1 − 10.5 Rib − 19.3 11.6 3.3 12.4 37.1 3.5 4776 L N/A Subadult LM1 − 11.4 Rib − 18.8 9.8 3.2 13.8 39.5 4 5255 E N/A Subadult LM1 − 10.6 –– – – – – – 5462 L N/A Subadult –– Rib − 12 9.2 3.4 12 29 5.3 5601 E N/A Subadult –– Rib − 18.4 9.9 3.5 13.5 39 2.5 10206 E N/A Subadult –– Rib − 19.4 9.9 3.4 11.2 28 4 11321 E N/A Subadult LM1 − 10.7 Rib − 19.4 9 3.2 12.4 35.1 4.4 11989 Un N/A Subadult –– Rib − 18.2 12 3.3 13.7 39.1 2.9 12063 Un N/A Subadult LM3 − 6.4 –– – – – – – 12283 E N/A Subadult UM1 − 9.4 Rib − 21.3 13.4 3.4 14.2 42.5 2 532 L M Young adult LM2 − 11 Rib − 19.6 11.6 3.2 12.9 39.5 6.2 532 L M Young adult LM3 − 11.6 –– – – – – 655 E M Young adult LM3 − 11.8 –– – – – – 3801 L F Young adult LM2 − 11.3 Rib − 19.3 9.4 3.2 14.4 41.2 4.7 3801 L F Young adult LM3 − 11.1 –– – – – – – *5230 Un F Young adult –– Rib − 19.1 9.7 3.3 14.7 41.2 2.4 5757 E M Young adult UM1 − 12 –– – – – – – 5920 L M Young adult M1 − 12.1 Rib − 18.7 9.2 3.3 13.8 37.3 7.8 6795 E M Young adult M3 − 12.4 Rib − 19.3 9.7 3.2 14.2 38.5 2 6801 E M Young adult M2 − 9.7 Rib − 19.2 9.3 3.3 13.1 37.5 4.6 7578 E F Young adult –– Rib − 19.2 11.9 3.3 14.6 33.5 5.6 7968 E M Young adult LM3 − 8.2 Rib − 18.1 11.6 3.2 14.2 40.6 4.8 9027 E M Young adult LM3 − 11.6 Rib − 19 10.1 3.2 14.1 40.2 4.5 10021 E F Young adult LM3 − 11.2 Rib − 19.4 9.8 3.2 11.8 33.5 2 10027 E F Young adult LM3 − 11.4 Rib − 19.2 8.4 3.2 14.1 38.2 4.5 12271 E M Young adult UM3 − 11.4 Rib − 18.7 10.5 3.2 14.4 39.2 4.6 12601 L F Young adult LM3 − 10.4 Rib − 19.3 9.7 3.2 13.7 39.1 4.8 5093 E M Young adult –– Rib − 18.9 11.4 3.2 14.1 38.2 2.9 11681 E M Young adult UM3 − 11.3 Rib − 19.2 9.9 3.2 13.8 37.6 7.8 11752 E F Young adult LM3 − 11.8 Rib − 19.1 9.6 3.2 15.9 39.7 10.1 2817 Un M Middle adult UM3 − 11.9 Rib − 18.9 9.4 3.3 12 34.1 2.5 3697 L M Middle adult LM3 − 11.4 Rib − 18.6 10.8 3.2 13.5 39.2 7.2 6810 Un F Middle adult –– Rib − 19.1 11.1 3.3 13.8 41.5 4.8 *6825 Un F Middle adult –– Rib − 19.4 8.9 3.2 15.3 42.5 2.2 9163 E M Middle adult LM3 − 12 –– – – – – – 10326 E M Middle adult UM1 − 13.1 Rib − 19.1 8 3.2 14 40 2.1 11083 E M Middle adult LM2 − 10.6 –– – – – – – 11083 E M Middle adult LM3 − 11.7 –– – – – – – 3864 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 Table 3 (continued) 13 13 15 Sample code Period Sex Age Tooth ‰ δ C Element ‰ δ C ‰ δ N Atomic C/N %N wt %C wt Collagen yield app coll *11309 Un N/A Middle adult –– Rib − 18.9 10.1 3.2 16.1 44.6 7.3 11837 E ? Middle adult UM3 − 11.2 –– – – – – – 11873 E F Middle adult LM3 − 11.3 Rib − 19.3 9.3 3.2 14.3 36.9 10.1 12872 L F Middle adult UM1 − 11.6 Rib − 19.4 11.2 3.3 11.9 31.5 5.3 492 L M Middle adult LM2 − 11.4 Rib − 19.7 9.4 3.4 12.2 36.4 N/A 5902 E M Middle adult M3 − 12.1 Rib − 18.7 11.6 3.4 13.8 37.3 2.1 10957 L F Middle adult LM3 − 11.1 Rib − 18.8 9.5 3.3 14 38 4.2 11333 E M Middle adult UM1 − 10.1 Rib − 19.1 11.8 3.3 12.5 33.1 2.5 12286 E N/A Middle adult UM2 − 12.3 Rib − 19.3 9.9 3.2 15.8 41.3 6.1 12895 L M Middle adult LM3 − 13 Rib − 19.3 9.6 3.3 11.7 35 2.8 509 L M Old adult LM3 − 10.9 Rib − 19.2 9.5 3.2 13.6 38.8 5.6 2561 Un U Old adult UM2 − 12 –– – – – – *3094 Un M Old adult –– Rib − 18.7 9.8 3.3 10.3 28.8 2.5 3863 L F Old adult LM2 − 12.1 Rib − 18.8 8.7 3.2 14.4 41.2 2.5 3863 L F Old adult LM3 − 11.9 –– – – – – – 4238 L N/A Old adult –– Rib − 18.5 13.1 3.3 13.7 39.1 1.4 6855 E M Old adult –– Rib − 19.1 8.4 3.3 13.7 37 N/A 9247 E F Old adult LM3 − 11.8 Rib − 18.6 10.6 3.3 13.9 39.6 5.3 *11461 Un F Old adult –– Rib − 19.1 9.9 3.2 15.4 43 2.5 *11550 Un N/A Old adult –– Rib − 19.2 10.1 3.2 15.5 42.7 4.5 12677 L M Old adult LM2 − 11.9 Rib − 19.3 10.3 3.2 12.2 32.5 4.4 12577 L F Adult LM2 − 13 –– – – – – – 12577 L F Adult LM3 − 12.3 –– – – – – – *Cattle-967 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 18.8 5.8 3.4 14.7 42.6 1.3 *Cattle-966 Un N/A Adult –– Jaw − 19.8 9.3 3.5 4 11.8 1.4 *Cattle-964 Un N/A Adult –– Jaw − 18.7 8.8 3.2 14.9 41.3 3.9 *Cattle-961 Un N/A Adult –– Tibia − 20 5.7 3.3 14.3 40.1 1.7 *Cattle-958 Un N/A Adult –– Vertebra − 17.8 7.3 3.4 11.5 33.5 1.3 Cattle Un N/A Adult –– Jaw − 20.6 4.1 3.2 11.6 34.9 12.4 *Caprine-965 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 21 6.8 3.3 12.7 36 2.4 *Caprine-969 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 19.6 6.6 3.2 14.3 39.9 7.1 *Caprine-959 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 20.9 9.6 3.3 15.7 44.2 15.7 *Caprine-968 Un N/A Adult –– Metacarpal − 20.1 8.3 3.2 15.6 42.5 7.4 *Caprine-963 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 19.6 6.6 3.2 14.6 40.6 3.4 *Pig-962 Un N/A Adult –– Humerus − 19.3 8.1 3.3 14.7 41.1 2.5 *Rabbit-960 Un N/A Adult –– Coxal − 22.5 4.7 3.4 14.3 41.3 5.4 IAEA-CO1 N/A N/A N/A N/A − 2.61 Standard N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A * Samples analysed at University of Reading Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3865 Infant Subadult Adult Cow Caprine Rabbit Pig 15.5 present a moderate to high range of variation, 3.2‰ for 13 15 δ C (− 21‰, − 17.8‰) and 3.9‰ δ N (5.7‰, 9.6‰). coll 13.5 13 15 The average caprine δ C and δ Nvalues are − 20.3 and coll 11.5 13 7.6‰, while that of the cattle are − 19.2 and 6.9‰ for δ C coll 15 13 and δ N, respectively. The isotopic variability in δ C is 9.5 coll wider for cattle than for caprine (2.2 and 1.4‰,respectively; 7.5 Table 4 and Fig. 2b) and slightly wider for δ N (3.6 and 5.5 3.0‰,respectively; Table 4 and Fig. 2b). Although, in gener- 13 15 al, the cattle displayed less negative δ C and higher δ N coll 3.5 -23 -22 -21 -20 -19 -18 -17 than caprine, these differences are not statistically significant ‰ δ C coll (U test between cattle and caprine: M-W test U =4.000, p = 13 15 0.09 for δ C ; U = 14.000, p =0.84 for δ N); however, the coll 15.5 sample size tested is small. The results for the pig sample fall into the range of analysed large herbivore data. 13.5 11.5 Carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures from bone 9.5 collagen in human samples 7.5 5.5 The human data have an average of − 19.1 ± 0.5‰ for δ C coll and 10.4 ± 1.4‰ for δ N(n = 55). The sample of 12,283 3.5 constitutes an outlier in δ C (see Fig. 2), since the value -21.5 -21 -20.5 -20 -19.5 -19 -18.5 -18 coll ‰ δ C coll (− 21.3‰)is more than 1.3‰ lower than the next minimum Fig. 2 a Collagen isotopic value for fauna, adults, subadults and infants human value and 2.2‰ lower than the human average. The in the Écija sample with mean values for fauna. b Average values and outlier is not included in the statistics. Not considering the standard deviations for infants, subadults, adults, cows and caprines outlier, the human sample range is 1.9‰ (− 20.2 to − 13 15 18.1‰)for δ C (see Fig. 2b). The results for δ Ndisplay coll and below 16% (see Table 3). Four samples showed low continuous variation from 8.0 to 13.6‰, a wide range of %N, the first two 8.1% and the others 4.0%; however, 5.6‰. However, excluding infants and subadults, the range since their C/N ratio was acceptable and isotopic results is reduced to 2.9‰ (8.0 to 11.9‰) (see Fig. 2b). were in line with similar samples, both samples were The δ C of human bone collagen is not significantly coll retained (see Table 3). different from the cattle samples (n =6) (U = 142.50, p = Unlike bone, enamel apatite is less likely to be affected by 0.60); however, human and cattle differ significantly in their post-mortem mineral exchange or diagenesis (Kohn et al. δ Nvalues(U = 15, p = < 0.001). Human samples are sig- 1999; Lee-Thorp 2002), and there are no standard quality nificantly different from caprine (n = 5) samples in both 13 15 control measures. δ C (U =11.00, p < 0.001) and δ N(U = 20.00, p < coll 0.001). The offset between the human and the large herbi- Carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures from faunal vore (cattle and caprine) average is 0.6‰ for δ C and coll samples 2.8‰ for δ N, which can be considered small, although, for δ N approximately 3.0‰ can reflect a trophic level A summary of the isotope values for the Écija faunal data is difference (O'Connell et al. 2012). The human average and presented in Table 4. the rabbit value also show a large isotopic shift, 3.5‰ for 13 15 13 15 The rabbit has the lowest δ C and second lowest δ N δ C and 5.6‰ for δ N. coll coll values, − 22.6 and 4.8‰, respectively. When medium–large Prior to testing whether differences exist between demo- herbivores, cattle and caprine, are considered together, both graphic groups, variation in isotope values between Table 4 Statistical summary of 13 15 13 15 Animal n δ C (‰)SDRange δ N(‰)SD Range the δ C and δ Nresults for coll coll terrestrial animals from Écija Rabbit 1 − 22.6 –– 4.8 –– Cattle 6 − 19.2 1.1 − 20.6 to − 17.8 6.9 2.2 4.1 to 9.4 Caprine 5 − 20.3 0.7 − 21.0 to − 19.6 7.6 1.3 6.6 to 9.6 Pig 1 − 19.3 –– 8.1 –– 15 15 ‰ δ N ‰ δ N 3866 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 individuals assigned to either the Early period (7–3phases, significant difference was only observed for nitrogen isotope 13 2 15 2 n = 25) or Late period (1–2phases, n = 17) of cemetery use values (δ C = χ (2) = 0.720, p =0.700; δ N= χ (2) = coll was tested: No significant differences exist (samples with 10.00, p =0.007). A Dunn’spairwise comparison of δ Nby phase information n = 42; M-W test U = 162.000, p =0.19 age indicates that infants vary significantly from adults (D = − 13 15 for δ C ; U = 201.000, p =0.77 for δ N). No differences 2.70, p = 0.010) but do not vary significantly with subadults at coll were found when the sexes were considered independently the 0.05 level (D = − 2.06, p = 0.060). Subadults do not vary (males Early/Late periods n = 11/7; M-W test U = 22.000, significantly from the adult population (D =1.07, p =0.430). 13 15 p =0.15 for δ C ; U = 33.500, p =0.66 for δ N); (females coll Early/Late periods n = 6/5; M-W test U = 13.500, p =0.79 for Sex and age differences in adult population 13 15 δ C ; U = 13.000, p =0.79 for δ N). The numbers of in- coll fants and subadults were insufficient to test between groups; When considering sexed adults, no significant differences in 13 15 however, visual inspection of the data presented no obvious the δ C or δ Nof male (n =20) and female (n = 15) bone coll 13 15 differences. Since the analysed samples show no isotopic dif- collagen exist (δ C U =129.00, p = 0.484; δ N U = coll ferences according to period, the whole sample is studied as a 109.50, p = 0.180). The adult sample was divided into three single group. Table 3 outlines isotopic results for each indi- different age categories: young adults (16–35 years, n =13), vidual analysed. The descriptive statistics for all three isotopes middle-aged adults (35–50 years, n = 14) and old adults (> 13 15 taken from the human samples are presented in Table 5. 50 years, n = 8). No differences were found in δ C or δ N coll values among age groups (K–Wtest, χ (2) = 3.41, p =0.18 13 2 15 for δ C ; χ (2) = 0.08, p =0.96 for δ N). Adults versus subadults coll Carbon isotopic signatures from dental enamel It should be noted that combined infants and subadults show in human samples significant differences to the adults in nitrogen values (infants and subadults without outlier/adults n =17/38; U = 424.500, The descriptive statistics for the enamel samples can be found p =0.02 for δ N) but not in carbon (M-W test U = 312.500, in Table 5 and are presented in Fig. 3a. The average δ C for p =0.87 for δ C ) (see Fig. 2a,b). A Kruskal–Wallis H test ap coll all teeth is − 11.2 ± 1.3‰ (min − 3.1‰,max − 6.4‰). There is assessed for significant variation in stable carbon and nitrogen 13 13 greater intrapopulation variation in δ C than δ C isotope values between infants (< 2 years) (n = 5), subadults ap coll (ranges = 6.7 and 1.9‰, respectively). Cases 11931, 12063 (between 2 and 6 years) (n = 12) and adults (n =38). A and 7968 are conspicuous with δ C values of − 6.5‰ ap (M2), − 6.4‰ (M3) and − 8.2‰ (M1), respectively. They Table 5 Descriptive statistics for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values from collagen and stable carbon from enamel in the Écija can be considered as outliers since their values differ from collection the average more than two standard deviations. Isotope (‰)Group N Max Min Mean SD Age differences δ N Infants 5 13.1 9.5 12.2 1.5 Subadults 12 13.6 9.0 10.9 1.6 Figure 3a shows little difference in δ C values between ap All adult 38 11.9 8.0 10.0 1.0 permanent tooth type (M1, M2 and M3), with no single tooth Female 15 11.9 8.4 9.8 1.0 type demonstrating a clear enrichment or depletion in δ C ap Male 20 11.8 8.0 10.1 1.1 values. This was confirmed using a Kruskal–Wallis H test 13 2 ?Adults 3 10.2 9.9 10.1 0.2 (δ C = χ (2) = 0.290, p = 0.870). As the enamel of these ap δ C Infants 5 − 18.3 − 19.6 − 18.9 0.5 teeth forms at different, although slightly overlapping ages, a coll Subadults 12 − 18.2 − 21.3 − 19.2 0.8 lack of consistent pattern may suggest no systematic differ- ences in diet at different stages of childhood (infancy to ap- All adult 38 − 18.1 − 19.7 − 19.1 0.3 proximately 12 years). Female 15 − 18.6 − 19.4 − 19.2 0.2 Male 20 − 18.1 − 19.7 − 19.0 0.4 Sex differences ?Adults 3 − 18.9 − 19.3 − 19.1 0.2 δ C Infant 1 –– − 11.9 – ap Like the collagen values, no significant differences in the sta- Subadults 8 − 6.4 − 11.7 − 10.3 1.7 ble carbon isotope apatite values existed between men and All adult 37 − 8.2 − 13.1 − 11.5 0.9 women for either tooth type (M3 (U =29.5, p = 0.15, n = Female 12 − 10.4 − 12.6 − 11.5 0.6 20), M2 (U =2.5, p =0.14, n =8)).Toothcrownsdevelop Male 21 − 8.2 − 13.1 − 11.5 1.1 during infancy and childhood and undergo no structural ?Adults 4 − 10.3 − 12.3 − 11.5 0.9 change once complete, while bone constantly remodels Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3867 M1 Female Fig. 3 a Data comparing δ C coll a b -7 M2 Male from bone collagen (ribs) and 13 M3 δ C from teeth, with M1, M2 ap -8 12 and M3 plotted in different series, -9 one sample per individual with the exception of ID3801 (M2 and -10 M3) and ID3863 (M2 and M3). b Graph comparing Δδ C ap-coll -11 with δ N; females and males are -12 in different series; regression was computed with both sexes and -13 excluding the two outliers inside the ellipse 7 -14 -22 -21 -20 -19 -18 -17 56789 10 11 13 13 δ C col (‰) in bone δ C (‰) ap-col 13 15 throughout life. Adult diet obtained by bone collagen can be have more elevated δ C and slightly lower δ Nvalues than compared with data from apatite measured in M3, since this caprine. Similar δ C differences were observed by Alexander tooth can represent childhood diet (8–12 years) (Ubelaker et al. (2015) for later Islamic fauna in the central-east of Iberia, 1999). In general, males and females present similar spacing while the opposite was observed in a pre-Islamic Christian between collagen and apatite values, Δδ C ♀ =7.9 ± population from the North-West region (López-Costas and ap-col 0.6‰ and Δδ C ♂ = 7.5 ± 1.0‰.AlthoughM3can Müldner 2016). Furthermore, although our sample size is ap-col show a great variability in its age of development, the obtained small, cattle have greater isotope value variation than caprine, results again suggest no differences between sexes but impor- again also observable in other studies (see Guede et al. 2017; tantly extend this notion to childhood (Fig. 3a). However, Alexander et al. 2015). Transhumance has been important 13 15 when Δδ C is plotted with δ N, there is an observable strategy in Iberia from the Roman period onwards (Glick ap-col trend (see Fig. 3b) in that males tend to have higher Δδ C 1995). Herds of sheep and goat, valued more for meat, were ap- and δ Nvalues (− 7.5 ± 01.0 and 10.4 ± 0.9‰,respective- moved to better grazing pastures at certain times of the year. col 13 15 ly) while females seem to have lower Δδ C and δ N Such movement may be notable from Écijan caprine data in ap-col (−7.9 ± 0.6 and 9.5 ± 0.6‰, respectively). When considering Zakrzewski’s(2010) mobilitystudy;caprines havemoreele- the results of the comparison, we have to remember that the vated Sr values than humans, perhaps reflecting inhabitation data from apatite reflects only subadult consumption and the in an area away from the town, such as nearby hill or mountain values from collagen indicate diet from last years of life. regions. Research by García-García (2017), who draws on Davis (2008) and Davis et al. (2013), has highlighted the possibility that a system for the provision of animal products from a specialised herding system existed in the region, which Discussion could explain the lower variation in caprine data. It is possible that we are seeing further evidence of this in our data. As cattle Staple food resources consumed by the inhabitants appear to have been less preferred for meat in comparison to of Écija caprine (Salas-Salvado et al. 2006), which could be viewed in the isotope data where humans appeared roughly one trophic This paper aims to reconstruct the staple foods and available level above caprines, and were valued for secondary products resources for the inhabitants of Écija with a view to understand- in the Islamic period, it is possible that they were kept closer to ing wider issues influencing the population and contextualise home and in smaller numbers. Thus, if individual or small this with other regions of Iberia. Due to the relationship be- groups of cattle were owned by different people/families, as tween human isotope values and consumed animal values, it opposed to in herds, there may be greater potential for is important to discuss the faunal results prior to considering 13 15 foddering or pasturing differences, which could be the human values. The comparison of δ Cand δ N values be- source of variation in the cattle data. However, we are tween the large herbivores and the rabbit, an animal most likely conscious that our sample size is limited; so, here, we call eating C plants, shows that both caprine (goat/sheep) and cattle for more dedicated isotopic research, such as that carried by arelikelytobefoddered on or freelyateC plants, but there Sirignano et al. (2014) on animals from northern Iberia, as it mayhavebeenavery minoruseof C resources. would be enlightening about lifeways in Iberia more general- Although medium–large herbivores do not differ signifi- ly, and how husbandry practices changed. cantly in average isotopic signals, and overlap is present, the Carbon data suggests that Écijans had a diet mainly based intragroup variation in values may signal different strategies on C plants, and this appeared stable across the use of the of