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Cacao, copoazu and macambo: Exploring Theobroma diversity in smallholder agroforestry systems of the Peruvian Amazon

Cacao, copoazu and macambo: Exploring Theobroma diversity in smallholder agroforestry systems of... Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-021-00610-0(0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Cacao, copoazu and macambo: Exploring Theobroma diversity in smallholder agroforestry systems of the Peruvian Amazon . . Elisabeth Lagneaux Federico Andreotti Charlotte M. Neher Received: 2 January 2020 / Accepted: 6 March 2021 / Published online: 1 April 2021 The Author(s) 2021, corrected publication 2021 Abstract Over the past decades, the general trend followed by the more industrial clonal varieties. The towards shade reduction and intensification of cacao source of seeds and seedlings for the most cultivated management has led to biodiversity losses. In the varieties was a mix of donations by public institutions Peruvian Amazon, the regional government is heavily (for clonal varieties) and informal exchange among promoting crop conversion to shift from regionally farmers (mainly for native and criollo varieties, and marketed foods towards cacao (Theobroma cacao) species i.e. macambo (Theobroma bicolor) and and copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum). While this cacauillo (Theobroma speciosum)). The cacao vari- shift is already visibly impacting the farming land- eties incentivized by public institutions were the least scape and the lives of many smallholder farmers, little desired for future investment. The motivations for is known about the reasons that drive farmers to farmers to plant Theobromas was mainly based on the choose certain types of Theobroma species or cacao perceived current and potential market, but their desire varieties over others. In this paper, we addressed how to invest in a given species or variety was also based on cacao farmers perceive and manage specific and pest resistance, traditional use, farm diversification varietal Theobroma diversity. We interviewed cacao and taste. Copoazu and CCN cacao varieties are farmers (n = 20) during a seed-exchange fair and produced by many households in large areas, while adapted a version of the four-square analysis to macambo, cacauillo and the cacao varieties TSH and explore which Theobromas are currently adopted by porcelana are produced by few households in small farmers and why. The native cacao variety (cacao areas. Our study suggests that agroforestry systems chuncho) was the one cultivated by most farmers, that include alternative Theobroma species are multi- strata and more diverse than cacao-based systems. It E. Lagneaux F. Andreotti iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, CIRAD, SENS, 34398 Montpellier, France University Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany F. Andreotti E. Lagneaux SENS, CIRAD, IRD, Univ Paul Valery Montpellier 3, Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France Box 430, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands C. M. Neher F. Andreotti (&)  C. M. Neher Knowledge, Technology and Innovation Group, Laboratory of Geo-Information Science and Remote Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Sensing, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands e-mail: federico.andreotti@wur.nl 123 1360 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 highlights the risks of agrobiodiversity loss associated the landscape than conventional AFS (Deheuvels et al. with the promotion of industrial cacao varieties, and 2012; Saj et al. 2017; Andreotti et al. 2018). the importance of seed and seedling access for the In the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, where development of diverse farming systems. We recom- artisanal-scale gold mining has recently caused record mend the expansion of local seed-sharing networks deforestation numbers (Caballero Espejo et al. 2018; and the extension of public cacao-donation campaigns Finer and Mamani 2018a, b), the regional government is to neglected and underutilized Theobromas with promoting agriculture as an alternative sustainable and socio-economic and environmental benefits, in order legal land-use. Several public programs are heavily to make the local farming systems more diverse and investing in crop conversion to shift from regionally resilient. marketed foods towards commodity cash crops, i.e. cacao and copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum)(e.g. Keywords Agrobiodiversity  Neglected and MINAGRI 2019a, b). These policies are already having underutilized species  Seed-exchange  Seed sourcing a visible impact on the farming landscape, since strategies  Cacao genetic diversity  Theobromas between 2010 and 2017, the surface of cultivated rice and corn have decreased respectively by 94 and 83%, while that of cacao has increased by 99% (INEI 2018). While some consider it as a regional ‘‘cacao boom’’, not Introduction all smallholder farmers feel included in the transition towards cacao-based farming systems, an approach that Agroforestry systems (AFS) are multifunctional agroe- was managed top-down. Grass-root farmer organiza- cosystems which provide, along with crop production tions i.e. the Farmer’s Federation of Madre de Dios (van Noordwijk et al. 2016, 2020), a large range of (FADEMAD), who have already lost political power in regulating and supporting ecosystem services such as the last decades (Rojas 2014) feel ignored by regional regulation of local climate, maintenance of soil governments and international development organiza- fertility, carbon storage, and maintenance of genetic tions (pers. comm. with FADEMAD leader, September diversity (Mortimer et al. 2017; Ellison et al. 2017; 20, 2019). In order to develop land-use transition Nelson & Phillips 2018; Andrieu et al. 2019). Appro- policies which are more inclusive of smallholder priate agroforestry management can enhance forest farmers, there needs to be an increased understanding conservation, genetic diversity, food production and of their preferences and of the reasons that lead them to livelihoods (Herrero-Jauregui et al. 2019). Tree diver- prefer one species over another. sity within AFS is essential for the conservation of In this study, we will focus on Theobroma forest-dependent biodiversity and agricultural produc- species—a genus that comprises cacao and copoazu, tion (van Noordwijk et al. 2016; Andreotti et al. 2018). two important cash crops, and different cacao vari- The most studied tropical AFS are coffee-based (e.g. eties. Varieties are a taxonomic rank lower than Cerda et al. 2017; Andreotti et al. 2020) and cacao- species, meaning that they describe groups of organ- based production systems (e.g. Clough et al. 2009; Saj isms sharing similar traits but belonging to the same et al. 2017; Andreotti et al. 2018). Cacao has species. In order to gain new insights into the reasons traditionally been produced within tropical AFS, with that motivate farmers to adopt certain Theobroma cacao trees offering the advantage to be both shade species (TS) and cacao varieties (CV) over others, and tolerant and shade producing trees contributing to thereby to provide the first study on the adoption of maintaining soil fertility and creating a beneficial Theobroma species and varieties in the Peruvian microclimate (Sauvadet al. 2019). However, over the Amazon, we address the following research questions: past decades, the general trend towards shade reduction 1. Which TS and CV are currently adopted by small- and intensification of cacao management has led to holder farmers in the Peruvian Amazon and why? biodiversity losses (Saj et al. 2017). While this is true 2. Why are these TS and CV managed and how are for modern AFS, traditional and more diversified AFS they obtained? continue to exist. They show greater levels of shade, more tree strata and higher tree species richness across 123 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 1361 Materials and methods agroforestry farms established in the Tambopata Province (Pen˜a 2018), the largest and by far most All the data was collected during the 2019 seed fair populous of the three provinces in Madre de Dios. (‘‘Feria de Semillas 2019’’) which took place on the During the interviews, farmers were first asked to 12th of October in Puerto Maldonado. This seed- write down all known TS and CV, including those they exchange fair is the single biggest yearly gathering of do not cultivate. Second, they were asked to locate farmers in the region. During this event, farmers from each of the species and varieties in the 4SqA. The the whole region are invited to bring, sell, buy and 4SqA is a two-dimensional plane where one axis exchange seeds from their farms. Most farmers are represents the number of households who cultivate a former or active members of the AAE (‘‘Asociacion crop species or variety, and the other axis the Agricultura Ecologica’’—Association of Organic approximate combined surface area over which it is Farmers) and almost all are non-mechanized small- grown. Hereafter, the farmers were asked to answer a holders managing a diversity of crops. set of questions with regard to the species and varieties To explore the knowledge and management of crop cultivated on their lands (Box 1). Although we used a diversity amongst the participating farmers, we used structured questionnaire, all comments made by the an adapted version of the four-square analysis (4SqA) farmers were taken into account. which consists of both quantitative and qualitative Participants were asked for their informed consent, components (Grum et al. 2003). While 4SqA usually which all farmers provided. They were informed that relies on a participatory focus-group dynamic, farmers they were free to participate or to stop the interview were interviewed individually. We interviewed 20 whenever wanted and that their right of anonymity farmers, both men and women, as representatives of would