management for cattle and sheep/goat. Écijan cattle tend to 3 δ C apt (‰) δ N (‰) 3868 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 cemetery, suggesting no shift to C plants. This supports his- Recalling the difference in δ N values between humans torical research that highlights Écija as an important wheat and and herbivores, it appears that animal protein was being con- 13 15 barley-producing region (García-Baena 2006). The limited sumed. However, some human δ Cand δ N values differ indication of C plants may reflect the intake of some animals little to averages for cattle and caprine. Initially, this suggests foddered on millet or sorghum, which could also be grown in that some individuals may have been almost vegetarian, sig- the area (although see next paragraph). However, the contri- nalling intragroup diversity in diet. As meat and dairy prod- bution of C plants to human or animal diet appears scant. The ucts may have been more expensive food items, it could re- data do not suggest significant consumption of fish and marine flect the mixed economic status of individuals buried at the resources, a result consistent with the location of Écija and cemetery. However, as highlighted previously, there is a great historic information on food traditions in this inland area of degree of variability in the animal values, especially the δ N Andalucía, where the base of diet was likely to be cereal, with values for cattle. It is quite possible that individuals close to limited meat consumption by the majority of the population. the cattle and caprine averages were eating protein, but from 13 15 Only one male (7968) had δ C values suggestive of a great- animals at the lower end of δ N range demonstrated. ap er consumption of C resources, although he also had one of the highest δ N values. This individual may differ in diet to Implications for socio-politico and physical the rest of the population and/or come from another location. environment Given that this man was in the earliest layers of the cemetery, analysis of oxygen and strontium values might be insightful One feature often assessed in Medieval populations is sex for ascertaining if he migrated. Another point to consider is the differences in data and how this links to gender ideals. In possible effect of shifts in water management mentioned in particular, there is significant interest in whether sex divisions historical sources (Martín Civantos 2016); however, the δ C appear in the Islamic period due to the arrival of new Islamic in crops due to irrigation seems to be very site-specific (Flohr gender ideology (Inskip 2013). Sex differences are present in et al. 2011) and results risky to interpret its influence in animal other biological data, including activity-related skeletal mod- and human signals. ifications at Écija (Inskip 2013, 2016), while more generally Dietary reconstruction based on bioapatite (δ C )to- historic sources highlight that there was a gender division of ap 13 13 gether with the combination of δ C vs. δ C and labour and activity (Shatzmiller 1994) and space (Díaz-Jorge ap coll 13 15 δ C vs. δ N may suggest the consumption of a C 2012) in Medieval Iberia. The collagen data suggests no sig- ap-coll 4 plant with high C values but with very low protein. nificant differences between males and females in terms of Sugarcane is consumed through the production of molasses diet, and apatite values potentially show that this can be large- which is composed of carbohydrates rather than plant fibres; ly extended to boys and girls. However, the combination of therefore, its high δ C does not affect human collagen iso- collagen and apatite values might hint at greater consumption topic signal which is related to protein diet. Similar results of sugarcane by females (girls). This suggests that although have been linked with sugarcane consumption, for example base diet did not differ between the sexes, there may have in thePacificMarianas(Ambroseetal. 1997). Sugarcane been subtle variances between males and females. wasprobablyintroducedintoIberiaduringthe Islamicpe- There is no historical evidence to suggest that there should riod (Watson 1974); however, it has been rarely introduced be differences in the diets of adults and children post-breast into the discussion of palaeodietary reconstruction using feeding. The decrease in δ N values in individuals aged 1.5 isotopes, because its low protein content makes it only de- to 3.0 years of age is consistent with weaning beginning in the tectable in carbon apatite values and no research has includ- first or second year of life. With no significant variation in ed δ C in their isotopic analyses until now. Importantly, carbon collagen values and a lack of consistent difference in ap the Guadalquivir valley, in which Écija is situated, is record- apatite values between teeth, it suggests that childhood diet ed as a successful sugarcane-producing region (Sato 2015). did generally not vary from adults after being weaned. The consumption of sugarcane, which would have not been The isotope data are potentially revealing about the envi- dietary staple, may explain the slight shift in carbon values ronment Écijans inhabited. Arid temperatures and high salin- towards those expected for communities consuming C ity have been identified as the cause of abnormally high values plants, and could be geographically and historically expect- for δ N(Ambrose 1991;Heaton 1987; Britton et al. 2008; ed for Écija. However, as not all individuals show evidence López-Costas and Müldner 2016). Today, Écija is renowned for its consumption, it is possible that it is not yet a universal for its high temperatures and salinity (Fernández et al. 2002), commodity, which fits with ideas that it was initially for as well as nearby BAltiplano de Écija^. However, with the family consumption in the first few centuries of Islamic rule exception of a few high cattle values, which may relate to (Perez Vidal 1973). In addition, we are not able to ascertain husbandry practices, Écija’shuman δ N values are moderate, whether its consumption was limited to children as we were if not low for the time period (see Table 6), as might be ex- only able to test enamel. pected if environmental conditions and salinity were a Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3869 Table 6 Stable isotope values from other studies of Medieval material from Iberia 13 15 Sheep human Site Date Religion n δ C(‰) SD Range Cattle δ N SD Range Cattle human Sheep human 13 13 15 15 human δ δ C (‰)offset (‰) δ N(‰)offset δ N(‰)offset coll C (‰)offset coll Ibiza 4th–6th C 60 − 19 0.4 − 19.9 to − 18.0 2 1.8 11.1 1.1 8.3 to 13.6 3.4 5.4 A Lanzada 5th–7th C 15 − 14.3 0.7 − 16.5 to − 12.8 6.1 5.6 12.8 0.5 12.0 to 12.8 5.7 5.3 Aistra 8th–9th C 35 − 19 1 − 22.0 to − 16.7 1.7 – 7.9 1 6.8 to 12.1 3.1 – San Salvador de Valdedois 10th–13th C 12 − 19 0.4 − 19.6 to − 18.0 2.6 0.2 9.7 0.9 8.8 to 12.2 4.6 2.7 San Pedro de Nora 12th–15th C 12 − 18.3 1.8 − 19.8 to − 13.1 3.3 0.9 10.3 1 8.8 to 11.3 5.2 3.3 San Miguel de Lillo 12th C 16 − 17.5 2.5 − 19.5 to − 10.7 3.2 0.8 10.4 1 9.2–13.9 5.3 3.4 Jaca 13th–15th C 27 − 18.3 1.2 − 17.0 to − 15.3–– 10 0.9 8.6 to 10.6–– Colegiata, Gandia 13th–16th C 20 − 17.2 1 − 18.7 to − 15.0 0.6 2.1 10.3 0.8 8.8 to 12.0 3.3 6.3 Tauste 8th–10th I 11 − 19.1 0.4 − 19.5 to − 18.4 2.5 0.1 15.3 1.8 10.8 to 17.0 10.2 8.3 Écija 9th–12th I 55 − 19 1 − 19.7 to − 18.1 0.2 1.3 9.8 1.3 8.0 to 11.6 2.9 2.2 Ibiza 10th–13th I 24 − 18.1 1.3 − 19.4 to − 13.1 1.3 0.8 10.9 1 8.5 to 12.5 3 4.6 Zaragoza 10th–12th I 37 − 19 –– – – 10.9 –– Benipeixcar 15th–16th I 20 − 16.4 1 − 18.0 to − 14.2 1.4 2.9 10.7 0.6 9.2 to 11.9 3.7 6.7 C, Christian; I, Islamic. Current study highlighted in bold 1, Mundee (2009); 2, Alexander et al. (2015); 3, Fuller et al. (2010); 4, MacKinnon (2015); 5, Guede et al. (2017); 6, Quirós Castillo (2013); 7, López-Costas and Müldner (2016) 3870 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 significant factor in dictating δ N. For example, at Tauste, a are still subtle differences between them that may relate to contemporary Islamic cemetery in northern Iberia with high animal practices, human dietary patterns, but also potentially soil salinity, the average δ N human value was 15.3‰ with a environmental variation. Of course, these issues may also be max of 17‰ (Guede et al. 2017). Fernandez et al. (2002)have interrelated. In addition, while there are no sex differences in argued that modern human activity has been a significant con- the data from Écija, sex differences are visible at Tauste tributor to the high salinity in the town today, and it is inter- (Guede et al. 2017). To explore this further, it would be valu- esting that our results support this situation. This infers that able to assess other Islamic sites in the south of Iberia and to either the conditions were different or that medieval individ- have faunal data for Zaragoza. Turning to the Christian uals were using a different water source. Regardless, it is very groups, we can see that, in general, there is more variation in interesting that the values differ so significantly to Tauste even the human values but also the human and animal offset values. though there are similar environmental conditions. Further Importantly, this variation is observed in the pre-Islamic and research on inhabitants from other parts of Écija may be en- Islamic period Christian sites. Some of this variation is likely lightening in this regard. to relate to the fact that some of the sites are small and rural in nature, which would likely differ in dietary patterns to larger Écija in context settlements, but potentially also between rural communities. It would be useful to have similar rural data for Islamic sites to When we place Écija in context with results from other Iberian understand if similar trends exist. isotopic studies, it is important to take into account not only Given the variation that exists within Islamic and Christian the faunal values as well as the human data but also the offset sites, it is very difficult to ascertain whether there is a pattern between humans and animals. Observing Table 6, a complex typical of either religious identity or how things changed over picture emerges which does not map neatly on to any one time. For example, Écija’s isotope values most closely resem- specific factor (religion, time, environment and social factors). ble those of the rural 10th to 13th century Christian individuals First, it is necessary to highlight two sites with outstanding at San Salvador de Valdedois, in the north (Table 6). However, results. As already mentioned, Early Islamic Tauste appears to this does not mean that religious differences did not exist, but be unique in its nitrogen values, a feature attributed to extreme as isotopes only provide an overview of diet, and many diets salinity in the area (Guede et al. 2017). Second, Lanzada, a can appear isotopically similar, other evidence, including bo- pre-Islamic site in the north with very high carbon and nitro- tanical, palaeopathological and zooarchaeological, is required gen values, is argued to represent a mixed marine and millet- to tease out these differences. The possible identification of based diet. These cases in particular show that local circum- sugarcane consumption at Écija may be significant here. As stances are very important in dictating the values observed and there was already a strong relationship between Islamic prac- tices and sugar consumption by the 9th century (Sato 2015), to that trying to ascertain general trends is difficult in a region like Iberia where there is both a complex geology and varying ascertain if it could be a useful indicator of Islamic identity, it social and political structures. Already, this highlights the im- is necessary to assess if other Islamic and Christian groups portance of doing regional studies, which is important in re- show similar signals and how this might relate to time. vealing these complexities. Although the data are limited, when we place the carbon One of the big questions surrounding life in medieval Iberia values from Écija in context with other sites, it appears that is whether there are detectable differences between Christian time has more of an influence than region or religion. Écija is and Islamic communities. In order to assess this, it is neces- similar to its contemporary Islamic and Christian sites in hav- sary to consider each religious group separately. Table 6, ing carbon values which do not indicate significant C plant which outlines data for other isotopic studies, shows similarity consumption. Archaeobotanical research based on 10th to in δ C values between Écija and contemporary northern and 12th century Northern Iberian cities has also found millet to central Islamic sites at Zaragoza and Tauste (Alexander et al. be present in very low quantities. Excluding A Lazada, a pre- 2015; Guede et al. 2017; Mundee 2009). The two other Islamic Christian community with a clear C signature Islamic sites, Benipeixcar and Ibiza, differ with both present- (López-Costas 2012), we only see strong evidence for millet ing values consistent with greater C consumption. However, or sorghum consumption from the 12th century onwards. The it is notable that Écija is lower in offset with cattle than both two Islamic sites with evidence of significant C consumption these sites, yet the offset with caprine at Écija is somewhat are the late medieval community at Benipeixcar, perhaps higher than that in Tauste or Ibiza. In terms of δ Nvalues, representing a group whose diet had shifted due to changes Écija is similar to other Islamic sites, with the exception of in status (see Alexander et al. 2015), and at Ibiza, where its Tauste (discussed in previous texts), but when assessing the island status means that migration patterns, trade and/or local offset with cattle and caprine, Écijans differ very little to cap- circumstances may have resulted in differing isotopic values rine which is different to the other two sites. This infers that to mainland sites (see Fuller et al. 2010; Nehlich et al. 2012). while there are similarities between these Islamic sites, there For example, food could have been bought to the island. This Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3871 potentially suggests that although the southern Iberian envi- data, more important factors may include time, changing so- ronment might have been suitable to C plant production and cial–political situations, local environment and/or available technology may have improved to allow its production, C resources. Unsurprisingly, a complex picture emerges which plants became a staple only until well after the 11th century. highlights the importance of undertaking regional studies. Overall, this shows that the exploitation of C plants is likely Only when we have a good understanding of the variation in to be related not only to the possibilities of cultivation but also dietary practices and resources across the region can we start to the multitude of social factors, including status, group pref- to assess the significance of sociocultural and environmental erence, as well as practicalities (i.e. relation with other crops). change. To move forward, more dedicated studies of faunal Although the faunal sample sizes are small for the sites material accompanied by a greater diversity of sites across the tested, and therefore difficult to compare statistically, Écija is region are necessary. interesting due to the low offset between its animals and Acknowledgments We would like to thank Antonio Ugalde and the humans. Écijans have the lowest nitrogen offset of any of Municipal Museum of Écija for all their support and help during this the groups where faunal data is available, regardless of region, research. Thanks also to Inma López Flores and Ursula Tejedor religion or time (see Table 6). It is unclear how typical this (Asociación Española de Bioarqueología) for their help during animal offset is for an Islamic town as only Islamic Tauste and Ibiza and human sample collection. We would also like to thank Dr. Gundula Müldner and Tina Moriarty for their assistance during collagen extraction have available faunal data and both are unique in their circum- in Reading University and to Dr. Aleks Pluskowski and Prof. Laszlo stances. In comparison to the Christian sites, this may reflect a Bartosiewicz for their help during archaeozoological identification. lack of other resources that could increase carbon values in Thanks are due to Dr. Jason Laffoon and Suzan Warmerdam for their humans, such as fish, which given that nearly all the Christian assistance during the processing of Leiden samples and to the Earth Sciences Department at the Vrije Universiteit (VU) Amsterdam sites are not too distant from the coast would make sense. It University for access to equipment and facilities. OLC is funded by may also reflect the consumption of fish as part of a Christian Plan Galego I2C mod.B (ED481D 2017/014). The research was partially diet. More studies on sites such as Écija are needed to assess funded by the projects BGalician Paleodiet^ and by Consiliencia network this further. (ED 431D2017/08) Xunta de Galicia. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Conclusion Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values, measured from priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the collagen and apatite, were assessed in the southern Iberian Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. population of Écija in order to fill a gap in our knowledge on dietary resources in Iberia during the medieval period. This aimed to improve our understanding of important factors influencing the lives of people during a unique period of time References punctuated by important socio-cultural changes. Overall, Aillet C, (2010) Les mozarabes: Christianisme et arabisation en péninsule Écija’s isotopic data demonstrate that individuals in the town Ibérique. Casa de Velázquez, Madrid had a C -based economy, consumed some animal protein, but Alexander MM, Gerrard CM, Gutiérrez A, Millard AR (2015) Diet, so- lacked strong evidence for significant C plant consumption, ciety, and economy in late medieval Spain: stable isotope evidence such as millet and sorghum and marine resources, although, from Muslims and Christians from Gandía, Valencia. Am J Phys 13 13 juxtaposition of δ C and δ C hints that sugarcane may Anthropol 156:263–273 coll ap Alonso N, Antolín F, Kirchner H (1994) Novelties and legacies in crops have become part of Écijans’ diet, though not by everyone. of the Islamic period in the northeast Iberian Peninsula: the Interestingly, the nitrogen values are moderate compared to archaeobotanical evidence in Madîna Balagî, Madîna Lârida, and what could be expected given the environmental conditions, Madîna Turṭûša. Quat Int 346:149–161 and despite Écija’s suitability for millet and sorghum produc- Al-Oumaoui I, Jiménez-Brobeil S, Du Souich R (2004) Markers of ac- tion, it is not observable in the data. The rich agricultural land tivity patterns in some populations of the Iberian Peninsula. Int J Osteoarchaeol 14:343–359 surrounding Écija, coupled with cultural preference, may have Ambrose SH (1990) Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth limited the desire for millet or other C plant production. collagen for isotopic analysis. J Archaeol Sci 17:431–451 Comparison of Écija’s faunal and human data with other Ambrose SH (1991) Effects on diet, climate and physiology on nitro- medieval Christian and Islamic sites shows that while there is gen isotope abundances in terrestrial foodwebs. J Archaeol Sci 18:293–317 some similarity between Islamic sites in the north and central Ambrose SH, Norr L (1993) Experimental evidence for the relationship parts of Iberia, the variation between them is marked and of the carbon isotope ratios of whole diet and dietary protein to those overlaps with Christian sites. As such, at present, we cannot of bone collagen and carbonate. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G (eds) typically identify an Islamic or Christian diet, or between Prehistoric human bone-archaeology at the molecular level. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 1–37 northern or southern sites more generally. Based on the current 3872 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 Ambrose SH, Butler BM, Hanson DB, Hunter-Anderson RL, Krueger Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Harris DA, Hedges REM (2006) Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon HW (1997) Stable isotopic analysis of human diet in the Marianas archipelago, Western Pacific. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:343–361 and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Am J Phys Anthropol 129: 279–293 Bocherens H, Drukker D (2003) Trophic level isotopic enrichment of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen: case studies from recent and Fuller BT, Marquez Grant N, Richards MP (2010) Investigation of dia- ancient terrestrial ecosystems. Int J Osteoarchaeol 13:46–53 chronic dietary patterns on the islands of Ibiza and Formentera, Bocherens H, Fizet M, Mariotti A, Lange-Badre B, Vandermeersch B, Spain: evidence from carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratio anal- Borel JP, Bellon G (1991) Isotopic biogeochemistry of fossil verte- ysis. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:512–522 brate collagen: implications for the study of fossil food web includ- García Baena A (2006) Écija Musulmana, Ulemas y Familias. Talleres ing Neanderthal man. J Hum Evol 20:481–492 Graficos Codair, Écija Boone JL, (2009) Lost civilisation. Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd, García Garcia M (2016) Archaeozoology’s contribution to the knowledge London of al-Andalus. In: Carvajal López J (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, Britton K, Muldner G, Bell M (2008) Stable isotope evidence for salt- history and memory, pp 33–38 marsh grazing in the Bronze Age Severn Estuary, UK: implica- García García M (2017) Some remarks on the provision of animal prod- tions for palaeodietary analysis at coastal sites. J Archaeol Sci 35: ucts to urban centres in medieval Islamic Iberia: the cases of Madinat 2111–2118 Ilbirah (Granada) and Cercadilla (Cordova). Quat Int 460:86–96 Broecker WS (2001) Was the medieval warm period global? Science 291: García Sánchez E (1995) La gastronomía al-andalus. El zoco: vida 1497–1499 economica y artes tradicionales en el al-Andalus y Marruecos. Carvajal Lopez JC (2013) Islamicization or Islamicizations? Expansion Lunwerg Editores, Barcelona, pp 49–57 of Islam and social practice in the Vega of Granada (south-east Garcia E, Subirá ME, Richards MP (2004) Régime et société d’apre’s Spain). World Archaeol 43:109–123 l’analyse des isotopes stables: l’exemple de la population de hhCan Chalmeta P (1994) Invasión e islamización: la sumisión de Hispania y la Reine’sii (Mallorca. Espagne, 600 ap. J.C.). Anthropos 7:171–176 formación de al-Andalus. MAPFRE, Madrid García-Dils de la Vegas S, Orche Amaré P, Sáez Fernández PM, Ordóñez Chisholm BS, Nelson DE, Hobson KA, Schwarcz HP, Knyf M (1983) Agulla S (2009) Estudio diacrónico de la explotación de la sal en el Carbon isotope measurement techniques for bone collagen: notes for territorio de Ecija –Sevilla. In: La explotación histórica de la sal the archaeologist. J Archaeol Sci 10:355–360 investigación y puesta en valor. Memorias de la Sociedad Española de Historia de la Arqueologia 11. Sociedad Española de Collins MJ, Galley P (1998) Towards an optimal method of archaeolog- Historia de la Arqueología, Madrid, pp 73–90 ical collagen extraction: the influence of pH and grinding. Anc Biomol 2:209–222 Glick TF (1995) From Muslim fortress to Christian castle. Manchester Davis SJM (2008) Zooarchaeological evidence for Moslem and Christian University Press, Manchester improvements of sheep and cattle in Portugal. J Archaeol Sci 35: Glick T (1999) Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. In: 991e1010 Comparative perspectives on social and cultural formation The Library of Iberian Resources Online. https://archive.is/ Davis SJM, Svensson EM, Albarella U, Detry C, Gotherstrom A, Pires E, 20120710141038/http://libro.uca.edu/ics/emspain.htm#selection- Ginja C, (2013) Evidencia de mejoras de ovino y vacuno durante 195.0-195.39 epoca andalusí y cristiana en Portugal a partir del analisis zooarqueologico y de ADN antiguo. DAM. Debates de Grau-Sologestoa I (2015) Livestock management in Spain from Roman Arqueología Medieval 3, 241e287. to post-medieval times: a biometrical analysis of cattle, sheep/goat Decker M (2009) Plants and progress: Rethinking the Islamic agricultural and pig. J Archaeol Sci 54:123–134 revolution. Journal of World History 20:187–206 Guede I, Ortega LA, Zuluaga MC, Alonso-Olazabal A, Murelaga X, Pina M, Gutierrez FJ, Iacumin P (2017) Isotope analyses to explore diet DeNiro MJ (1985) Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo and mobility in a medieval Muslim population at Tauste (NE Spain). bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruc- PLoS One 12:e0176572 tion. Nature 317:806–809 DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1978) Influence of diet on the distribution of Guichard P, Soravia B (2005) Los reinos de taifas: fragmentación política carbon isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:495–506 y esplendor cultural. Editorial Sarria, Malaga Heaton THE (1987) The N-15/N-14 ratios of plants in South-Africa and DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1981) Influence of diet on the distribution of Namibia—relationship to climate and coastal saline environments. nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 45:341– Oecologia 74:236–246 DeNiro MJ, Weiner S (1988) Use of collagenase to purify collagen from Hedges REM, Clement JG, Thomas CDL, O’Connell TC (2007) prehistoric bone for stable isotopic analysis. Geochemica et Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modelled from Cosmochimica Acta 52:2425–2431 anthropogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements. Am J Phys Anthropol 133:808–816 Díaz-Jorge ME (2012) Women and the architecture of Al-Andalus (711- Hernández Iñigo P (1997) La pesca fluvial y el consumo de pescado en 1492): a historiographical analysis. In: Martin T (ed) Reassessing Córdoba (1450–1525). Anu Estud Mediev 27:1045–1116 the roles of women as ‘makers of medieval art and architecture’. Brill, Leiden Imamuddin S (1981) Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill, Leiden Fernandez Ugalde A, (2005) Écija en la economía de al-Andalus: algunos Inskip SA (2013) Islam in Iberia or Iberian Islam: bioarchaeology and the indicadores cuantitativos de su importancial, Actas del VII analysis of emerging Islamic identity in Early Medieval Iberia. Post Congreso de Historia de Écija, "Écija economía y sociedad^ Classical Archaeologies 3:63–93 FernándezI,Olivas E,Cerón JC,Olias M,(2002)Aspectos Inskip SA (2016) Life and death in al-Andalus: funerary archaeology and Hidroquimicos del Agua subterranean de la comarca de Ecija osteoarchaeology in the analysis of Islamic identity. In: Lopez (Sevilla, Espana). In: Bocanegra E, Martinez D, Massone H (eds.). Carvajal J (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, history and memory. Groundwater and human development. Mar del Plata, Argentina, pp Akkadia Press, Edinburgh, pp 39–45 287–293 Kaal J, López-Costas O, Martínez Cortizas A (2016) Diagenetic effects Flohr P, Müldner G, Jenkins E (2011) Carbon stable isotope analysis of on pyrolysis fingerprints of extracted collagen in archaeological hu- cereal remains as a way to reconstruct water availability: preliminary man bones from NW Spain, as determined by pyrolysis-GC-MS. J results. Water History 3(2):121–144 Archaeol Sci 65:1–10 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3873 Katzenberg MA, Waters-Rist AL (in press) Stable isotope analysis: a tool Grimalt JO, Jiménez-Espejo F, Martínez-Ruiz F, Vegas-Vilarrúbia T, Valero-Garcés BL (2012) The Medieval climate anomaly in the for studying past diet, demography and life history. In: Biological anthropology of the human skeleton, Third edn Iberian Peninsula reconstructed from marine and lake records. Katzenberg MA, Bazaliiskii VI, Goriunova OI, Savel’ev NA, Weber AW Quat Sci Rev 43(Supplement C):16–32 (2010) Diet reconstruction of prehistoric hunter-gatherers in the Mundee M (2009) An isotopic approach to diet in Medieval Spain. In: Lake Baikal region. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers of the Baikal Baker S, Gray A, Lakin K, Madgwick R, Poole K, Sandias M (eds) Region, Siberia. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Food and drink in archaeology, Devon, pp 64–72 Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, pp 175–191 Nehlich O, Fuller BT, Marquez Grant N, Richards MP (2012) Kohn MJ (1996) Predicting animal δ O: accounting for diet and physi- Investigation of diachronic dietary patterns on the islands of Ibiza ological adaptation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 60:4811–4829 and Formentera, Spain: evidence from sulfur stable isotope ratio Kohn MJ, Schoeninger MJ, Barker WW (1999) Altered states: effects analysis. Am J Phys Anthropol 149:115–124 of diagenesis on fossil tooth chemistry. Geochim Cosmochim O'Connell TC, Kneale CJ, Tasevska N, Kuhnle GG (2012) The diet-body Acta 63:2737–2747 offset in human nitrogen isotopic values: a controlled dietary study. Krueger HW, Sullivan CH (1984) Models for carbon isotope fraction- Am J Phys Anthropol 149:426–434 ation between diet and bone. ACS Symp Ser 258:205–220 O'Leary MH (1988) Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. Bioscience 38: Larsen CS (2015) Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human 328–336 skeleton. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Oliva M, Ruiz-Fernández J, Barriendos M, Benito G, Cuadrat JM, Lee-Thorp J (2002) Two decades of progress towards understanding fos- Domínguez-Castro F, García-Ruiz JM, Giralt S, Gómez-Ortiz A, silization processes and isotopic signals in calcified tissue minerals. Hernández A, López-Costas O, López-Moreno JI, López-Sáez JA, Archaeometry 44:435–446 Martínez-Cortizas A, Moreno A, Prohom M, Saz MA, Serrano E, Lee-Thorp JL, Van Der Merwe NJ (1987) Carbon isotope analysis of Tejedor E, Trigo R, Valero-Garcés B, Vicente-Serrano SM (2018) The Little Ice Age in Iberian mountains. Earth Sci Rev 177:175–208 fossil bone apatite. S Afr J Sci 83(11):712–715 Lee-Thorp MG, Thirumalai CHR, Terry SI, Serjeant GR (1989) Passalacqua NV, MacKinnon A (2015) A historical bioarchaeology ap- Endoscopic and gastric acid studies in homozygous sickle cell dis- proach to health, status, and diet of Medieval Asturias. In: Quirós ease and upper abdominal pain. Gut 30:569–572 Castillo JA (ed) Demografia, paleopatoologias y desigualdad social Lee-Thorp J, Manning L, Sponheimer M (1997) Exploring problems and en el noroeste peninsular en época medieval. Euskal Herriko opportunities offered by down-scaling sample sizes for carbon iso- Unibertsitateko Argitalpen, Zerbitzua, pp 63–81 tope analyses of fossils. Bull Soc Geol Fr 168:767–773 Perez Vidal J (1973) La cultura de la caña de azucar en el Levante Español. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid Liversidge HM, Molleson T (2004) Variation in crown and root for- mation and eruption of human deciduous teeth. Am J Phys Prevedorou E, Diaz-Zorita M, Romero A, Buikstra JE, Paz de Miguel M, Anthropol 123:172–180 Knudson KJ (2010) Residential mobility and dental decoration in Longin R (1971) New method of collagen extraction for radiocarbon early medieval Spain: results from the eighth century site of plaza dating. Nature 230:241–242 del Castillo, Pamplona. Dental Anthropology 23:42–52 Quirós Castillo JA (2013) Radiocarbon chronology and paleodiet studies López-Costas O, (2012) Antropología de los restos óseos humanos de Galicia: estudio de la población romano y medieval gallega. on the medieval rural site of Zaballa (Spain): preliminary insights Doctoral thesis. Granada University. into the social archaeology of the site. Radiocarbon 55:1222–1232 López-Costas O, Müldner G (2016) Fringes of the empire: diet and cul- Reid DJ, Dean MC (2006) Variation in modern human enamel formation tural change at the Roman to post-Roman transition in NW Iberia. times. J Hum Evol 50:329–346 Am J Phys Anthropol 161:141–154 Reilly BF (1993) The medieval Spains. Cambridge University Press, López-Costas O, Müldner G, Martínez Cortizas A (2015) Diet and life- New York style in Bronze Age Northwest Spain: the collective burial of Cova Romo Sales A, (n.d.) Unpublished site report on excavations in the Plaza do Santo. J Archaeol Sci 55:209–218 de España, Écija: Available: Consejeria de Cultura, Delegacio en MacKinnon AT (2015) Dietary reconstruction of medieval and early Provincial de Sevilla modern spanish populations using stable isotopes of carbon and Salas-Salvado J, Heutos-Solano MD, García-Lorda P, Bulló M (2006) nitrogen. Unpublised Masters Thesis. California State University Diet and dietetics in al-Andalus. Br J Nutr 96:S100–S104 Martín Civantos JM (2016) Intensive irrigated agriculture in al-Andalus. Sato T (2015) Sugar in the social life of Medieval Islam. Brill, Leiden In: Carvajal López JC (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, history and Schoeninger MJ (1989) Reconstructing prehistoric human diet. In: Price memory. UCL Qatar series in archaeology and cultural heritage, TD (ed) The chemistry of prehistoric human bone. Cambridge vol 3. Akkadia Press, Edinburgh, pp 27–31 University Press, Cambridge, pp 38–67 Martinez-Cortizas A, Pontevedra-Pombal X, Garcia-Rodeja E, Novoa- Schoeninger MJ, DeNiro MJ (1984) Nitrogen and carbon isotopic com- Munoz JC, Shotyk W (1999) Mercury in a Spanish peat bog: archive position of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. of climate change and atmospheric metal deposition. Science 284: Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48:625–639 939–942 Sealy JC (1986) Stable carbon isotopes and prehistoric diets in the south- Melville C, Ubaydli A (1992) Christians and Moors in Spain. Volume II: western Cape Province, South Africa. Oxford: BAR International Arabic Sources. Aris & Phillips Ltd, Warminster Series 293 Menocal MR (2002) The ornament of the world. Little, Brown and Sealy JC (2010) Isotopic evidence for the antiquity of cattle-based pasto- Company, USA ralism in southernmost Africa. J Afr Stud 8:65–81 Minigawa M, Wada E (1984) Stepwise enrichment of 15N along food Shatzmiller M (1994) Labour in the Medieval Islamic world. EJ Brill, chains: further evidence and the relation between δ15N and animal Leiden age. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48:135–141 Sirignano C, Grau Sologestoa I, Ricci P, García-Collado MI, Altieri S, Morales Muñiz A, Moreno García M, Roselló Izquierdo E, Llorente Quirós Castillo JA, Lubritto C (2014) Animal husbandry during Rodríguez L, Morales Muñiz DC (2011) 711 Ad: ¿El Origen de early and high middle ages in the Basque Country (Spain). Quat una Disyunción Alimentaria?. Zona Arqueológica 15:303–322 Int 346:138–148 Moreno A, Pérez A, Frigola J, Nieto-Moreno V, Rodrigo-Gámiz M, Tieszen LL, Fagre T (1993) Effect of diet quality and composition on the Martrat B, González-Sampériz P, Morellón M, Martín-Puertas C, isotopic composition of respiratory CO , bone collagen, bioapatite Corella JP, Belmonte Á, Sancho C, Cacho I, Herrera G, Canals M, and soft tissues. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G (eds) Prehistoric human 3874 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 bone: archaeology at the molecular level. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Van Klinken GJ (1999) Bone collagen quality indicators for palaeodietary and radiocarbon measurements. J Archaeol Sci 26:687–695 pp 121–155 Ubelaker DH (1999) Human skeletal remains. Excavation, analysis, in- Vogel JC, van der Merwe NJ (1977) Isotopic evidence for early maize terpretation. Taraxacum, Washington D.C. cultivation in New York state. Am Antiq 42:238–242 Valencia Rodriguez R (1988) Los Territorios de la Cora de Écija en Epoca Watson AM (1974) The Arab agricultural revolution and its diffusion, Arab. Actas del I Congreso sobre Historia de Écija, Écija, pp. 315– 700-1100. J Econ Hist 31:8–35 335 Zakrzewski SR (2010) Population migration, variation and identity: van der Merwe NJ, Vogel JC (1978) 13C content of human collagen as an Islamic population in Iberia. In: Agarwal SC, Glencross B a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America. Nature (eds) Handbook of social bioarchaeology. Wiley-Blackwell, 276:815–816 Oxford, pp 183–210 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Springer Journals http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/springer-journals/diet-and-food-strategies-in-a-southern-al-andalusian-urban-environment-tNCXmHCLNX