be fully respected. Each 4SqA exercise, the household, among the participants to the fair. This together with the interviews, took no longer than number was considered representative of the 150 thirty minutes. Q1. Which crop species/varieties have a high demand on the market? Q2. Which varieties have a low demand on the market? Q3. Which varieties produce a low yield? Q4. Which varieties produce a high yield? Q5. Which varieties do you plant in the shadow of other trees? Q6. Which varieties do you plant in the full sun? Q7. Which varieties are resistant to pests and diseases? Q8. Which varieties are resistant to drought? Q9. Which varieties do you intercrop with other varieties of cacao? Q10. Does this variety have social or cultural value to you? Q11. Which varieties do you use for self-consumption? Q12. Which varieties produce byproducts? Q13. Which varieties would you like to produce (more of) in the future? Box 1 Questionnaire of the 4SqA interviews 123 1362 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 To explore the results of the 4SqA, a Principal different varieties, and 3 other TS: macambo (Theo- Component Analysis (PCA) was performed. PCA broma bicolor), copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum) allowed us to retain patterns, thereby simplifying the and cacauillo (Theobroma speciosum) (Fig. 1). The complexity of the collected data (Lever et al. 2017). most often mentioned cultivated CV was cacao The distance matrix was calculated based on the chuncho, the native cacao variety (11 farmers). questions presented in Box 1. Overall patterns of the Farmers obtained the seeds of TS and CV from most used species and varieties and related questions different organizations, technicians, NGOs and coop- asked during the 4SqA were analyzed. The PCA eratives, or from other farmers (Table 1). Regarding explanatory variables were six different TS and CV, the CV, the first source of seeds and seedlings was namely: VRAE99, CCN51, CCN95, cacao chuncho, farmer outreach programs, whether through local macambo and copoazu; while the illustrative variables NGOs or public institutions. For the TS (macambo, were the 13 questions introduced in Box 1. We omitted cacauillo and copoazu´), seeds and seedlings were from the PCA the lesser used CV and TS (two farmers picked up from the forest or neighboring AFS systems or less), because of the normalization and the few data through seed exchange. The CV that farmers wanted to available for them. The PCA was carried out using R plant more of in the future were VRAE99, VRAE15, 2.13.0 (R Core Team 2013) with the packages mco CCN51, CCN95, cacao chuncho, and porcelana. The (Mersmann 2014) and psych (Revelle 2017). reason that motivated the cultivation of the more intensive CCN varieties, was related to the confidence farmers have gained in producing the varieties Results successfully. For porcelana, this reason was related to a better resistance to pests, and for cacao chuncho, it The 20 cacao producers that we interviewed were was related to traditional use and delicious taste. familiar with the common names of their cultivated TS Regarding TS, farmers were mainly interested in and CV. In total, the farmers mentioned 10 CV investing in macambo and copoazu, due to their (Theobroma cacao), 9 of which were identified as resistance to pests and the perception that these species have a high market potential. Overall, farmers con- sidered these species a better investment for the future than the CV. Only one farmer mentioned cacauillo for its good business potential. We combined the 4SqA interviews within a single figure to represent the overall farmers’ perspectives on the cultivation of the different species and varieties (Fig. 2). The 4SqA highlighted the difference in cultivation of the TS and CV, showing which of those are cultivated on large areas and by many households, i.e. copoazu and CCN51; and those cultivated on small areas by few households, i.e. macambo and cacauillo (Fig. 2). In our PCA, the first and the second axes explained 48.16 and 20.39% of the total variance for the questions asked during the 4SqA interviews. From the PCA results (Fig. 3) we could identify two main clusters. The first cluster is composed of copoazu, macambo and CCN51. CCN51 is well represented by Fig. 1 Representations of the Theobrama species and cacao varieties mentioned by farmers. Each Theobroma species (in the first axis, that is mainly influenced by Q2 (low bold): cacao (Theobroma cacao), copoazu (Theobroma grandi- demand), Q4 (high yield) and Q11 (self-consumption). florum), macambo (Theobroma bicolor) and cacauillo (Theo- It is also the one farmers pointed to as most resistant to broma speciosum) is represented by a sketch of its fruit. Cacao droughts (Q8). Copoazu and macambo were charac- varieties are divided between traditional varieties and hybrids (or clones) terized by farmers as desirable species to be planted 123 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 1363 Table 1 List of Theobroma species (TS) and cacao varieties (CV) mentioned by farmers, along with the source of seeds and seedlings and the reasons mentioned for wanting to cultivate them in the future Common name Scientific Number of Seed sources Reasons mentioned for cultivating the name farmers species/variety in the future Species Variety cultivating it Cacao Cacao Theobroma 11 NGO Caritas, Forest, Traditional, Taste Chuncho cacao neighbor, Seed exchange CCN95 6 Technicians, NGO Caritas, Confident to produce it successfully Forest, Cooperative, VRAE99 8 Technicians, NGO Caritas, Confident to produce it successfully neighbor, Cooperative, CCN51 5 Technicians, NGO Caritas, High yield neighbor, GOREMAD VRAE 15 2 NGO Caritas / TSH 2 Technicians, GOREMAD / Porcelana 2 NGOs, Other farmers Pest resistant Cacao 1 NGOs / Rojo Macambo Theobroma 3 Forest, Seed exchange Pest resistant, Diversification, Good bicolor business Copoazu Theobroma 6 Forest, Brazilian border High nutritional content, grandiflorum (In˜apari), Seed exchange Diversification, Pest resistant, Good business Cacauillo Theobroma 1 Forest Good business speciosa (Q10) and better resistance to pests (Q7). Q6 (full sun) was pointing in the opposite direction to the copoazu and macambo cluster, suggesting a cultivation of those species in the shade. The second cluster is composed of VRAE99, CCN95 and cacao chuncho. All three were associated to low yields (Q3) and a high demand on the market (Q1). Discussion In this study, we identified four Theobroma species (TS) and 9 cacao varieties (CV) managed by small- holder farmers in the Peruvian Amazon. We identified how farmers provided themselves with seeds and seedlings, managed the species and varieties and explored their motivations for cultivating each TS and Fig. 2 Results of the 4SqA representing different Theobroma species (TS) and cacao varieties (CB) on two scales—cultivated CV. area and number of households cultivating the species or variety more in the future (Q13). In addition, they tended to associate it with an increased social and cultural value 123 1364 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 Fig. 3 Results of the PCA Theobroma diversity valued for its flavor and robustness. It is associated to the forastero genetic group (MINAGRI 2019a, b). The CV are usually divided in three generic groups: CCN varieties refer to international hybrids that were criollo, usually valued for its fine aroma; forastero, crossed in Ecuador to produce high yields, but which originally from the Amazon basin, making up most of produce lower quality chocolate. VRAE varieties are the global production because of its higher yield; and forastero clones originating from the Valle del Rı´o trinitario, a hybrid derivative between criollo and Apurımac-Ene in the Peruvian department of Ayacu- forastero (Whitkus et al. 1998). Some varieties are cho (Motamayor et al. 2002). TSH (Trinidad Select hybrids between these different groups. In our study, Hybrids) cacao is a hybrid originally bread in Trinidad most mentioned species were known to regional and Tobago. Porcelana, also called cacao blanco, is a agronomists and mentioned in the Cacao Management criollo variety originating from the department of Plan of Madre de Dios (MINAGRI 2019a, b). This was Piura in Peru, valued for its fine aroma (Quin˜ones et al. not the case for the variety ‘‘VRAE95’’, mentioned by 2018). Cacao Rojo probably refers to an unidentified two farmers, which led us to conclude to a mistake hybrid. The benefits mentioned by the farmers for each related to the confusing acronyms and considered it CV (e.g. yield, pest tolerance, taste) where coherent VRAE99 instead. Cacao chuncho, the variety culti- with the information available about the varieties in vated by most farmers, refers to the native cacao that the literature. This suggests they were well informed grows naturally in the region of Madre de Dios and it is on the topic and that our results are based on expert 123 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 1365 knowledge. The same is true for copoazu, macambo, local government and farmer outreach programs focus and cacauillo, the TS mentioned by farmers. on the donation of few CV, mainly known for their productivity, e.g. CCN51, instead of incentivizing the Theobroma seeds and seedlings cultivation of a variety of Theobromas. This loss of agricultural variety, following the introduction of Seed sources, supply chains and support systems by higher-yielding varieties, was already documented in the government and NGOs were already analyzed in Peru for the case of potatoes cultivation (Brush et al. Peru (Bordie et al. 1997). It was shown that more than 1992). In this case, local varieties such as cacao 65% of the fruit tree species came from smallholder chuncho, with traditional value, could suffer from systems (Bordie et al. 1997). Access to seeds and competition with newly introduced clonal varieties. seedlings can be facilitated during events such as the Indeed, cacao chuncho was the most adopted Theo- seed