Loading next page...

References (114)

J. Thorp, N. Merwe (1987)
Carbon isotope analysis of fossil bone apatite
South African Journal of Science, 83
Eleanna Prevedorou, M. Bonilla, A. Romero, J. Buikstra, M. Ibañez, K. Knudson (2018)
Residential Mobility and Dental Decoration in Early Medieval Spain: Results from the Eighth Century Site of Plaza del Castillo, Pamplona
Dental Anthropology Journal
M. Oliva, J. Ruiz‐Fernández, M. Barriendos, G. Benito, J. Cuadrat, F. Domínguez‐Castro, J. García‐Ruiz, S. Giralt, A. Gómez‐Ortiz, A. Hernández, O. López‐Costas, J. López‐Moreno, J. López‐Sáez, A. Martinez‐Cortizas, A. Moreno, M. Prohom, M. Saz, E. Serrano, E. Tejedor, R. Trigo, B. Valero-Garcés, S. Vicente‐Serrano (2018)
The Little Ice Age in Iberian mountains
Earth-Science Reviews, 177
R. Longin (1971)
New Method of Collagen Extraction for Radiocarbon Dating
Nature, 230
H Bocherens, M Fizet, A Mariotti, B Lange-Badre, B Vandermeersch, JP Borel, G Bellon (1991)
Isotopic biogeochemistry of fossil vertebrate collagen: implications for the study of fossil food web including Neanderthal man
J Hum Evol, 20
M. Deniro (1985)
Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruction
Nature, 317
(2005)
Écija en la economía de al-Andalus: algunos indicadores cuantitativos de su importancial
P. Guichard, Bruna Soravia (2005)
Los reinos taifas: fragmentación política y esplendor cultural
Idoia Grau-Sologestoa (2015)
Livestock management in Spain from Roman to post-medieval times: a biometrical analysis of cattle, sheep/goat and pig
Journal of Archaeological Science, 54
K. Britton, G. Müldner, M. Bell (2008)
Stable isotope evidence for salt-marsh grazing in the Bronze Age Severn Estuary, UK: implications for palaeodietary analysis at coastal sites
Journal of Archaeological Science, 35
María Jorge (2012)
13 Women and the Architecture of al-Andalus (711–1492): A Historiographical Analysis
T Glick (1999)
Comparative perspectives on social and cultural formation
I. al-Oumaoui, S. Jiménez-Brobeil, P. Souich (2004)
Markers of activity patterns in some populations of the Iberian Peninsula
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 14
N. Alonso, F. Antolín, H. Kirchner (2014)
Novelties and legacies in crops of the Islamic period in the northeast Iberian Peninsula: The archaeobotanical evidence in Madîna Balagî, Madîna Lârida, and Madîna Turṭûša
Quaternary International, 346
Pilar Iñigo (1997)
La pesca fluvial y el consumo de pescado en Córdoba (1450-1525)
Anuario De Estudios Medievales, 27
J. Vogel, N. Merwe (1977)
Isotopic Evidence for Early Maize Cultivation in New York State
American Antiquity, 42
C. Aillet (2010)
Les mozarabes : Christianisme et arabisation en péninsule Ibérique (ixe - xiie siècle)
S. Ambrose (1990)
Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis
Journal of Archaeological Science, 17
JC Sealy (2010)
Isotopic evidence for the antiquity of cattle-based pastoralism in southernmost Africa
J Afr Stud, 8
Tsugitaka Sato (2014)
Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam
S. Inskip (2014)
Islam in Iberia or Iberian Islam: sociobioarchaeology and the analysis of Emerging Islamic Identity in Early Medieval Iberia
N. Merwe, J. Vogel (1978)
13C Content of human collagen as a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America
Nature, 276
J. Larsen, M. Mohammadi, Ismail Yig̃insu, Kovac Jeffrey (1984)
The molecular weight distribution of coal extracts. Coalification is not a condensation polymerization
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48
G. Klinken (1999)
Bone Collagen Quality Indicators for Palaeodietary and Radiocarbon Measurements
Journal of Archaeological Science, 26
TF Glick (1995)
From Muslim fortress to Christian castle
J. Carvajal (2013)
Islamicization or Islamicizations? Expansion of Islam and social practice in the Vega of Granada (south-east Spain)
World Archaeology, 45
JM Martín Civantos (2016)
Al-Andalus: archaeology, history and memory
BF Reilly (1993)
The medieval Spains
J. Sealy (2010)
Isotopic Evidence for the Antiquity of Cattle-Based Pastoralism in Southernmost Africa
Journal of African Archaeology, 8
O. López‐Costas, G. Müldner (2016)
Fringes of the empire: Diet and cultural change at the Roman to post-Roman transition in NW Iberia.
American journal of physical anthropology, 161 1
M. Schoeninger, M. Deniro (1984)
Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48
LL Tieszen, T Fagre (1993)
Prehistoric human bone: archaeology at the molecular level
C. Sirignano, I. Sologestoa, P. Ricci, M. García-Collado, S. Altieri, J. Castillo, C. Lubritto (2014)
Animal husbandry during Early and High Middle Ages in the Basque Country (Spain)
Quaternary International, 346
J. Lee-Thorp (2002)
Two decades of progress towards understanding fossilization processes and isotopic signals in calcified tissue minerals
Archaeometry, 44
J. Salas‐Salvadó, M. Huetos-Solano, P. Garcia-Lorda, M. Bulló (2006)
Diet and dietetics in al-Andalus
British Journal of Nutrition, 96
Pascal Flohr, G. Müldner, E. Jenkins (2011)
Carbon stable isotope analysis of cereal remains as a way to reconstruct water availability: preliminary results
Water History, 3
J. Kaal, O. López‐Costas, A. Cortizas (2016)
Diagenetic effects on pyrolysis fingerprints of extracted collagen in archaeological human bones from NW Spain, as determined by pyrolysis-GC-MS
Journal of Archaeological Science, 65
(1998)
Towards an optimal method of archaeological collagen extraction: the influence of pH and grinding
L. Tieszen, Tim Fagre (1993)
Effect of Diet Quality and Composition on the Isotopic Composition of Respiratory CO2, Bone Collagen, Bioapatite, and Soft Tissues
S. Zakrzewski (2011)
Population migration, variation and identity: an Islamic population in Iberia
H. Bocherens, D. Drucker (2003)
Trophic Level Isotopic Enrichment of Carbon and Nitrogen in Bone Collagen: Case Studies from Recent and Ancient Terrestrial Ecosystems
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 13
C. Lubritto, C. Sirignano, P. Ricci, I. Passariello, J. Castillo (2013)
Radiocarbon Chronology and Paleodiet Studies on the Medieval Rural Site of Zaballa (Spain): Preliminary Insights into the Social Archaeology of the Site
Radiocarbon, 55
M. Kohn (1996)
Predicting animal δ18O: Accounting for diet and physiological adaptation
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 60
(2015)
A historical bioarchaeology approach to health , status , and diet of Medieval Asturias
MR Menocal (2002)
The ornament of the world
(1997)
Exploring problems and opportunities offered by down-scaling sample sizes for carbon isotope analyses of fossils
C. Larsen (1998)
Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton
A. Humphreys, J. Sealy (1986)
Stable Carbon Isotopes and Prehistoric Diets in the South-Western Cape Province, South Africa
South African Archaeological Bulletin, 42
(2016)
Archaeozoology’s contribution to the knowledge of al-Andalus
(2010)
Diet reconstruction of prehistoric hunter-gatherers in the Lake Baikal region. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers of the Baikal Region, Siberia
Brian Chisholm, D. Nelson, K. Hobson, H. Schwarcz, M. Knyf (1983)
Carbon Isotope Measurement Techniques for Bone Collagen: Notes For the Archaeologist
Journal of Archaeological Science, 10
Marcos García-García (2017)
Some remarks on the provision of animal products to urban centres in medieval Islamic Iberia: The cases of Madinat Ilbirah (Granada) and Cercadilla (Cordova)
Quaternary International, 460
(2009)
Lost civilisation
M. Kohn, M. Schoeninger, W. Barker (1999)
Altered states: effects of diagenesis on fossil tooth chemistry
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 63
C. Larsen (1997)
Bioarchaeology: Changes and challenges in bioarchaeology
T. Ruiz (1980)
Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages: Comparative Perspective on Social and Cultural Formation by Thomas F. Glick (review)
Technology and Culture, 21
A. Muñiz, Marta García, E. Izquierdo, L. Rodríguez, D. Muñiz (2011)
711 ad.: ¿el origen de una disyunción alimentaria?
Amy MacKinnon (2015)
DIETARY RECONSTRUCTION OF MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN SPANISH POPULATIONS USING STABLE ISOTOPES OF CARBON AND NITROGEN
B. Wood (1990)
The Chemistry of Prehistoric Human Bone
Journal of Anatomy, 172
E. Garcia, M. Subirà, Michael Richards (2004)
Régime et société d'après l'analyse des isotopes stables: l'exemple de la population de « Can Reinés » (Mallorca, Espagne, 600 ap. J.C.)
Anthropologie, 7
S. Ambrose (1991)
Effects of diet, climate and physiology on nitrogen isotope abundances in terrestrial foodwebs
Journal of Archaeological Science, 18
S. Davis (2008)
Zooarchaeological evidence for Moslem and Christian improvements of sheep and cattle in Portugal
Journal of Archaeological Science, 35
H. Krueger, C. Sullivan (1984)
Models For Carbon Isotope Fractionation Between Diet and Bone
(2006)
Écija Musulmana, Ulemas y Familias
M. Decker (2009)
Plants and Progress: Rethinking the Islamic Agricultural Revolution
Journal of World History, 20
(1981)
Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD
H. Liversidge, T. Molleson (2004)
Variation in crown and root formation and eruption of human deciduous teeth.
American journal of physical anthropology, 123 2
A. Watson (1974)
The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100
The Journal of Economic History, 34
Tim Heaton (1987)
The 15N/14N ratios of plants in South Africa and Namibia: relationship to climate and coastal/saline environments
Oecologia, 74
I. Guede, L. Ortega, M. Zuluaga, A. Alonso‐Olazabal, X. Murelaga, Miriam Piña, Francisco Gutierrez, P. Iacumin (2017)
Isotope analyses to explore diet and mobility in a medieval Muslim population at Tauste (NE Spain)
PLoS ONE, 12
Michelle Alexander, C. Gerrard, A. Gutiérrez, A. Millard (2014)
Diet, Society, and Economy in Late Medieval Spain: Stable Isotope Evidence From Muslims and Christians From Gandía, Valencia
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 156
S García-Dils de la Vegas, P Orche Amaré, PM Sáez Fernández, S Ordóñez Agulla (2009)
La explotación histórica de la sal investigación y puesta en valor. Memorias de la Sociedad Española de Historia de la Arqueologia 11
M. Deniro, S. Epstein (1978)
Influence of Diet On the Distribtion of Nitrogen Isotopes in Animals
Wallace Broecker (2001)
Was the Medieval Warm Period Global?
Science, 291
(2016)
Life and death in al-Andalus: funerary archaeology and osteoarchaeology in the analysis of Islamic identity. In: Lopez Carvajal J (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, history and memory
(2005)
Aspectos Hidroquimicos del Agua subterranean de la comarca de Ecija ( Sevilla , Espana )
Maya Shatzmiller (1996)
Labour in the medieval Islamic world
Sergio Vega, Pilar Amaré, P. Fernández, S. Agulla (2009)
Estudio diacrónico de la explotación de la sal en el territorio de Ecija -Sevilla-
Michael Lee, C. Thirumalai, S. Terry, G. Serjeant (1989)
Endoscopic and gastric acid studies in homozygous sickle cell disease and upper abdominal pain.
Gut, 30
R. Hedges, J. Clement, C. Thomas, T. O’Connell, T. O’Connell (2007)
Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modeled from anthropogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements.
American journal of physical anthropology, 133 2
M. O'Leary (1988)
Carbon Isotopes in PhotosynthesisFractionation techniques may reveal new aspects of carbon dynamics in plants
BioScience, 38
MH O'Leary (1988)
Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis
Bioscience, 38
O. López‐Costas, G. Müldner, A. Cortizas (2015)
Diet and lifestyle in Bronze Age Northwest Spain: the collective burial of Cova do Santo
Journal of Archaeological Science, 55
Olalla Costas (2013)
Antropología de los restos óseos humanos de Galicia: estudio de la población romana y medieval gallega
S. Ambrose, B. Butler, D. Hanson, R. Hunter-Anderson, H. Krueger (1997)
Stable isotopic analysis of human diet in the Marianas Archipelago, western Pacific.
American journal of physical anthropology, 104 3
S. Ambrose, L. Norr (1993)
Experimental Evidence for the Relationship of the Carbon Isotope Ratios of Whole Diet and Dietary Protein to Those of Bone Collagen and Carbonate
B. Fuller, N. Márquez-Grant, M. Richards (2010)
Investigation of diachronic dietary patterns on the islands of Ibiza and formentera, Spain: Evidence from carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratio analysis.
American journal of physical anthropology, 143 4
C Melville, A Ubaydli (1992)
Christians and Moors in Spain. Volume II: Arabic Sources.
A. Martinez‐Cortizas, X. Pontevedra-Pombal, E. García-Rodeja, J. Nóvoa-Muñoz, W. Shotyk (1999)
Mercury in a spanish peat bog: archive of climate change and atmospheric metal deposition
Science, 284 5416
Á. García, Antonio Cuello (1996)
From muslim fortress to christian castle. Social and cultural change in medieval Spain
MJ DeNiro, S Epstein (1978)
Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals
Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 42
A. Moreno, A. Pérez, J. Frigola, Vanesa Nieto-Moreno, M. Rodrigo-Gámiz, B. Martrat, P. González‐sampériz, M. Morellón, C. Martin-Puertas, J. Corella, Á. Belmonte, C. Sancho, I. Cacho, G. Herrera, M. Canals, J. Grimalt, F. Jiménez-Espejo, F. Martínez-Ruiz, T. Vegas-Vilarrúbia, B. Valero-Garcés (2012)
The Medieval Climate Anomaly in the Iberian Peninsula reconstructed from marine and lake records
Quaternary Science Reviews, 43
H. Bocherens, Marc Fizet, A. Mariotti, B. Lange-Badré, B. Vandermeersch, J. Borel, G. Bellon (1991)
Isotopic biogeochemistry (13C,15N) of fossil vertebrate collagen: application to the study of a past food web including Neandertal man
Journal of Human Evolution, 20
(2009)
An isotopic approach to diet in Medieval Spain
B. Fuller, J. Fuller, D. Harris, R. Hedges (2006)
Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios.
American journal of physical anthropology, 129 2
Bernard Reilly (1993)
The Medieval Spains: Christian reconquista and African Empire, 1009–1157
(1992)
Ubaydli A (1992) Christians and Moors in Spain
D. Reid, M. Dean (2006)
Variation in modern human enamel formation times.
Journal of human evolution, 50 3
M Mundee (2009)
Food and drink in archaeology, Devon
P. Chalmeta (1994)
Invasión e islamización: la sumisión de Hispania y la formación de al-Andalus
Simon Davis, Emily Svensson, Umberto Albarella, Cleia Detry, Anders Götherström, Analía Pires, Catarina Ginja (2013)
Evidencia de mejoras de ovino y vacuno durante época andalusí y cristiana en Portugal a partir del análisis zooarqueológico y de ADN antiguo
, 3
NV Passalacqua, A MacKinnon (2015)
Demografia, paleopatoologias y desigualdad social en el noroeste peninsular en época medieval
M. Minagawa, E. Wada (1984)
Stepwise enrichment of 15N along food chains: Further evidence and the relation between δ15N and animal age
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48
J. Lee-Thorp, Lee Manning, M. Sponheimer (1997)
Problems and prospects for carbon isotope analysis of very small samples of fossil tooth enamel
Bulletin De La Societe Geologique De France, 168
T. O’Connell, T. O’Connell, Catherine Kneale, N. Tasevska, Gunter Kuhnle, Gunter Kuhnle (2012)
The diet-body offset in human nitrogen isotopic values: A controlled dietary study
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149
(1995)
La gastronomía al-andalus. El zoco: vida economica y artes tradicionales en el al-Andalus y Marruecos
D. Ubelaker (1999)
Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation
(2012)
Women and the architecture of Al-Andalus (7111492): a historiographical analysis. In: Martin T (ed) Reassessing the roles of women as ‘makers of medieval art and architecture
(2016)
Intensive irrigated agriculture in al - Andalus
SR Zakrzewski (2010)
Handbook of social bioarchaeology
ME Díaz-Jorge (2012)
Reassessing the roles of women as ‘makers of medieval art and architecture’
Olaf Nehlich, B. Fuller, N. Márquez-Grant, M. Richards (2012)
Investigation of diachronic dietary patterns on the islands of Ibiza and Formentera, Spain: evidence from sulfur stable isotope ratio analysis.
American journal of physical anthropology, 149 1
J Perez Vidal (1973)
La cultura de la caña de azucar en el Levante Español
M. Deniro, S. Weiner (1988)
Use of collagenase to purify collagen from prehistoric bones for stable isotopic analysis
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 52

Publisher: Springer Journals
Copyright: Copyright © 2018 by The Author(s)
Subject: Earth Sciences; Earth Sciences, general; Archaeology; Chemistry/Food Science, general; Geography, general; Life Sciences, general; Anthropology
ISSN: 1866-9557
eISSN: 1866-9565
DOI: 10.1007/s12520-018-0694-7
Publisher site: See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

The Iberian medieval period is unique in European history due to the widespread socio-cultural changes that took place after the arrival of Arabs, Berbers and Islam in 711 AD. Recently, isotopic research has been insightful on dietary shifts, status, resource availability and the impact of environment. However, there is no published isotopic research exploring these factors in southern Iberian populations, and as the history of this area differs to the northern regions, this leaves a significant lacuna in our knowledge. This research fills this gap via isotopic analysis of human (n =66) and faunal (n = 13) samples from the 9th to the 13 15 13th century Écija, a town renowned for high temperatures and salinity. Stable carbon (δ C) and nitrogen (δ N) isotopes were assessed from rib collagen, while carbon (δ C) values were derived from enamel apatite. Human diet is consistent with C plant consumption with a very minor contribution of C plants, an interesting feature considering the suitability of Écija to C cereal 4 4 production. δ N values vary among adults, which may suggest variable animal protein consumption or isotopic variation within animal species due to differences in foddering. Consideration of δ C collagen and apatite values together may indicate sugarcane consumption, while moderate δ N values do not suggest a strong aridity or salinity effect. Comparison with other Iberian groups shows similarities relating to time and location rather than by religion, although more multi-isotopic studies combined with zooarchaeology and botany may reveal subtle differences unobservable in carbon and nitrogen collagen studies alone. . . . . . Keywords Al-Andalus Islamic archaeology Isotope Medieval Apatite Collagen Introduction and Berber expansions reached the region in AD 711. Islam became the dominant faith, and the reintroduction and dissem- This research aims to explore the dietary habits and resources ination of knowledge, via the translation of texts once lost to of the inhabitants of Écija, southern Iberia, during the the Latin west, proved to be critical to the later European Medieval period (9th to 13th centuries). There has been in- Renaissance (Menocal 2002). One of the most important and tense archaeological and historical interest in the lives of the debated issues at this time is the so-called Bagricultural^ or Medieval inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula (e.g. Alexander Bgreen revolution^, which considers the importance of chang- et al. 2015;Boone 2009; Carvajal Lopez 2013;Garcia-Garcia es in water management and technology and the 2016;Glick 1999;Imamuddin 1981;Inskip 2016;Menocal (re)introduction of certain crops to the region (see Martín 2002; al-Oumaoui et al. 2004), due to the significant and Civantos 2016; Watson 1974; but also Decker 2009). It is widespread socio-cultural changes that took place after Arab thought that there was greater cultivation of non-indigenous * Sarah Inskip Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, Social sai31@cam.ac.uk Sciences Building, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada Group Earth System Sciences, Facultade de Bioloxía, Universidade 1 de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge University, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3ER, UK Archaeological Research Laboratory, Stockholm University, 2 Wallenberglaboratoriet, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden Department of Anthropology and Archaeology and The Department of Pathology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Laboratorio de Antropología, Medicina Legal, Toxicología y 2500 University Road NW, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada Antropología Física, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain 3858 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 crops, such as sugarcane, millet, sorghum, pomegranate and aims of this paper. First, we aim to reconstruct the staple food dates, in the region (Watson 1974). Crop cycling changed, and resources consumed by the inhabitants of Écija. Second, we a better agricultural output was achieved (Reilly 1993;Glick aim to use evidence of diet to infer aspects of the physical as 1995). It is likely that there were shifts in animal husbandry well as socio-political environment in which the Écija people practices (Grau-Sologestoa 2015) and a pork taboo emerged lived. Third, and most broadly, this research will contribute (see Garcia-Garcia 2017; Morales Muñiz et al. 2011). the first isotopic evidence of diet for this region, thereby im- Recently, stable isotope analyses, which have proved in- proving our understanding of Medieval Iberian dietary vari- valuable in improving understanding of dietary practices and ability across the entire peninsula. This will be achieved environments in the past (Katzenberg and Waters-Rist in through the analysis of skeletal material from the medieval press; Larsen 2015), have been used to assess dietary and Islamic cemetery in Écija, Seville province, Spain. environmental changes during this time period. For example, interesting diversity in Iberian isotope values recorded in ar- Historic background chaeological skeletons potentially relates to geography, reli- gion and social status (Alexander et al. 2015;Mundee 2009; Écija is a small urban area in the South-centre of al-Andalus, Quiros Castillo et al. 2013). However, at present, most isoto- renowned for its agricultural richness (arid-warm temperatures pic research focuses on sites from northern and central Iberia and water supply from the Genil river). The city, known as (e.g. Alexander et al. 2015; Lopez-Costas 2012; Passalacqua Astiya in the Islamic period, is situated in the Genil river valley and MacKinnon, 2015; Prevedorou et al. 2010;Quiros between the Subbetico zone to the north and Guadalquivir to Castillo et al. 2013; Mundee 2009) or the Islands (Fuller thesouth.Today, theareaiswell-known for its high salinity et al. 2010;Garcia etal. 2004; Nehlich et al. 2012), leaving (Fernandez et al. 2002). The BAltiplano de Écija^, surrounding much of the south unknown. the city, is an area traditionally dedicated to livestock and agri- The environment and history of Iberia, with the south being culture where numerous salt water lagoons are present. Écija is part of the Islamic world for far longer, are highly diverse. located between three major cities, all which were extant in the Accordingly, the lack of isotopic data for the south leaves a Medieval period. This includes Seville to the west (≈ 85 km), large gap in our regional knowledge, resulting in an incom- Córdoba to the north east (≈ 50 km) and Granada to the south plete picture of the complexity that existed in Medieval Iberia. east (≈ 170 km) (see Fig. 1). This positioning has meant that An isotopic analysis of diet for a southern Iberian population Écija has long been an important trading and strategic point would permit analyses of sociocultural change and identity. In from the Roman period onwards (Valencia Rodriguez 1988). addition, while religious and cultural factors are important in According to historic sources, Écija was captured in AD 711 the selection of food preferences, it cannot be ignored that by Tariq b. Ziyad, the year of Arab and Berber expansion into availability of resources could play a key role in what people the region (Chalmeta 1994). While it is thought that Arab ate in the past. Supplies could arrive by trade (and may not groups, especially Damascans, settled in the region, a number have been available for all the population) or could have been of sources suggest that the town contained a significant number grown locally; in this case, the climate can influence the type of local converts to Islam (Aillet 2010; Melville and Ubaydli and amount of produced food. The 9th century AD is consid- 1992). The surrounding countryside was settled by Berbers ered as the beginning of a climate anomaly known as the (Valencia Rodriguez 1988). During the medieval period, Écija Medieval Warm Period (MWP) that lasted until the 14th cen- was a multi-cultural/religious city: Muslims, Muwallads (con- tury (Broecker 2001; Martinez-Cortizas et al. 1999). During verted Christians), Mozarabs (i.e. Christians living under MWP, climate was warm and arid in the Mediterranean and Islamic rule) and Jews, with a clear Islamic influence in terms southern areas of the Iberian Peninsula, but warm and humid of economy, culture and society (Garcia Baena 2006). This in the Atlantic region (Moreno et al. 2012). Therefore, the diversity was maintained while Écija was the regional capital exploration of diet via stable isotopes for individuals who of the Cora Istiyya, which presented some economic indepen- lived in Southern Iberia during the MWP may also help us dence (Valencia Rodriguez 1988). The city itself was medium understand the role of climate in the availability of resources, to large in size with estimates of approximately 18,000 inhab- specifically the use of crops dependent on warm temperatures, itants by the 12th century (Fernandez Ugalde 2005). From the such as the C plants including sugarcane and millet. Mapping 11th century until its conquest in 1240 AD, it is believed that what is happening on a regional level could highlight impor- diversity decreased, and by the 11th century, Écija lost its inde- tant information about what was happening on a much wider pendence to Carmona and eventually Seville (Guichard and scale during this critical time period. Soravia, 2005). Based on this information, Islamic Écija is the Accordingly, a multi-isotope study assessing stable carbon 13 15 perfect example of an urban population whose economy was (δ C) from collagen and enamel apatite and nitrogen (δ N) based on agriculture and livestock, with different socioeconom- from sixty six humans and thirteen animals from the Medieval ic phases (ibid) making it ideal for study. site of Écija in southcentral Iberia is used to meet the three A Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3859 Fig. 1 Map locating Écija in 10°W 5°W 0° comparison to Seville, Granada and Córdoba A Lazada Asturias !( Jaca Tauste Zaragoza Gandia Eivissa Córdoba ! Seville Écija Granada 5°W 0° MOR OC C O Córdoba Écija Seville Granada 050 100 150 Kilometres Medieval diet in al-Andalus and Écija 2016). It is possible that these were grown in the Écija region (García Baena 2006), as the climate is particularly suited to In general, historic sources and zooarchaeology suggest that their cultivation. Sugarcane may have arrived first to southern Medieval Iberian populations had a diet consisting of cereals and eastern Iberia during the 9th century for family consump- and meats (Morales Muñiz et al. 2011; Salas-Salvado et al. tion as is mentioned in the 10th century agricultural Calendar 2006). Écija is recorded as an important town for cereal pro- of Cordoba (Sato 2015) and it may have become an export duction (Imamuddin 1981), especially wheat and barley product only several centuries later (Perez Vidal 1973). In (García-Baena 2006). A number of new cereals, such as sor- other Islamic lands, the relationship between sugar consump- ghum, are thought to have been introduced into Iberia during tion and Ramadan is recorded in poetry by the 9th century, the Medieval period (Glick 1999). Millets were probably in- potentially making it a desirable plant (Sato 2015). While troduced during the Early or Late Bronze Age (López-Costas there are strong doubts surrounding the possibility to detect et al. 2015) and became extremely popular in some regions, the consumption of sugarcane from isotopic ratios from bone such as northwestern Iberia (López-Costas and Müldner collagen, because the protein content is low, a reconstruction ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN U I V I 35°N 40°N 40°N 45°N 3860 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 combining collagen and bioapatite, as employed here, could brief explanation will be provided. Nitrogen isotope ratios reveal if this product was an important part of the diet (δ N) in the protein component of bone, collagen, pre- (O’Leary 1988). A number of Islamic texts also mention the dominately reflect the trophic level of the proteins that use of legumes including chickpeas, lentils and beans for mak- individuals consume (Bocherens and Drukker 2003; ing bread (García Sánchez 1995). Olives, honey, raisins, meat, DeNiro and Epstein 1981;Minagawaand Wada 1984). almonds, chestnut and saffron are also reported to be impor- This allows researchers to reconstruct the types of animal tant products of Écija (García Baena 2006; Melville and and/or plant proteins that were dietary staples. Marine Ubaydli 1992) and were viewed as nutritious (Salas-Salvado ecosystems have more steps in the foodweb and thus et al. 2006). Dairy products were likely an important part of reach higher trophic levels with higher δ N values than diet, as well as fruit and vegetables, which grew in abundance terrestrial ecosystems (Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984); in in the region. Salt was also exploited in the nearby region many freshwater ecosystems, the same is true, with top (García-Dils de la Vega et al. 2009). trophic level species having high δ N values (e.g. Historical sources suggest that cattle (beef) and especially Katzenberg et al. 2010). Breastfeeding infants will exhibit sheep (mutton) were the main sources of meat for Islamic δ Nvalues2–4‰ higher than their mother, which de- inhabitants (Morales Muñiz et al. 2011), and Écija is thought cline during the weaning process (Fuller et al. 2006). to be no exception (García Baena 2006). This trend appears to Stable carbon isotope ratios in bone collagen (δ C ) coll be borne out by recent zooarchaeological research in nearby are useful in distinguishing between plants that use differ- Córdoba and Granada (Garcia-Garcia 2016, 2017) and Islamic ent photosynthetic pathways (C vs. C plants) (DeNiro 3 4 Portugal (Grau-Sologestoa 2015). This research has hinted at and Epstein 1978; Vogel and van de Merwe 1977). C the formation of structured caprine herding system from the plants include rice, wheat and barley while C plants in- 10th century (see discussions in Garcia-Garcia 2017). Salas- clude maize, sugarcane, sorghum and millet. Stable car- Salvado et al. (2006) suggest that meat consumption by ordi- bon isotopes are also used to identify the consumption of nary people was probably limited to special occasions, and marine, and sometimes freshwater foods, as aquatic plants infrequent on the tables of the poor. Zooarchaeological studies utilise different carbon sources (i.e. mostly dissolved car- show a decline in the consumption of pig with the advent of bonates) than terrestrial plants (i.e. atmospheric CO ) the Islamic period (Garcia-Garcia 2016; Morales Muñiz et al. thereby passing along a distinctive δ C ratio to species 2011); however, pig remains occasionally appear at Islamic higher in the trophic chain (Chisholm et al. 1983; sites even if in low amounts, which may relate to necessity, Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984). status, presence of Christian groups or indifference (see In contrast to bone, which continuously remodels through- Garcia-Garcia 2016). Accordingly, consumption of pork out life and provides a record of diet for the last ten or more should not be ruled out. In nearby Granada and Córdoba, a years of life in adults (Hedges et al. 2007), the isotopic anal- high quantity of rabbit remains was identified (Garcia-Garcia yses of enamel from different teeth reveals values that were 2016, 2017). With wild animals, their discovery fits with no- obtained for different ages in subadulthood. Enamel only tions that some people, especially of high status, may have forms in infancy and childhood and thereafter does not under- hunted and eaten game. This could also include deer and go remodelling. The enamel of deciduous molars begins wild birds. As Écija is on a river, river resources may be forming in utero and is complete prior to the first postnatal consumed. However, there is little data on fresh water year (Liversidge and Molleson 2004). The permanent first exploitation in the Islamic period in Écija. The river had molar enamel begins formation around birth and is completed silted up after the Roman period; however, some regula- by the age of about three years; the enamel of the permanent tions for fishing the Genil exist from 15th to 17th centu- second molar begins formation around three years and is com- ries AD (Hernández Iñigo 1997). pleted by six to seven years of age; and finally, third molar enamel begins formation from eight to nine years being com- pleted by eleven to twelve years of age (Reid and Dean 2006; Stable isotopes and dietary reconstruction derived from Northern European population data). The stable carbon isotope ratio of tooth enamel apatite As the analysis of stable isotopes for dietary reconstruc- (δ C ) is a better reflection of whole diet, including protein, ap tion is well-established and widely utilised in carbohydrate and fat, than δ C from collagen which is de- bioarchaeology, and the mechanisms underlying stable rived more heavily from the protein component of diet isotope fractionation within and between tissues and eco- (Ambrose and Norr 1993; Krueger and Sullivan 1984;Lee- systems have been outlined in extensive detail elsewhere Thorp et al. 1989; Tieszen and Fagre (1993). The comparison (Ambrose et al. 1997; DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981; of δ C ratios from protein vs. apatite components of biolog- Katzenberg and Waters-Rist in press; Lee-Thorp and van ical tissues has been successful in more effectively discerning der Merwe 1987; van der Merwe and Vogel 1978), only a among dietary behaviours. Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3861 Table 2 Number of adults, males, females and subadults used Materials according to period Human samples Period Female Male Unsexed adult Subadult Infant Total Early 6 12 1 5 3 27 The cemetery in the El Salon region of Écija (location 37 32′ Late 5 7 0 4 1 17 27.89 N, 5 04′45.49 W) is thought to have been the major Unknown 6 5 5 5 1 22 burial place for the city (Garcia Baena 2006). It was mainly Total 17 24 6 14 5 66 used between the 9th and the 13th centuries AD, with the majority of burials dating to the Caliphal period (10th–11th centuries) (Romo Salas n.d.). By 2004, over 4500 individuals Faunal material had been excavated and are now stored at the Municipal Museum in Écija. These skeletons were distributed over seven Due to the lack of previous comparable isotopic studies for layers in three different areas of the square. Here, the seven this region, a faunal isotopic baseline was created. We collect- periods of burial have been divided into Early (7th–3rd phases) ed 13 bones from animals excavated from different archaeo- and Late (1st–2nd phases) cemetery layers. Men, women, and logical layers of the cemetery at Écija. Unfortunately, we do children of all ages are represented in all layers. The funerary not know what layers the animal bones originate from as this rite was clearly Islamic in nature, with nearly all individuals was not recorded during excavation. Bone samples from five buried on their right side with their face in the direction of caprine (sheep or goat), six cattle, one pig and one rabbit were Mecca (Inskip 2016;RomoSalas n.d.). While most individuals analysed. All specimens were adult. It was not possible to were in simple graves, there was some variation in grave struc- determine if the pig or rabbit were domestic or wild speci- ture, and it is believed that the burials represent a cross-section mens. The presence of cut marks together with the settlement of society (Romo Salas n.d.). The macroscopic preservation of context suggests that they were butchered and consumed. bone is generally good, but overcrowding resulted in some intercutting of burials. For the purpose of this study, only in- dividuals from single burials were used. A total of 61 human Collagen extraction and mass spectrometry rib samples from 61 different individuals were used for δ C coll and δ N analysis. Fifty teeth from 47 individuals were sam- We sampled rib bone fragments rather than sawing from intact pled for δ C analysis (M1 = 12, M2 = 12 and M3 = 26). In ap ribs. This was done to restrict the amount of destructive sam- total, 66 different individuals were analysed. Age and sex were pling and to preserve intact elements for future research. previously estimated from Inskip (2013) and the unpublished Collagen extraction and purification took place at the depart- osteological report (Romo Salas n.d.). In the current study, ments of Archaeology at Leiden University and University of individuals were classed as adult at approximately 16 years Reading using two different protocols. Fifty-four human sam- or over. Young adults were between 16 and 35 years, middle ples were analysed using a modified Sealy method (Sealy adults were between 35 and 50 years, and old adults were 1986;Sealy 2010). All rib samples were placed in a bath of 50 years+. Within the subadult category, the majority of indi- distilled water (dH O) and cleaned ultrasonically. Samples viduals are between 2 and 6 years, with only two individuals 2 were demineralized in a 1% solution of HCl, changed every between 12 and 16 years. Infants were less than 2 years. 