fair, during which our study took place. This fair broma by the farmers we interviewed, but it was in particular was self-organized and informal, without perceived as cultivated by few households. A local governmental support. Yet, such events are valuable NGO (Caritas) had provided some farmers with tools to establish social networks, which are important seedlings, but government-led donation campaigns drivers for genetic resource and knowledge exchange were not promoting the native variety. (Almekinders et al. 2016). This is particularly true for Theobroma decision-making and management regions such as Madre de Dios, in which farmers live geographically dispersed. Our results showed that the access to seeds and Our results suggest that cacao farmers in Madre de seedlings varied between three groups of Theobromas: Dios mainly choose CV and TS that improve their first the international clones, i.e. CCN and VRAE position on the market. Specifically, they mainly varieties, that were often accessed through technicians choose varieties that have a high demand on the (meaning that they were donated by public institution market (e.g. CCN95, VRAE99, cacao chuncho) or that projects) and by the local government (GOREMAD); they believe to be part of a growing market (e.g. second the native and criollo varieties i.e. cacao copoazu, macambo). Surprisingly, some of the most chuncho and porcelana, that were mainly accessed cultivated varieties were associated to low yields. This through local NGOs and other farmers; and finally the is the case for cacao chuncho, that was also valued for TS, which were only accessed directly from the forest its taste and traditionality. This is consistent with the or through exchange with other farmers. Overall, the species being a high quality but low-yielding cultivar. most popular Theobromas were accessed through a This is also in line with findings from another study multitude of sources, with exchange between farmers using the same methodology (4SqA), in which farmers (neighbors, cooperatives, seed-exchange events) not only chose highly producing banana cultivars, but being an important source. This highlights the impor- also varieties with contrasting favorable characteris- tance of seed and seedling access to the development tics, including taste (Kilwinger et al. 2019). The two of diverse farming systems. more industrial CCN cacao varieties were perceived Increasing the diversity of the local farming very differently: CCN51 was valued for its high yield systems is important for a variety of reasons. Clough and drought resistance, but associated to a low et al. (2009) describe the ‘‘cacao boom and bust’’, in demand, and possibly therefore valued for self- which the increase in cacao production leads to shade consumption instead. CCN95 was associated to low removal and biodiversity loss and eventually to land yields (despite one farmer mentioning high yields as a depletion. This scenario could be avoided by increas- driver for increased cultivation in the future) and to a ing the diversity of Theobromas on smallholders’ high demand on the market. It was also the one out of farms. The promotion of diverse TS and CV with high the two adopted by most farmers. Yet, it is notable that market potential—such as macambo, copoazu and the more industrial varieties, incentivized by public cacao chuncho, would give farmers access to global institutions, were much less often mentioned as and local markets, while maintaining biodiversity and desirable for future investment than TS i.e. macambo fertile soils, thereby avoiding the cacao ‘‘boom and and copoazu, which were valued for their resistance to bust’’ effect. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the pests, high market potential and cultural value. 123 1366 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 With the results from the 4SqA (Fig. 2), we were Madre de Dios, in the Peruvian Amazon, the ‘‘cacao able to highlight TS and CV facing a possible risk of boom’’ is already reaching hundreds of smallholder local erosion (Grum et al. 2003): two TS, macambo farmers who are incentivized to shift their production and cacauillo; and two CV, TSH and Porcelana. In the towards cacao-based systems. This study highlights case of macambo, this is consistent with the species the role of different TS and CV in the management of being a slower maturing fruit tree which needs over the agroecosystem, and the risks associated to the 25 years to thrive (Coomes et al. 2000) and that is promotion of single cacao varieties. Farmers are successful in local communities mainly for domestic currently incentivized by public programs to plant consumption and sales on the local market (Lo´pez more high-yielding cacao varieties, such as CCN51, et al. 2017). The species sustains the farming house- that they perceive as having a low demand on the holds with regional market access and is part of more market and that they are less motivated to plant more diversified agroforestry system, which contrasts