24–38 h until complete. All samples were rinsed with dH 0 Table 1 outlines the demographic composition of the sample; 2 prior to the NaOH bath. They were gelatinized by the HCl step Table 2 outlines the number of individuals in each phase. prior to transferring them into the NaOH bath. Samples were Table 1 Number of adults, males, females and subadults used in this considered sufficiently demineralized upon the formation of a study, and sample numbers for collagen and enamel extraction milky-white pseudomorph which could be easily pierced with a sterilised needle. Intact collagen pseudomorphs were then Group C and N Cand Total individuals collagen O apatite analysed* transferred to a 0.125 M solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for 20 h to remove humic contaminants and then Males 20 21 24 rinsed and soaked in dH O until a neutral pH (7) was Females 15 12 17 achieved. Samples were then freeze-dried. At Vrije Unsexed adult 3 4 6 Universiteit, Amsterdam, collagen samples were combusted Subadult 12 9 14 using a Thermo-Scientific Flash 2000 organic elemental Infant 5 1 5 analyser with the resultant gases introduced into the Delta V Total 55 47 66 plus isotope ratio mass spectrometer via a continuous flow (Conflo) inlet. USGS40, USG41, USG42 and glycine were * Note, some individuals were not analysed for both collagen and apatite used as reference standards. due to preservation or completeness 3862 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 All faunal samples and samples from seven human adults Carbon isotope values were measured using a Finnigan were processed following the method described by Longin DeltaPlus isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Pre-treated enamel (1971) with modifications recommended by Collins and samples (0.19–2.1 mg) were transferred into sterilised mass Galley (1998), according to the protocol described in Britton spectrometry tubes and reacted with phosphoric acid (H PO ) 3 4 et al. (2008). The NaOH step was not applied. Carbon and at 72 °C to produce gaseous carbon dioxide. The resultant gas nitrogen stable isotope ratios were measured in duplicate on a was isolated on a Gasbench II universal automated interface. Europa 20-20 isotope ratio mass spectrometer coupled to a As a measure of reproducibility and quality control, IAEA- Sercon elemental analyser at the University of Reading. CO1 was used as a reference standard (see Table 3). Standard Isotopic values are reported as δ values in per thousand (‰). deviations of repeated measurements of laboratory standards Stable carbon isotope values are reported relative to the were 0.16‰ for δ C. Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) marine limestone stan- dard, and nitrogen isotope values are reported relative to the Statistical analysis international nitrogen standard, air. Precision of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope measure- Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS statis- ments, determined via repeated analysis of an internal labora- tical software (version 22.0 for Windows 8). A Shapiro– tory standard, is ± 0.2‰ for both methods. No significant Wilk’s test of normality and a visual inspection of the asso- differences were found due to the extraction method (U test ciated histograms, normal Q–Q plots and box–plots, indi- between human adult samples n = 28 and 7: M-W test U = cate that both the human bone collagen δ C (W(55) = 13 15 15 78.000, p = 0.43 for δ C; U = 83.000, p = 0.56 for δ N). 0.887, p = < 0.0001) and δ N (W(55) = 0.931, p =< Accordingly, all samples are considered together. 0.004) datasets and the enamel apatite δ C (W(52) = The quality (preservation; degree of contamination) of the 0.815, p = < 0.00001) datasets are non-normally distributed. isotopic data garnered from each bone collagen sample was A Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance verified equal- measured according to disciplinary standards: atomic C/N ra- ity of variances in the δ C (F(2, 52) = 0.273, p =0.762) and tio, collagen yield, and percentage C and N by weight δ N (F(2, 52) = 0.584, p = 0.561) human bone collagen and (Ambrose 1990; Ambrose and Norr 1993; Bocherens et al. the δ C (F(2, 49) = 0.562, p = 0.574) enamel apatite 1991; DeNiro 1985; DeNiro and Weiner 1988; Schoeinger dataset. Given the relatively small sample sizes and the 1989; van Klinken 1999) (see Table 3). non-normal distribution of the data, non-parametric statisti- cal analyses were employed. The Wilcoxon–Mann– Whitney U test was used for the comparison of the two Dental samples samples, and a Kruskal–Wallis H test was used for compar- ison of three or more groups (i.e. between tooth types). A Enamel apatite and mass spectrometry Standard enamel ap- Dunn’s pairwise comparison test was used as a post-hoc atite extraction and preparation procedures were based on test, whenever a Kruskal–Wallis H test was rejected. Lee-Thorp et al. (1997). All dental samples were cleaned Significance level (α) was setat0.05. using a diamond-tipped dremel, and the underlying enamel was sampled in bulk. Bulk sampling involved harvesting enamel evenly across the entire surface of the tooth, from just Results above the CEJ to just below the occlusal surface. Approximately 10 mg of powdered enamel apatite was col- Stable isotope values for all samples are presented in Table 3 lected from each tooth. Faunal samples were prepared simi- and are visually depicted in Fig. 2a. larly. Powdered samples were loaded into marked 2 ml micro- centrifuge tubes and soaked in a 0.1 M commercial liquid Quality control bleach solution for 45 min, in order to eliminate organic and biogenic contaminants. Samples were then centrifuged. Of the original 61 human rib samples, six failed for poor The bleach solution was then removed from the enamel pre- quality of the extracted collagen (no collagen, C/N out of cipitate using a pipette, and the sample was rinsed with dH 0. range). The remaining fifty-five human and thirteen fau- A total of three rinse-centrifuge cycles were conducted. The nal collagen samples had C/N ratios between 2.9 and 3.6 enamel was then reacted in 0.1 M of acetic acid (CH COOH) which is considered good-quality collagen (Van Klinken for 15 min to remove soluble diagenetic carbonates. Samples 1999). Collagen yields were generally low and ranged were rinse-centrifuged for another three times with distilled between 10.1 and 0.1. The arid environment in Écija is water and then freeze-dried. probably the reason for the low recovery rates of collagen in the bone. The vast majority of the samples (63/67) had 8% sodium hypochlorite in distilled water. percent nitrogen (wt% N) in collagen values above 10% Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3863 Table 3 Sample numbers, cemetery period, sex, age, tooth type and stable isotope data for all samples 13 13 15 Sample code Period Sex Age Tooth ‰ δ C Element ‰ δ C ‰ δ N Atomic C/N %N wt %C wt Collagen yield app coll 11931 Un ? ? LM2 − 6.54 –– – – – – – 1869 E N/A Infant –– Rib − 18.9 12.9 2.9 13.8 41.2 5.2 2170 E N/A Infant –– Rib − 18.4 12.6 3 14.5 35 7.8 2527 Un N/A Infant –– Rib − 19.3 9.5 3.3 14.3 38.8 4.3 6447 E N/A Infant –– Rib − 19.6 12.9 3.2 13.6 40 3.6 11916 E N/A Infant LM2 − 10.3 Rib − 19.2 9.2 3.2 13.8 37.3 5.6 2030 Un N/A Subadult UM1 − 11.7 Rib − 18.6 13.6 3.2 14.1 40.3 2.9 2772 Un N/A Subadult –– Rib − 18.7 11.6 3.4 13.9 39.9 2 4421 L N/A Subadult UM1 − 11.6 Rib − 19.6 12.2 3.3 13.7 41.1 2.1 4574 L N/A Subadult LM1 − 10.5 Rib − 19.3 11.6 3.3 12.4 37.1 3.5 4776 L N/A Subadult LM1 − 11.4 Rib − 18.8 9.8 3.2 13.8 39.5 4 5255 E N/A Subadult LM1 − 10.6 –– – – – – – 5462 L N/A Subadult –– Rib − 12 9.2 3.4 12 29 5.3 5601 E N/A Subadult –– Rib − 18.4 9.9 3.5 13.5 39 2.5 10206 E N/A Subadult –– Rib − 19.4 9.9 3.4 11.2 28 4 11321 E N/A Subadult LM1 − 10.7 Rib − 19.4 9 3.2 12.4 35.1 4.4 11989 Un N/A Subadult –– Rib − 18.2 12 3.3 13.7 39.1 2.9 12063 Un N/A Subadult LM3 − 6.4 –– – – – – – 12283 E N/A Subadult UM1 − 9.4 Rib − 21.3 13.4 3.4 14.2 42.5 2 532 L M Young adult LM2 − 11 Rib − 19.6 11.6 3.2 12.9 39.5 6.2 532 L M Young adult LM3 − 11.6 –– – – – – 655 E M Young adult LM3 − 11.8 –– – – – – 3801 L F Young adult LM2 − 11.3 Rib − 19.3 9.4 3.2 14.4 41.2 4.7 3801 L F Young adult LM3 − 11.1 –– – – – – – *5230 Un F Young adult –– Rib − 19.1 9.7 3.3 14.7 41.2 2.4 5757 E M Young adult UM1 − 12 –– – – – – – 5920 L M Young adult M1 − 12.1 Rib − 18.7 9.2 3.3 13.8 37.3 7.8 6795 E M Young adult M3 − 12.4 Rib − 19.3 9.7 3.2 14.2 38.5 2 6801 E M Young adult M2 − 9.7 Rib − 19.2 9.3 3.3 13.1 37.5 4.6 7578 E F Young adult –– Rib − 19.2 11.9 3.3 14.6 33.5 5.6 7968 E M Young adult LM3 − 8.2 Rib − 18.1 11.6 3.2 14.2 40.6 4.8 9027 E M Young adult LM3 − 11.6 Rib − 19 10.1 3.2 14.1 40.2 4.5 10021 E F Young adult LM3 − 11.2 Rib − 19.4 9.8 3.2 11.8 33.5 2 10027 E F Young adult LM3 − 11.4 Rib − 19.2 8.4 3.2 14.1 38.2 4.5 12271 E M Young adult UM3 − 11.4 Rib − 18.7 10.5 3.2 14.4 39.2 4.6 12601 L F Young adult LM3 − 10.4 Rib − 19.3 9.7 3.2 13.7 39.1 4.8 5093 E M Young adult –– Rib − 18.9 11.4 3.2 14.1 38.2 2.9 11681 E M Young adult UM3 − 11.3 Rib − 19.2 9.9 3.2 13.8 37.6 7.8 11752 E F Young adult LM3 − 11.8 Rib − 19.1 9.6 3.2 15.9 39.7 10.1 2817 Un M Middle adult UM3 − 11.9 Rib − 18.9 9.4 3.3 12 34.1 2.5 3697 L M Middle adult LM3 − 11.4 Rib − 18.6 10.8 3.2 13.5 39.2 7.2 6810 Un F Middle adult –– Rib − 19.1 11.1 3.3 13.8 41.5 4.8 *6825 Un F Middle adult –– Rib − 19.4 8.9 3.2 15.3 42.5 2.2 9163 E M Middle adult LM3 − 12 –– – – – – – 10326 E M Middle adult UM1 − 13.1 Rib − 19.1 8 3.2 14 40 2.1 11083 E M Middle adult LM2 − 10.6 –– – – – – – 11083 E M Middle adult LM3 − 11.7 –– – – – – – 3864 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 Table 3 (continued) 13 13 15 Sample code Period Sex Age Tooth ‰ δ C Element ‰ δ C ‰ δ N Atomic C/N %N wt %C wt Collagen yield app coll *11309 Un N/A Middle adult –– Rib − 18.9 10.1 3.2 16.1 44.6 7.3 11837 E ? Middle adult UM3 − 11.2 –– – – – – – 11873 E F Middle adult LM3 − 11.3 Rib − 19.3 9.3 3.2 14.3 36.9 10.1 12872 L F Middle adult UM1 − 11.6 Rib − 19.4 11.2 3.3 11.9 31.5 5.3 492 L M Middle adult LM2 − 11.4 Rib − 19.7 9.4 3.4 12.2 36.4 N/A 5902 E M Middle adult M3 − 12.1 Rib − 18.7 11.6 3.4 13.8 37.3 2.1 10957 L F Middle adult LM3 − 11.1 Rib − 18.8 9.5 3.3 14 38 4.2 11333 E M Middle adult UM1 − 10.1 Rib − 19.1 11.8 3.3 12.5 33.1 2.5 12286 E N/A Middle adult UM2 − 12.3 Rib − 19.3 9.9 3.2 15.8 41.3 6.1 12895 L M Middle adult LM3 − 13 Rib − 19.3 9.6 3.3 11.7 35 2.8 509 L M Old adult LM3 − 10.9 Rib − 19.2 9.5 3.2 13.6 38.8 5.6 2561 Un U Old adult UM2 − 12 –– – – – – *3094 Un M Old adult –– Rib − 18.7 9.8 3.3 10.3 28.8 2.5 3863 L F Old adult LM2 − 12.1 Rib − 18.8 8.7 3.2 14.4 41.2 2.5 3863 L F Old adult LM3 − 11.9 –– – – – – – 4238 L N/A Old adult –– Rib − 18.5 13.1 3.3 13.7 39.1 1.4 6855 E M Old adult –– Rib − 19.1 8.4 3.3 13.7 37 N/A 9247 E F Old adult LM3 − 11.8 Rib − 18.6 10.6 3.3 13.9 39.6 5.3 *11461 Un F Old adult –– Rib − 19.1 9.9 3.2 15.4 43 2.5 *11550 Un N/A Old adult –– Rib − 19.2 10.1 3.2 15.5 42.7 4.5 12677 L M Old adult LM2 − 11.9 Rib − 19.3 10.3 3.2 12.2 32.5 4.4 12577 L F Adult LM2 − 13 –– – – – – – 12577 L F Adult LM3 − 12.3 –– – – – – – *Cattle-967 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 18.8 5.8 3.4 14.7 42.6 1.3 *Cattle-966 Un N/A Adult –– Jaw − 19.8 9.3 3.5 4 11.8 1.4 *Cattle-964 Un N/A Adult –– Jaw − 18.7 8.8 3.2 14.9 41.3 3.9 *Cattle-961 Un N/A Adult –– Tibia − 20 5.7 3.3 14.3 40.1 1.7 *Cattle-958 Un N/A Adult –– Vertebra − 17.8 7.3 3.4 11.5 33.5 1.3 Cattle Un N/A Adult –– Jaw − 20.6 4.1 3.2 11.6 34.9 12.4 *Caprine-965 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 21 6.8 3.3 12.7 36 2.4 *Caprine-969 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 19.6 6.6 3.2 14.3 39.9 7.1 *Caprine-959 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 20.9 9.6 3.3 15.7 44.2 15.7 *Caprine-968 Un N/A Adult –– Metacarpal − 20.1 8.3 3.2 15.6 42.5 7.4 *Caprine-963 Un N/A Adult –– Tarsal − 19.6 6.6 3.2 14.6 40.6 3.4 *Pig-962 Un N/A Adult –– Humerus − 19.3 8.1 3.3 14.7 41.1 2.5 *Rabbit-960 Un N/A Adult –– Coxal − 22.5 4.7 3.4 14.3 41.3 5.4 IAEA-CO1 N/A N/A N/A N/A − 2.61 Standard N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A * Samples analysed at University of Reading Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3865 Infant Subadult Adult Cow Caprine Rabbit Pig 15.5 present a moderate to high range of variation, 3.2‰ for 13 15 δ C (− 21‰, − 17.8‰) and 3.9‰ δ N (5.7‰, 9.6‰). coll 13.5 13 15 The average caprine δ C and δ Nvalues are − 20.3 and coll 11.5 13 7.6‰, while that of the cattle are − 19.2 and 6.9‰ for δ C coll 15 13 and δ N, respectively. The isotopic variability in δ C is 9.5 coll wider for cattle than for caprine (2.2 and 1.4‰,respectively; 7.5 Table 4 and Fig. 2b) and slightly wider for δ N (3.6 and 5.5 3.0‰,respectively; Table 4 and Fig. 2b). Although, in gener- 13 15 al, the cattle displayed less negative δ C and higher δ N coll 3.5 -23 -22 -21 -20 -19 -18 -17 than caprine, these differences are not statistically significant ‰ δ C coll (U test between cattle and caprine: M-W test U =4.000, p = 13 15 0.09 for δ C ; U = 14.000, p =0.84 for δ N); however, the coll 15.5 sample size tested is small. The results for the pig sample fall into the range of analysed large herbivore data. 13.5 11.5 Carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures from bone 9.5 collagen in human samples 7.5 5.5 The human data have an average of − 19.1 ± 0.5‰ for δ C coll and 10.4 ± 1.4‰ for δ N(n = 55). The sample of 12,283 3.5 constitutes an outlier in δ C (see Fig. 2), since the value -21.5 -21 -20.5 -20 -19.5 -19 -18.5 -18 coll ‰ δ C coll (− 21.3‰)is more than 1.3‰ lower than the next minimum Fig. 2 a Collagen isotopic value for fauna, adults, subadults and infants human value and 2.2‰ lower than the human average. The in the Écija sample with mean values for fauna. b Average values and outlier is not included in the statistics. Not considering the standard deviations for infants, subadults, adults, cows and caprines outlier, the human sample range is 1.9‰ (− 20.2 to − 13 15 18.1‰)for δ C (see Fig. 2b). The results for δ Ndisplay coll and below 16% (see Table 3). Four samples showed low continuous variation from 8.0 to 13.6‰, a wide range of %N, the first two 8.1% and the others 4.0%; however, 5.6‰. However, excluding infants and subadults, the range since their C/N ratio was acceptable and isotopic results is reduced to 2.9‰ (8.0 to 11.9‰) (see Fig. 2b). were in line with similar samples, both samples were The δ C of human bone collagen is not significantly coll retained (see Table 3). different from the cattle samples (n =6) (U = 142.50, p = Unlike bone, enamel apatite is less likely to be affected by 0.60); however, human and cattle differ significantly in their post-mortem mineral exchange or diagenesis (Kohn et al. δ Nvalues(U = 15, p = < 0.001). Human samples are sig- 1999; Lee-Thorp 2002), and there are no standard quality nificantly different from caprine (n = 5) samples in both 13 15 control measures. δ C (U =11.00, p < 0.001) and δ N(U = 20.00, p < coll 0.001). The offset between the human and the large herbi- Carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures from faunal vore (cattle and caprine) average is 0.6‰ for δ C and coll samples 2.8‰ for δ N, which can be considered small, although, for δ N approximately 3.0‰ can reflect a trophic level A summary of the isotope values for the Écija faunal data is difference (O'Connell et al. 2012). The human average and presented in Table 4. the rabbit value also show a large isotopic shift, 3.5‰ for 13 15 13 15 The rabbit has the lowest δ C and second lowest δ N δ C and 5.6‰ for δ N. coll coll values, − 22.6 and 4.8‰, respectively. When medium–large Prior to testing whether differences exist between demo- herbivores, cattle and caprine, are considered together, both graphic groups, variation in isotope values between Table 4 Statistical summary of 13 15 13 15 Animal n δ C (‰)SDRange δ N(‰)SD Range the δ C and δ Nresults for coll coll terrestrial animals from Écija Rabbit 1 − 22.6 –– 4.8 –– Cattle 6 − 19.2 1.1 − 20.6 to − 17.8 6.9 2.2 4.1 to 9.4 Caprine 5 − 20.3 0.7 − 21.0 to − 19.6 7.6 1.3 6.6 to 9.6 Pig 1 − 19.3 –– 8.1 –– 15 15 ‰ δ N ‰ δ N 3866 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 individuals assigned to either the Early period (7–3phases, significant difference was only observed for nitrogen isotope 13 2 15 2 n = 25) or Late period (1–2phases, n = 17) of cemetery use values (δ C = χ (2) = 0.720, p =0.700; δ N= χ (2) = coll was tested: No significant differences exist (samples with 10.00, p =0.007). A Dunn’spairwise comparison of δ Nby phase information n = 42; M-W test U = 162.000, p =0.19 age indicates that infants vary significantly from adults (D = − 13 15 for δ C ; U = 201.000, p =0.77 for δ N). No differences 2.70, p = 0.010) but do not vary significantly with subadults at coll were found when the sexes were considered independently the 0.05 level (D = − 2.06, p = 0.060). Subadults do not vary (males Early/Late periods n = 11/7; M-W test U = 22.000, significantly from the adult population (D =1.07, p =0.430). 13 15 p =0.15 for δ C ; U = 33.500, p =0.66 for δ N); (females coll Early/Late periods n = 6/5; M-W test U = 13.500, p =0.79 for Sex and age differences in adult population 13 15 δ C ; U = 13.000, p =0.79 for δ N). The numbers of in- coll fants and subadults were insufficient to test between groups; When considering sexed adults, no significant differences in 13 15 however, visual inspection of the data presented no obvious the δ C or δ Nof male (n =20) and female (n = 15) bone coll 13 15 differences. Since the analysed samples show no isotopic dif- collagen exist (δ C U =129.00, p = 0.484; δ N U = coll ferences according to period, the whole sample is studied as a 109.50, p = 0.180). The adult sample was divided into three single group. Table 3 outlines isotopic results for each indi- different age categories: young adults (16–35 years, n =13), vidual analysed. The descriptive statistics for all three isotopes middle-aged adults (35–50 years, n = 14) and old adults (> 13 15 taken from the human samples are presented in Table 5. 