with of in the future. In parallel, farmers intend to invest in the CV CCN95, which has an internationally estab- species such as macambo, which are not promoted by lished market, and species like copoazu, believed to local farmer outreach programs, despite their potential have a high market potential. Nevertheless, the to diversify the farming system. Therefore, we mention of macambo as a desirable species for the recommend the extension of public cacao-donation future suggests a limited risk of local erosion, in campaigns to neglected and underutilized TS such as macambo and cacauillo, and native CV such as cacao comparison to cacauillo. Regarding TSH cacao, a variety accessed by farmers through government-led chuncho and porcelana. These varieties have socio- donation campaigns, the perception that it is cultivated economic and environmental benefits to offer, in by few farmers on small areas could mean that it is in addition to being well suited for multi-strata agro- competition with more promoted clones such as CCN forestry systems and perceived as desirable to farmers. varieties. In the case of porcelana cacao, the high- This study also highlights the importance of seed and quality variety that farmers accessed through informal seedling exchange networks for the farmers manage- exchange, its low adoption could suggest an insuffi- ment of a diversity of Theobroma species and cient local production, keeping potential buyers away varieties. Tailored seed supply chains for smallholder and thereby reinforcing the loop of low adoption. farmers have the potential to make the local farming We learned from farmer’s motivations that they systems more diverse, more resilient and less vulner- used different management techniques depending on able to global cacao prices. Finally, we stress the which Theobroma they cultivate. For example, we importance of research focusing on farmers prefer- highlighted that TS such as macambo and copoazu are ences and decision-making, in particular in such not planted in full sunlight. In parallel, farmers rapidly changing contexts, where local agrobiodiver- mentioned in the case of macambo and copoazu, the sity in put in jeopardy. diversification of the farming system as a motivation Acknowledgements This research did not receive any for future cultivation. These results suggest that specific grant from funding agencies in the public, agroforestry systems that include TS are multi-strata commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. We are grateful to all and more diverse than systems based on cacao farmers who participated in this study and to the NGO production only. Yet, this study is one of the first to Asociacion Agricultura Ecologica for organizing the seed- exchange fair in Puerto Maldonado. We also thank Robin Van look at Theobroma-based agroforestry systems, and Loon from the NGO Camino Verde, for his precious suggestions many more questions remain for future research about and expert advices. the potential of adding other Theobroma species to cacao-based agroforestry systems. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Com- mons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any med- ium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the Conclusions original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in In a booming context of cultivar transition, it is easy the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated for public institutions to neglect the long-term impacts otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not of their investments in a single crop. 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Cacao, copoazu and macambo: Exploring Theobroma diversity in smallholder agroforestry systems of the Peruvian Amazon

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Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-021-00610-0(0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Cacao, copoazu and macambo: Exploring Theobroma diversity in smallholder agroforestry systems of the Peruvian Amazon . . Elisabeth Lagneaux Federico Andreotti Charlotte M. Neher Received: 2 January 2020 / Accepted: 6 March 2021 / Published online: 1 April 2021 The Author(s) 2021, corrected publication 2021 Abstract Over the past decades, the general trend followed by the more industrial clonal varieties. The towards shade reduction and intensification of cacao source of seeds and seedlings for the most cultivated management has led to biodiversity losses. In the varieties was a mix of donations by public institutions Peruvian Amazon, the regional government is heavily (for clonal varieties) and informal exchange among promoting crop conversion to shift from regionally farmers (mainly for native and criollo varieties, and marketed foods towards cacao (Theobroma cacao) species i.e. macambo (Theobroma bicolor) and and copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum). While this cacauillo (Theobroma speciosum)). The cacao vari- shift is already visibly impacting