50 years, n = 8). No differences were found in δ C or δ N coll values among age groups (K–Wtest, χ (2) = 3.41, p =0.18 13 2 15 for δ C ; χ (2) = 0.08, p =0.96 for δ N). Adults versus subadults coll Carbon isotopic signatures from dental enamel It should be noted that combined infants and subadults show in human samples significant differences to the adults in nitrogen values (infants and subadults without outlier/adults n =17/38; U = 424.500, The descriptive statistics for the enamel samples can be found p =0.02 for δ N) but not in carbon (M-W test U = 312.500, in Table 5 and are presented in Fig. 3a. The average δ C for p =0.87 for δ C ) (see Fig. 2a,b). A Kruskal–Wallis H test ap coll all teeth is − 11.2 ± 1.3‰ (min − 3.1‰,max − 6.4‰). There is assessed for significant variation in stable carbon and nitrogen 13 13 greater intrapopulation variation in δ C than δ C isotope values between infants (< 2 years) (n = 5), subadults ap coll (ranges = 6.7 and 1.9‰, respectively). Cases 11931, 12063 (between 2 and 6 years) (n = 12) and adults (n =38). A and 7968 are conspicuous with δ C values of − 6.5‰ ap (M2), − 6.4‰ (M3) and − 8.2‰ (M1), respectively. They Table 5 Descriptive statistics for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values from collagen and stable carbon from enamel in the Écija can be considered as outliers since their values differ from collection the average more than two standard deviations. Isotope (‰)Group N Max Min Mean SD Age differences δ N Infants 5 13.1 9.5 12.2 1.5 Subadults 12 13.6 9.0 10.9 1.6 Figure 3a shows little difference in δ C values between ap All adult 38 11.9 8.0 10.0 1.0 permanent tooth type (M1, M2 and M3), with no single tooth Female 15 11.9 8.4 9.8 1.0 type demonstrating a clear enrichment or depletion in δ C ap Male 20 11.8 8.0 10.1 1.1 values. This was confirmed using a Kruskal–Wallis H test 13 2 ?Adults 3 10.2 9.9 10.1 0.2 (δ C = χ (2) = 0.290, p = 0.870). As the enamel of these ap δ C Infants 5 − 18.3 − 19.6 − 18.9 0.5 teeth forms at different, although slightly overlapping ages, a coll Subadults 12 − 18.2 − 21.3 − 19.2 0.8 lack of consistent pattern may suggest no systematic differ- ences in diet at different stages of childhood (infancy to ap- All adult 38 − 18.1 − 19.7 − 19.1 0.3 proximately 12 years). Female 15 − 18.6 − 19.4 − 19.2 0.2 Male 20 − 18.1 − 19.7 − 19.0 0.4 Sex differences ?Adults 3 − 18.9 − 19.3 − 19.1 0.2 δ C Infant 1 –– − 11.9 – ap Like the collagen values, no significant differences in the sta- Subadults 8 − 6.4 − 11.7 − 10.3 1.7 ble carbon isotope apatite values existed between men and All adult 37 − 8.2 − 13.1 − 11.5 0.9 women for either tooth type (M3 (U =29.5, p = 0.15, n = Female 12 − 10.4 − 12.6 − 11.5 0.6 20), M2 (U =2.5, p =0.14, n =8)).Toothcrownsdevelop Male 21 − 8.2 − 13.1 − 11.5 1.1 during infancy and childhood and undergo no structural ?Adults 4 − 10.3 − 12.3 − 11.5 0.9 change once complete, while bone constantly remodels Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3867 M1 Female Fig. 3 a Data comparing δ C coll a b -7 M2 Male from bone collagen (ribs) and 13 M3 δ C from teeth, with M1, M2 ap -8 12 and M3 plotted in different series, -9 one sample per individual with the exception of ID3801 (M2 and -10 M3) and ID3863 (M2 and M3). b Graph comparing Δδ C ap-coll -11 with δ N; females and males are -12 in different series; regression was computed with both sexes and -13 excluding the two outliers inside the ellipse 7 -14 -22 -21 -20 -19 -18 -17 56789 10 11 13 13 δ C col (‰) in bone δ C (‰) ap-col 13 15 throughout life. Adult diet obtained by bone collagen can be have more elevated δ C and slightly lower δ Nvalues than compared with data from apatite measured in M3, since this caprine. Similar δ C differences were observed by Alexander tooth can represent childhood diet (8–12 years) (Ubelaker et al. (2015) for later Islamic fauna in the central-east of Iberia, 1999). In general, males and females present similar spacing while the opposite was observed in a pre-Islamic Christian between collagen and apatite values, Δδ C ♀ =7.9 ± population from the North-West region (López-Costas and ap-col 0.6‰ and Δδ C ♂ = 7.5 ± 1.0‰.AlthoughM3can Müldner 2016). Furthermore, although our sample size is ap-col show a great variability in its age of development, the obtained small, cattle have greater isotope value variation than caprine, results again suggest no differences between sexes but impor- again also observable in other studies (see Guede et al. 2017; tantly extend this notion to childhood (Fig. 3a). However, Alexander et al. 2015). Transhumance has been important 13 15 when Δδ C is plotted with δ N, there is an observable strategy in Iberia from the Roman period onwards (Glick ap-col trend (see Fig. 3b) in that males tend to have higher Δδ C 1995). Herds of sheep and goat, valued more for meat, were ap- and δ Nvalues (− 7.5 ± 01.0 and 10.4 ± 0.9‰,respective- moved to better grazing pastures at certain times of the year. col 13 15 ly) while females seem to have lower Δδ C and δ N Such movement may be notable from Écijan caprine data in ap-col (−7.9 ± 0.6 and 9.5 ± 0.6‰, respectively). When considering Zakrzewski’s(2010) mobilitystudy;caprines havemoreele- the results of the comparison, we have to remember that the vated Sr values than humans, perhaps reflecting inhabitation data from apatite reflects only subadult consumption and the in an area away from the town, such as nearby hill or mountain values from collagen indicate diet from last years of life. regions. Research by García-García (2017), who draws on Davis (2008) and Davis et al. (2013), has highlighted the possibility that a system for the provision of animal products from a specialised herding system existed in the region, which Discussion could explain the lower variation in caprine data. It is possible that we are seeing further evidence of this in our data. As cattle Staple food resources consumed by the inhabitants appear to have been less preferred for meat in comparison to of Écija caprine (Salas-Salvado et al. 2006), which could be viewed in the isotope data where humans appeared roughly one trophic This paper aims to reconstruct the staple foods and available level above caprines, and were valued for secondary products resources for the inhabitants of Écija with a view to understand- in the Islamic period, it is possible that they were kept closer to ing wider issues influencing the population and contextualise home and in smaller numbers. Thus, if individual or small this with other regions of Iberia. Due to the relationship be- groups of cattle were owned by different people/families, as tween human isotope values and consumed animal values, it opposed to in herds, there may be greater potential for is important to discuss the faunal results prior to considering 13 15 foddering or pasturing differences, which could be the human values. The comparison of δ Cand δ N values be- source of variation in the cattle data. However, we are tween the large herbivores and the rabbit, an animal most likely conscious that our sample size is limited; so, here, we call eating C plants, shows that both caprine (goat/sheep) and cattle for more dedicated isotopic research, such as that carried by arelikelytobefoddered on or freelyateC plants, but there Sirignano et al. (2014) on animals from northern Iberia, as it mayhavebeenavery minoruseof C resources. would be enlightening about lifeways in Iberia more general- Although medium–large herbivores do not differ signifi- ly, and how husbandry practices changed. cantly in average isotopic signals, and overlap is present, the Carbon data suggests that Écijans had a diet mainly based intragroup variation in values may signal different strategies on C plants, and this appeared stable across the use of the of management for cattle and sheep/goat. Écijan cattle tend to 3 δ C apt (‰) δ N (‰) 3868 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 cemetery, suggesting no shift to C plants. This supports his- Recalling the difference in δ N values between humans torical research that highlights Écija as an important wheat and and herbivores, it appears that animal protein was being con- 13 15 barley-producing region (García-Baena 2006). The limited sumed. However, some human δ Cand δ N values differ indication of C plants may reflect the intake of some animals little to averages for cattle and caprine. Initially, this suggests foddered on millet or sorghum, which could also be grown in that some individuals may have been almost vegetarian, sig- the area (although see next paragraph). However, the contri- nalling intragroup diversity in diet. As meat and dairy prod- bution of C plants to human or animal diet appears scant. The ucts may have been more expensive food items, it could re- data do not suggest significant consumption of fish and marine flect the mixed economic status of individuals buried at the resources, a result consistent with the location of Écija and cemetery. However, as highlighted previously, there is a great historic information on food traditions in this inland area of degree of variability in the animal values, especially the δ N Andalucía, where the base of diet was likely to be cereal, with values for cattle. It is quite possible that individuals close to limited meat consumption by the majority of the population. the cattle and caprine averages were eating protein, but from 13 15 Only one male (7968) had δ C values suggestive of a great- animals at the lower end of δ N range demonstrated. ap er consumption of C resources, although he also had one of the highest δ N values. This individual may differ in diet to Implications for socio-politico and physical the rest of the population and/or come from another location. environment Given that this man was in the earliest layers of the cemetery, analysis of oxygen and strontium values might be insightful One feature often assessed in Medieval populations is sex for ascertaining if he migrated. Another point to consider is the differences in data and how this links to gender ideals. In possible effect of shifts in water management mentioned in particular, there is significant interest in whether sex divisions historical sources (Martín Civantos 2016); however, the δ C appear in the Islamic period due to the arrival of new Islamic in crops due to irrigation seems to be very site-specific (Flohr gender ideology (Inskip 2013). Sex differences are present in et al. 2011) and results risky to interpret its influence in animal other biological data, including activity-related skeletal mod- and human signals. ifications at Écija (Inskip 2013, 2016), while more generally Dietary reconstruction based on bioapatite (δ C )to- historic sources highlight that there was a gender division of ap 13 13 gether with the combination of δ C vs. δ C and labour and activity (Shatzmiller 1994) and space (Díaz-Jorge ap coll 13 15 δ C vs. δ N may suggest the consumption of a C 2012) in Medieval Iberia. The collagen data suggests no sig- ap-coll 4 plant with high C values but with very low protein. nificant differences between males and females in terms of Sugarcane is consumed through the production of molasses diet, and apatite values potentially show that this can be large- which is composed of carbohydrates rather than plant fibres; ly extended to boys and girls. However, the combination of therefore, its high δ C does not affect human collagen iso- collagen and apatite values might hint at greater consumption topic signal which is related to protein diet. Similar results of sugarcane by females (girls). This suggests that although have been linked with sugarcane consumption, for example base diet did not differ between the sexes, there may have in thePacificMarianas(Ambroseetal. 1997). Sugarcane been subtle variances between males and females. wasprobablyintroducedintoIberiaduringthe Islamicpe- There is no historical evidence to suggest that there should riod (Watson 1974); however, it has been rarely introduced be differences in the diets of adults and children post-breast into the discussion of palaeodietary reconstruction using feeding. The decrease in δ N values in individuals aged 1.5 isotopes, because its low protein content makes it only de- to 3.0 years of age is consistent with weaning beginning in the tectable in carbon apatite values and no research has includ- first or second year of life. With no significant variation in ed δ C in their isotopic analyses until now. Importantly, carbon collagen values and a lack of consistent difference in ap the Guadalquivir valley, in which Écija is situated, is record- apatite values between teeth, it suggests that childhood diet ed as a successful sugarcane-producing region (Sato 2015). did generally not vary from adults after being weaned. The consumption of sugarcane, which would have not been The isotope data are potentially revealing about the envi- dietary staple, may explain the slight shift in carbon values ronment Écijans inhabited. Arid temperatures and high salin- towards those expected for communities consuming C ity have been identified as the cause of abnormally high values plants, and could be geographically and historically expect- for δ N(Ambrose 1991;Heaton 1987; Britton et al. 2008; ed for Écija. However, as not all individuals show evidence López-Costas and Müldner 2016). Today, Écija is renowned for its consumption, it is possible that it is not yet a universal for its high temperatures and salinity (Fernández et al. 2002), commodity, which fits with ideas that it was initially for as well as nearby BAltiplano de Écija^. However, with the family consumption in the first few centuries of Islamic rule exception of a few high cattle values, which may relate to (Perez Vidal 1973). In addition, we are not able to ascertain husbandry practices, Écija’shuman δ N values are moderate, whether its consumption was limited to children as we were if not low for the time period (see Table 6), as might be ex- only able to test enamel. pected if environmental conditions and salinity were a Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3869 Table 6 Stable isotope values from other studies of Medieval material from Iberia 13 15 Sheep human Site Date Religion n δ C(‰) SD Range Cattle δ N SD Range Cattle human Sheep human 13 13 15 15 human δ δ C (‰)offset (‰) δ N(‰)offset δ N(‰)offset coll C (‰)offset coll Ibiza 4th–6th C 60 − 19 0.4 − 19.9 to − 18.0 2 1.8 11.1 1.1 8.3 to 13.6 3.4 5.4 A Lanzada 5th–7th C 15 − 14.3 0.7 − 16.5 to − 12.8 6.1 5.6 12.8 0.5 12.0 to 12.8 5.7 5.3 Aistra 8th–9th C 35 − 19 1 − 22.0 to − 16.7 1.7 – 7.9 1 6.8 to 12.1 3.1 – San Salvador de Valdedois 10th–13th C 12 − 19 0.4 − 19.6 to − 18.0 2.6 0.2 9.7 0.9 8.8 to 12.2 4.6 2.7 San Pedro de Nora 12th–15th C 12 − 18.3 1.8 − 19.8 to − 13.1 3.3 0.9 10.3 1 8.8 to 11.3 5.2 3.3 San Miguel de Lillo 12th C 16 − 17.5 2.5 − 19.5 to − 10.7 3.2 0.8 10.4 1 9.2–13.9 5.3 3.4 Jaca 13th–15th C 27 − 18.3 1.2 − 17.0 to − 15.3–– 10 0.9 8.6 to 10.6–– Colegiata, Gandia 13th–16th C 20 − 17.2 1 − 18.7 to − 15.0 0.6 2.1 10.3 0.8 8.8 to 12.0 3.3 6.3 Tauste 8th–10th I 11 − 19.1 0.4 − 19.5 to − 18.4 2.5 0.1 15.3 1.8 10.8 to 17.0 10.2 8.3 Écija 9th–12th I 55 − 19 1 − 19.7 to − 18.1 0.2 1.3 9.8 1.3 8.0 to 11.6 2.9 2.2 Ibiza 10th–13th I 24 − 18.1 1.3 − 19.4 to − 13.1 1.3 0.8 10.9 1 8.5 to 12.5 3 4.6 Zaragoza 10th–12th I 37 − 19 –– – – 10.9 –– Benipeixcar 15th–16th I 20 − 16.4 1 − 18.0 to − 14.2 1.4 2.9 10.7 0.6 9.2 to 11.9 3.7 6.7 C, Christian; I, Islamic. Current study highlighted in bold 1, Mundee (2009); 2, Alexander et al. (2015); 3, Fuller et al. (2010); 4, MacKinnon (2015); 5, Guede et al. (2017); 6, Quirós Castillo (2013); 7, López-Costas and Müldner (2016) 3870 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 significant factor in dictating δ N. For example, at Tauste, a are still subtle differences between them that may relate to contemporary Islamic cemetery in northern Iberia with high animal practices, human dietary patterns, but also potentially soil salinity, the average δ N human value was 15.3‰ with a environmental variation. Of course, these issues may also be max of 17‰ (Guede et al. 2017). Fernandez et al. (2002)have interrelated. In addition, while there are no sex differences in argued that modern human activity has been a significant con- the data from Écija, sex differences are visible at Tauste tributor to the high salinity in the town today, and it is inter- (Guede et al. 2017). To explore this further, it would be valu- esting that our results support this situation. This infers that able to assess other Islamic sites in the south of Iberia and to either the conditions were different or that medieval individ- have faunal data for Zaragoza. Turning to the Christian uals were using a different water source. Regardless, it is very groups, we can see that, in general, there is more variation in interesting that the values differ so significantly to Tauste even the human values but also the human and animal offset values. though there are similar environmental conditions. Further Importantly, this variation is observed in the pre-Islamic and research on inhabitants from other parts of Écija may be en- Islamic period Christian sites. Some of this variation is likely lightening in this regard. to relate to the fact that some of the sites are small and rural in nature, which would likely differ in dietary patterns to larger Écija in context settlements, but potentially also between rural communities. It would be useful to have similar rural data for Islamic sites to When we place Écija in context with results from other Iberian understand if similar trends exist. isotopic studies, it is important to take into account not only Given the variation that exists within Islamic and Christian the faunal values as well as the human data but also the offset sites, it is very difficult to ascertain whether there is a pattern between humans and animals. Observing Table 6, a complex typical of either religious identity or how things changed over picture emerges which does not map neatly on to any one time. For example, Écija’s isotope values most closely resem- specific factor (religion, time, environment and social factors). ble those of the rural 10th to 13th century Christian individuals First, it is necessary to highlight two sites with outstanding at San Salvador de Valdedois, in the north (Table 6). However, results. As already mentioned, Early Islamic Tauste appears to this does not mean that religious differences did not exist, but be unique in its nitrogen values, a feature attributed to extreme as isotopes only provide an overview of diet, and many diets salinity in the area (Guede et al. 2017). Second, Lanzada, a can appear isotopically similar, other evidence, including bo- pre-Islamic site in the north with very high carbon and nitro- tanical, palaeopathological and zooarchaeological, is required gen values, is argued to represent a mixed marine and millet- to tease out these differences. The possible identification of based diet. These cases in particular show that local circum- sugarcane consumption at Écija may be significant here. As stances are very important in dictating the values observed and there was already a strong relationship between Islamic prac- tices and sugar consumption by the 9th century (Sato 2015), to that trying to ascertain general trends is difficult in a region like Iberia where there is both a complex geology and varying ascertain if it could be a useful indicator of Islamic identity, it social and political structures. Already, this highlights the im- is necessary to assess if other Islamic and Christian groups portance of doing regional studies, which is important in re- show similar signals and how this might relate to time. vealing these complexities. Although the data are limited, when we place the carbon One of the big questions surrounding life in medieval Iberia values from Écija in context with other sites, it appears that is whether there are detectable differences between Christian time has more of an influence than region or religion. Écija is and Islamic communities. In order to assess this, it is neces- similar to its contemporary Islamic and Christian sites in hav- sary to consider each religious group separately. Table 6, ing carbon values which do not indicate significant C plant which outlines data for other isotopic studies, shows similarity consumption. Archaeobotanical research based on 10th to in δ C values between Écija and contemporary northern and 12th century Northern Iberian cities has also found millet to central Islamic sites at Zaragoza and Tauste (Alexander et al. be present in very low quantities. Excluding A Lazada, a pre- 2015; Guede et al. 2017; Mundee 2009). The two other Islamic Christian community with a clear C signature Islamic sites, Benipeixcar and Ibiza, differ with both present- (López-Costas 2012), we only see strong evidence for millet ing values consistent with greater C consumption. However, or sorghum consumption from the 12th century onwards. The it is notable that Écija is lower in offset with cattle than both two Islamic sites with evidence of significant C consumption these sites, yet the offset with caprine at Écija is somewhat are the late medieval community at Benipeixcar, perhaps higher than that in Tauste or Ibiza. In terms of δ Nvalues, representing a group whose diet had shifted due to changes Écija is similar to other Islamic sites, with the exception of in status (see Alexander et al. 2015), and at Ibiza, where its Tauste (discussed in previous texts), but when assessing the island status means that migration patterns, trade and/or local offset with cattle and caprine, Écijans differ very little to cap- circumstances may have resulted in differing isotopic values rine which is different to the other two sites. This infers that to mainland sites (see Fuller et al. 2010; Nehlich et al. 2012). while there are similarities between these Islamic sites, there For example, food could have been bought to the island. This Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3871 potentially suggests that although the southern Iberian envi- data, more important factors may include time, changing so- ronment might have been suitable to C plant production and cial–political situations, local environment and/or available technology may have improved to allow its production, C resources. Unsurprisingly, a complex picture emerges which plants became a staple only until well after the 11th century. highlights the importance of undertaking regional studies. Overall, this shows that the exploitation of C plants is likely Only when we have a good understanding of the variation in to be related not only to the possibilities of cultivation but also dietary practices and resources across the region can we start to the multitude of social factors, including status, group pref- to assess the significance of sociocultural and environmental erence, as well as practicalities (i.e. relation with other crops). change. To move forward, more dedicated studies of faunal Although the faunal sample sizes are small for the sites material accompanied by a greater diversity of sites across the tested, and therefore difficult to compare statistically, Écija is region are necessary. interesting due to the low offset between its animals and Acknowledgments We would like to thank Antonio Ugalde and the humans. Écijans have the lowest nitrogen offset of any of Municipal Museum of Écija for all their support and help during this the groups where faunal data is available, regardless of region, research. Thanks also to Inma López Flores and Ursula Tejedor religion or time (see Table 6). It is unclear how typical this (Asociación Española de Bioarqueología) for their help during animal offset is for an Islamic town as only Islamic Tauste and Ibiza and human sample collection. We would also like to thank Dr. Gundula Müldner and Tina Moriarty for their assistance during collagen extraction have available faunal data and both are unique in their circum- in Reading University and to Dr. Aleks Pluskowski and Prof. Laszlo stances. In comparison to the Christian sites, this may reflect a Bartosiewicz for their help during archaeozoological identification. lack of other resources that could increase carbon values in Thanks are due to Dr. Jason Laffoon and Suzan Warmerdam for their humans, such as fish, which given that nearly all the Christian assistance during the processing of Leiden samples and to the Earth Sciences Department at the Vrije Universiteit (VU) Amsterdam sites are not too distant from the coast would make sense. It University for access to equipment and facilities. OLC is funded by may also reflect the consumption of fish as part of a Christian Plan Galego I2C mod.B (ED481D 2017/014). The research was partially diet. More studies on sites such as Écija are needed to assess funded by the projects BGalician Paleodiet^ and by Consiliencia network this further. (ED 431D2017/08) Xunta de Galicia. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Conclusion Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values, measured from priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the collagen and apatite, were assessed in the southern Iberian Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. population of Écija in order to fill a gap in our knowledge on dietary resources in Iberia during the medieval period. This aimed to improve our understanding of important factors influencing the lives of people during a unique period of time References punctuated by important socio-cultural changes. Overall, Aillet C, (2010) Les mozarabes: Christianisme et arabisation en péninsule Écija’s isotopic data demonstrate that individuals in the town Ibérique. Casa de Velázquez, Madrid had a C -based economy, consumed some animal protein, but Alexander MM, Gerrard CM, Gutiérrez A, Millard AR (2015) Diet, so- lacked strong evidence for significant C plant consumption, ciety, and economy in late medieval Spain: stable isotope evidence such as millet and sorghum and marine resources, although, from Muslims and Christians from Gandía, Valencia. Am J Phys 13 13 juxtaposition of δ C and δ C hints that sugarcane may Anthropol 156:263–273 coll ap Alonso N, Antolín F, Kirchner H (1994) Novelties and legacies in crops have become part of Écijans’ diet, though not by everyone. of the Islamic period in the northeast Iberian Peninsula: the Interestingly, the nitrogen values are moderate compared to archaeobotanical evidence in Madîna Balagî, Madîna Lârida, and what could be expected given the environmental conditions, Madîna Turṭûša. Quat Int 346:149–161 and despite Écija’s suitability for millet and sorghum produc- Al-Oumaoui I, Jiménez-Brobeil S, Du Souich R (2004) Markers of ac- tion, it is not observable in the data. The rich agricultural land tivity patterns in some populations of the Iberian Peninsula. Int J Osteoarchaeol 14:343–359 surrounding Écija, coupled with cultural preference, may have Ambrose SH (1990) Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth limited the desire for millet or other C plant production. collagen for isotopic analysis. J Archaeol Sci 17:431–451 Comparison of Écija’s faunal and human data with other Ambrose SH (1991) Effects on diet, climate and physiology on nitro- medieval Christian and Islamic sites shows that while there is gen isotope abundances in terrestrial foodwebs. J Archaeol Sci 18:293–317 some similarity between Islamic sites in the north and central Ambrose SH, Norr L (1993) Experimental evidence for the relationship parts of Iberia, the variation between them is marked and of the carbon isotope ratios of whole diet and dietary protein to those overlaps with Christian sites. As such, at present, we cannot of bone collagen and carbonate. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G (eds) typically identify an Islamic or Christian diet, or between Prehistoric human bone-archaeology at the molecular level. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 1–37 northern or southern sites more generally. Based on the current 3872 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 Ambrose SH, Butler BM, Hanson DB, Hunter-Anderson RL, Krueger Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Harris DA, Hedges REM (2006) Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon HW (1997) Stable isotopic analysis of human diet in the Marianas archipelago, Western Pacific. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:343–361 and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Am J Phys Anthropol 129: 279–293 Bocherens H, Drukker D (2003) Trophic level isotopic enrichment of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen: case studies from recent and Fuller BT, Marquez Grant N, Richards MP (2010) Investigation of dia- ancient terrestrial ecosystems. Int J Osteoarchaeol 13:46–53 chronic dietary patterns on the islands of Ibiza and Formentera, Bocherens H, Fizet M, Mariotti A, Lange-Badre B, Vandermeersch B, Spain: evidence from carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratio anal- Borel JP, Bellon G (1991) Isotopic biogeochemistry of fossil verte- ysis. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:512–522 brate collagen: implications for the study of fossil food web includ- García Baena A (2006) Écija Musulmana, Ulemas y Familias. Talleres ing Neanderthal man. J Hum Evol 20:481–492 Graficos Codair, Écija Boone JL, (2009) Lost civilisation. Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd, García Garcia M (2016) Archaeozoology’s contribution to the knowledge London of al-Andalus. In: Carvajal López J (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, Britton K, Muldner G, Bell M (2008) Stable isotope evidence for salt- history and memory, pp 33–38 marsh grazing in the Bronze Age Severn Estuary, UK: implica- García García M (2017) Some remarks on the provision of animal prod- tions for palaeodietary analysis at coastal sites. J Archaeol Sci 35: ucts to urban centres in medieval Islamic Iberia: the cases of Madinat 2111–2118 Ilbirah (Granada) and Cercadilla (Cordova). Quat Int 460:86–96 Broecker WS (2001) Was the medieval warm period global? Science 291: García Sánchez E (1995) La gastronomía al-andalus. El zoco: vida 1497–1499 economica y artes tradicionales en el al-Andalus y Marruecos. Carvajal Lopez JC (2013) Islamicization or Islamicizations? Expansion Lunwerg Editores, Barcelona, pp 49–57 of Islam and social practice in the Vega of Granada (south-east Garcia E, Subirá ME, Richards MP (2004) Régime et société d’apre’s Spain). World Archaeol 43:109–123 l’analyse des isotopes stables: l’exemple de la population de hhCan Chalmeta P (1994) Invasión e islamización: la sumisión de Hispania y la Reine’sii (Mallorca. Espagne, 600 ap. J.C.). Anthropos 7:171–176 formación de al-Andalus. MAPFRE, Madrid García-Dils de la Vegas S, Orche Amaré P, Sáez Fernández PM, Ordóñez Chisholm BS, Nelson DE, Hobson KA, Schwarcz HP, Knyf M (1983) Agulla S (2009) Estudio diacrónico de la explotación de la sal en el Carbon isotope measurement techniques for bone collagen: notes for territorio de Ecija –Sevilla. In: La explotación histórica de la sal the archaeologist. J Archaeol Sci 10:355–360 investigación y puesta en valor. Memorias de la Sociedad Española de Historia de la Arqueologia 11. Sociedad Española de Collins MJ, Galley P (1998) Towards an optimal method of archaeolog- Historia de la Arqueología, Madrid, pp 73–90 ical collagen extraction: the influence of pH and grinding. Anc Biomol 2:209–222 Glick TF (1995) From Muslim fortress to Christian castle. Manchester Davis SJM (2008) Zooarchaeological evidence for Moslem and Christian University Press, Manchester improvements of sheep and cattle in Portugal. J Archaeol Sci 35: Glick T (1999) Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. In: 991e1010 Comparative perspectives on social and cultural formation The Library of Iberian Resources Online. https://archive.is/ Davis SJM, Svensson EM, Albarella U, Detry C, Gotherstrom A, Pires E, 20120710141038/http://libro.uca.edu/ics/emspain.htm#selection- Ginja C, (2013) Evidencia de mejoras de ovino y vacuno durante 195.0-195.39 epoca andalusí y cristiana en Portugal a partir del analisis zooarqueologico y de ADN antiguo. DAM. Debates de Grau-Sologestoa I (2015) Livestock management in Spain from Roman Arqueología Medieval 3, 241e287. to post-medieval times: a biometrical analysis of cattle, sheep/goat Decker M (2009) Plants and progress: Rethinking the Islamic agricultural and pig. J Archaeol Sci 54:123–134 revolution. Journal of World History 20:187–206 Guede I, Ortega LA, Zuluaga MC, Alonso-Olazabal A, Murelaga X, Pina M, Gutierrez FJ, Iacumin P (2017) Isotope analyses to explore diet DeNiro MJ (1985) Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo and mobility in a medieval Muslim population at Tauste (NE Spain). bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruc- PLoS One 12:e0176572 tion. Nature 317:806–809 DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1978) Influence of diet on the distribution of Guichard P, Soravia B (2005) Los reinos de taifas: fragmentación política carbon isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:495–506 y esplendor cultural. Editorial Sarria, Malaga Heaton THE (1987) The N-15/N-14 ratios of plants in South-Africa and DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1981) Influence of diet on the distribution of Namibia—relationship to climate and coastal saline environments. nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 45:341– Oecologia 74:236–246 DeNiro MJ, Weiner S (1988) Use of collagenase to purify collagen from Hedges REM, Clement JG, Thomas CDL, O’Connell TC (2007) prehistoric bone for stable isotopic analysis. Geochemica et Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modelled from Cosmochimica Acta 52:2425–2431 anthropogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements. Am J Phys Anthropol 133:808–816 Díaz-Jorge ME (2012) Women and the architecture of Al-Andalus (711- Hernández Iñigo P (1997) La pesca fluvial y el consumo de pescado en 1492): a historiographical analysis. In: Martin T (ed) Reassessing Córdoba (1450–1525). Anu Estud Mediev 27:1045–1116 the roles of women as ‘makers of medieval art and architecture’. Brill, Leiden Imamuddin S (1981) Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill, Leiden Fernandez Ugalde A, (2005) Écija en la economía de al-Andalus: algunos Inskip SA (2013) Islam in Iberia or Iberian Islam: bioarchaeology and the indicadores cuantitativos de su importancial, Actas del VII analysis of emerging Islamic identity in Early Medieval Iberia. Post Congreso de Historia de Écija, "Écija economía y sociedad^ Classical Archaeologies 3:63–93 FernándezI,Olivas E,Cerón JC,Olias M,(2002)Aspectos Inskip SA (2016) Life and death in al-Andalus: funerary archaeology and Hidroquimicos del Agua subterranean de la comarca de Ecija osteoarchaeology in the analysis of Islamic identity. In: Lopez (Sevilla, Espana). In: Bocanegra E, Martinez D, Massone H (eds.). Carvajal J (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, history and memory. Groundwater and human development. Mar del Plata, Argentina, pp Akkadia Press, Edinburgh, pp 39–45 287–293 Kaal J, López-Costas O, Martínez Cortizas A (2016) Diagenetic effects Flohr P, Müldner G, Jenkins E (2011) Carbon stable isotope analysis of on pyrolysis fingerprints of extracted collagen in archaeological hu- cereal remains as a way to reconstruct water availability: preliminary man bones from NW Spain, as determined by pyrolysis-GC-MS. J results. Water History 3(2):121–144 Archaeol Sci 65:1–10 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 3873 Katzenberg MA, Waters-Rist AL (in press) Stable isotope analysis: a tool Grimalt JO, Jiménez-Espejo F, Martínez-Ruiz F, Vegas-Vilarrúbia T, Valero-Garcés BL (2012) The Medieval climate anomaly in the for studying past diet, demography and life history. In: Biological anthropology of the human skeleton, Third edn Iberian Peninsula reconstructed from marine and lake records. Katzenberg MA, Bazaliiskii VI, Goriunova OI, Savel’ev NA, Weber AW Quat Sci Rev 43(Supplement C):16–32 (2010) Diet reconstruction of prehistoric hunter-gatherers in the Mundee M (2009) An isotopic approach to diet in Medieval Spain. In: Lake Baikal region. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers of the Baikal Baker S, Gray A, Lakin K, Madgwick R, Poole K, Sandias M (eds) Region, Siberia. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Food and drink in archaeology, Devon, pp 64–72 Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, pp 175–191 Nehlich O, Fuller BT, Marquez Grant N, Richards MP (2012) Kohn MJ (1996) Predicting animal δ O: accounting for diet and physi- Investigation of diachronic dietary patterns on the islands of Ibiza ological adaptation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 60:4811–4829 and Formentera, Spain: evidence from sulfur stable isotope ratio Kohn MJ, Schoeninger MJ, Barker WW (1999) Altered states: effects analysis. Am J Phys Anthropol 149:115–124 of diagenesis on fossil tooth chemistry. Geochim Cosmochim O'Connell TC, Kneale CJ, Tasevska N, Kuhnle GG (2012) The diet-body Acta 63:2737–2747 offset in human nitrogen isotopic values: a controlled dietary study. Krueger HW, Sullivan CH (1984) Models for carbon isotope fraction- Am J Phys Anthropol 149:426–434 ation between diet and bone. ACS Symp Ser 258:205–220 O'Leary MH (1988) Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. Bioscience 38: Larsen CS (2015) Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human 328–336 skeleton. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Oliva M, Ruiz-Fernández J, Barriendos M, Benito G, Cuadrat JM, Lee-Thorp J (2002) Two decades of progress towards understanding fos- Domínguez-Castro F, García-Ruiz JM, Giralt S, Gómez-Ortiz A, silization processes and isotopic signals in calcified tissue minerals. Hernández A, López-Costas O, López-Moreno JI, López-Sáez JA, Archaeometry 44:435–446 Martínez-Cortizas A, Moreno A, Prohom M, Saz MA, Serrano E, Lee-Thorp JL, Van Der Merwe NJ (1987) Carbon isotope analysis of Tejedor E, Trigo R, Valero-Garcés B, Vicente-Serrano SM (2018) The Little Ice Age in Iberian mountains. Earth Sci Rev 177:175–208 fossil bone apatite. S Afr J Sci 83(11):712–715 Lee-Thorp MG, Thirumalai CHR, Terry SI, Serjeant GR (1989) Passalacqua NV, MacKinnon A (2015) A historical bioarchaeology ap- Endoscopic and gastric acid studies in homozygous sickle cell dis- proach to health, status, and diet of Medieval Asturias. In: Quirós ease and upper abdominal pain. Gut 30:569–572 Castillo JA (ed) Demografia, paleopatoologias y desigualdad social Lee-Thorp J, Manning L, Sponheimer M (1997) Exploring problems and en el noroeste peninsular en época medieval. Euskal Herriko opportunities offered by down-scaling sample sizes for carbon iso- Unibertsitateko Argitalpen, Zerbitzua, pp 63–81 tope analyses of fossils. Bull Soc Geol Fr 168:767–773 Perez Vidal J (1973) La cultura de la caña de azucar en el Levante Español. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid Liversidge HM, Molleson T (2004) Variation in crown and root for- mation and eruption of human deciduous teeth. Am J Phys Prevedorou E, Diaz-Zorita M, Romero A, Buikstra JE, Paz de Miguel M, Anthropol 123:172–180 Knudson KJ (2010) Residential mobility and dental decoration in Longin R (1971) New method of collagen extraction for radiocarbon early medieval Spain: results from the eighth century site of plaza dating. Nature 230:241–242 del Castillo, Pamplona. Dental Anthropology 23:42–52 Quirós Castillo JA (2013) Radiocarbon chronology and paleodiet studies López-Costas O, (2012) Antropología de los restos óseos humanos de Galicia: estudio de la población romano y medieval gallega. on the medieval rural site of Zaballa (Spain): preliminary insights Doctoral thesis. Granada University. into the social archaeology of the site. Radiocarbon 55:1222–1232 López-Costas O, Müldner G (2016) Fringes of the empire: diet and cul- Reid DJ, Dean MC (2006) Variation in modern human enamel formation tural change at the Roman to post-Roman transition in NW Iberia. times. J Hum Evol 50:329–346 Am J Phys Anthropol 161:141–154 Reilly BF (1993) The medieval Spains. Cambridge University Press, López-Costas O, Müldner G, Martínez Cortizas A (2015) Diet and life- New York style in Bronze Age Northwest Spain: the collective burial of Cova Romo Sales A, (n.d.) Unpublished site report on excavations in the Plaza do Santo. J Archaeol Sci 55:209–218 de España, Écija: Available: Consejeria de Cultura, Delegacio en MacKinnon AT (2015) Dietary reconstruction of medieval and early Provincial de Sevilla modern spanish populations using stable isotopes of carbon and Salas-Salvado J, Heutos-Solano MD, García-Lorda P, Bulló M (2006) nitrogen. Unpublised Masters Thesis. California State University Diet and dietetics in al-Andalus. Br J Nutr 96:S100–S104 Martín Civantos JM (2016) Intensive irrigated agriculture in al-Andalus. Sato T (2015) Sugar in the social life of Medieval Islam. Brill, Leiden In: Carvajal López JC (ed) Al-Andalus: archaeology, history and Schoeninger MJ (1989) Reconstructing prehistoric human diet. In: Price memory. UCL Qatar series in archaeology and cultural heritage, TD (ed) The chemistry of prehistoric human bone. Cambridge vol 3. Akkadia Press, Edinburgh, pp 27–31 University Press, Cambridge, pp 38–67 Martinez-Cortizas A, Pontevedra-Pombal X, Garcia-Rodeja E, Novoa- Schoeninger MJ, DeNiro MJ (1984) Nitrogen and carbon isotopic com- Munoz JC, Shotyk W (1999) Mercury in a Spanish peat bog: archive position of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. of climate change and atmospheric metal deposition. Science 284: Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48:625–639 939–942 Sealy JC (1986) Stable carbon isotopes and prehistoric diets in the south- Melville C, Ubaydli A (1992) Christians and Moors in Spain. Volume II: western Cape Province, South Africa. Oxford: BAR International Arabic Sources. Aris & Phillips Ltd, Warminster Series 293 Menocal MR (2002) The ornament of the world. Little, Brown and Sealy JC (2010) Isotopic evidence for the antiquity of cattle-based pasto- Company, USA ralism in southernmost Africa. J Afr Stud 8:65–81 Minigawa M, Wada E (1984) Stepwise enrichment of 15N along food Shatzmiller M (1994) Labour in the Medieval Islamic world. EJ Brill, chains: further evidence and the relation between δ15N and animal Leiden age. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48:135–141 Sirignano C, Grau Sologestoa I, Ricci P, García-Collado MI, Altieri S, Morales Muñiz A, Moreno García M, Roselló Izquierdo E, Llorente Quirós Castillo JA, Lubritto C (2014) Animal husbandry during Rodríguez L, Morales Muñiz DC (2011) 711 Ad: ¿El Origen de early and high middle ages in the Basque Country (Spain). Quat una Disyunción Alimentaria?. Zona Arqueológica 15:303–322 Int 346:138–148 Moreno A, Pérez A, Frigola J, Nieto-Moreno V, Rodrigo-Gámiz M, Tieszen LL, Fagre T (1993) Effect of diet quality and composition on the Martrat B, González-Sampériz P, Morellón M, Martín-Puertas C, isotopic composition of respiratory CO , bone collagen, bioapatite Corella JP, Belmonte Á, Sancho C, Cacho I, Herrera G, Canals M, and soft tissues. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G (eds) Prehistoric human 3874 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:3857–3874 bone: archaeology at the molecular level. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Van Klinken GJ (1999) Bone collagen quality indicators for palaeodietary and radiocarbon measurements. J Archaeol Sci 26:687–695 pp 121–155 Ubelaker DH (1999) Human skeletal remains. Excavation, analysis, in- Vogel JC, van der Merwe NJ (1977) Isotopic evidence for early maize terpretation. Taraxacum, Washington D.C. cultivation in New York state. Am Antiq 42:238–242 Valencia Rodriguez R (1988) Los Territorios de la Cora de Écija en Epoca Watson AM (1974) The Arab agricultural revolution and its diffusion, Arab. Actas del I Congreso sobre Historia de Écija, Écija, pp. 315– 700-1100. J Econ Hist 31:8–35 335 Zakrzewski SR (2010) Population migration, variation and identity: van der Merwe NJ, Vogel JC (1978) 13C content of human collagen as an Islamic population in Iberia. In: Agarwal SC, Glencross B a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America. Nature (eds) Handbook of social bioarchaeology. Wiley-Blackwell, 276:815–816 Oxford, pp 183–210

Journal

Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences – Springer Journals

Published: Sep 22, 2018

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Diet and food strategies in a southern al-Andalusian urban environment during Caliphal period, Écija, Sevilla

Diet and food strategies in a southern al-Andalusian urban environment during Caliphal period, Écija, Sevilla

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Diet and food strategies in a southern al-Andalusian urban environment during Caliphal period, Écija, Sevilla

Diet and food strategies in a southern al-Andalusian urban environment during Caliphal period, Écija, Sevilla

References (114)

Abstract

Journal

Recommended Articles

There are no references for this article.

Our policy towards the use of cookies