the farming land- eties incentivized by public institutions were the least scape and the lives of many smallholder farmers, little desired for future investment. The motivations for is known about the reasons that drive farmers to farmers to plant Theobromas was mainly based on the choose certain types of Theobroma species or cacao perceived current and potential market, but their desire varieties over others. In this paper, we addressed how to invest in a given species or variety was also based on cacao farmers perceive and manage specific and pest resistance, traditional use, farm diversification varietal Theobroma diversity. We interviewed cacao and taste. Copoazu and CCN cacao varieties are farmers (n = 20) during a seed-exchange fair and produced by many households in large areas, while adapted a version of the four-square analysis to macambo, cacauillo and the cacao varieties TSH and explore which Theobromas are currently adopted by porcelana are produced by few households in small farmers and why. The native cacao variety (cacao areas. Our study suggests that agroforestry systems chuncho) was the one cultivated by most farmers, that include alternative Theobroma species are multi- strata and more diverse than cacao-based systems. It E. Lagneaux F. Andreotti iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, CIRAD, SENS, 34398 Montpellier, France University Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany F. Andreotti E. Lagneaux SENS, CIRAD, IRD, Univ Paul Valery Montpellier 3, Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France Box 430, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands C. M. Neher F. Andreotti (&)  C. M. Neher Knowledge, Technology and Innovation Group, Laboratory of Geo-Information Science and Remote Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Sensing, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands e-mail: federico.andreotti@wur.nl 123 1360 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 highlights the risks of agrobiodiversity loss associated the landscape than conventional AFS (Deheuvels et al. with the promotion of industrial cacao varieties, and 2012; Saj et al. 2017; Andreotti et al. 2018). the importance of seed and seedling access for the In the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, where development of diverse farming systems. We recom- artisanal-scale gold mining has recently caused record mend the expansion of local seed-sharing networks deforestation numbers (Caballero Espejo et al. 2018; and the extension of public cacao-donation campaigns Finer and Mamani 2018a, b), the regional government is to neglected and underutilized Theobromas with promoting agriculture as an alternative sustainable and socio-economic and environmental benefits, in order legal land-use. Several public programs are heavily to make the local farming systems more diverse and investing in crop conversion to shift from regionally resilient. marketed foods towards commodity cash crops, i.e. cacao and copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum)(e.g. Keywords Agrobiodiversity  Neglected and MINAGRI 2019a, b). These policies are already having underutilized species  Seed-exchange  Seed sourcing a visible impact on the farming landscape, since strategies  Cacao genetic diversity  Theobromas between 2010 and 2017, the surface of cultivated rice and corn have decreased respectively by 94 and 83%, while that of cacao has increased by 99% (INEI 2018). While some consider it as a regional ‘‘cacao boom’’, not Introduction all smallholder farmers feel included in the transition towards cacao-based farming systems, an approach that Agroforestry systems (AFS) are multifunctional agroe- was managed top-down. Grass-root farmer organiza- cosystems which provide, along with crop production tions i.e. the Farmer’s Federation of Madre de Dios (van Noordwijk et al. 2016, 2020), a large range of (FADEMAD), who have already lost political power in regulating and supporting ecosystem services such as the last decades (Rojas 2014) feel ignored by regional regulation of local climate, maintenance of soil governments and international development organiza- fertility, carbon storage, and maintenance of genetic tions (pers. comm. with FADEMAD leader, September diversity (Mortimer et al. 2017; Ellison et al. 2017; 20, 2019). In order to develop land-use transition Nelson & Phillips 2018; Andrieu et al. 2019). Appro- policies which are more inclusive of smallholder priate agroforestry management can enhance forest farmers, there needs to be an increased understanding conservation, genetic diversity, food production and of their preferences and of the reasons that lead them to livelihoods (Herrero-Jauregui et al. 2019). Tree diver- prefer one species over another. sity within AFS is essential for the conservation of In this study, we will focus on Theobroma forest-dependent biodiversity and agricultural produc- species—a genus that comprises cacao and copoazu, tion (van Noordwijk et al. 2016; Andreotti et al. 2018). two important cash crops, and different cacao vari- The most studied tropical AFS are coffee-based (e.g. eties. Varieties are a taxonomic rank lower than Cerda et al. 2017; Andreotti et al. 2020) and cacao- species, meaning that they describe groups of organ- based production systems (e.g. Clough et al. 2009; Saj isms sharing similar traits but belonging to the same et al. 2017; Andreotti et al. 2018). Cacao has species. In order to gain new insights into the reasons traditionally been produced within tropical AFS, with that motivate farmers to adopt certain Theobroma cacao trees offering the advantage to be both shade species (TS) and cacao varieties (CV) over others, and tolerant and shade producing trees contributing to thereby to provide the first study on the adoption of maintaining soil fertility and creating a beneficial Theobroma species and varieties in the Peruvian microclimate (Sauvadet al. 2019). However, over the Amazon, we address the following research questions: past decades, the general trend towards shade reduction 1. Which TS and CV are currently adopted by small- and intensification of cacao management has led to holder farmers in the Peruvian Amazon and why? biodiversity losses (Saj et al. 2017). While this is true 2. Why are these TS and CV managed and how are for modern AFS, traditional and more diversified AFS they obtained? continue to exist. They show greater levels of shade, more tree strata and higher tree species richness across 123 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 1361 Materials and methods agroforestry farms established in the Tambopata Province (Pen˜a 2018), the largest and by far most All the data was collected during the 2019 seed fair populous of the three provinces in Madre de Dios. (‘‘Feria de Semillas 2019’’) which took place on the During the interviews, farmers were first asked to 12th of October in Puerto Maldonado. This seed- write down all known TS and CV, including those they exchange fair is the single biggest yearly gathering of do not cultivate. Second, they were asked to locate farmers in the region. During this event, farmers from each of the species and varieties in the 4SqA. The the whole region are invited to bring, sell, buy and 4SqA is a two-dimensional plane where one axis exchange seeds from their farms. Most farmers are represents the number of households who cultivate a former or active members of the AAE (‘‘Asociacion crop species or variety, and the other axis the Agricultura Ecologica’’—Association of Organic approximate combined surface area over which it is Farmers) and almost all are non-mechanized small- grown. Hereafter, the farmers were asked to answer a holders managing a diversity of crops. set of questions with regard to the species and varieties To explore the knowledge and management of crop cultivated on their lands (Box 1). Although we used a diversity amongst the participating farmers, we used structured questionnaire, all comments made by the an adapted version of the four-square analysis (4SqA) farmers were taken into account. which consists of both quantitative and qualitative Participants were asked for their informed consent, components (Grum et al. 2003). While 4SqA usually which all farmers provided. They were informed that relies on a participatory focus-group dynamic, farmers they were free to participate or to stop the interview were interviewed individually. We interviewed 20 whenever wanted and that their right of anonymity farmers, both men and women, as representatives of would be fully respected. Each 4SqA exercise, the household, among the participants to the fair. This together with the interviews, took no longer than number was considered representative of the 150 thirty minutes. Q1. Which crop species/varieties have a high demand on the market? Q2. Which varieties have a low demand on the market? Q3. Which varieties produce a low yield? Q4. Which varieties produce a high yield? Q5. Which varieties do you plant in the shadow of other trees? Q6. Which varieties do you plant in the full sun? Q7. Which varieties are resistant to pests and diseases? Q8. Which varieties are resistant to drought? Q9. Which varieties do you intercrop with other varieties of cacao? Q10. Does this variety have social or cultural value to you? Q11. Which varieties do you use for self-consumption? Q12. Which varieties produce byproducts? Q13. Which varieties would you like to produce (more of) in the future? Box 1 Questionnaire of the 4SqA interviews 123 1362 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 To explore the results of the 4SqA, a Principal different varieties, and 3 other TS: macambo (Theo- Component Analysis (PCA) was performed. PCA broma bicolor), copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum) allowed us to retain patterns, thereby simplifying the and cacauillo (Theobroma speciosum) (Fig. 1). The complexity of the collected data (Lever et al. 2017). most often mentioned cultivated CV was cacao The distance matrix was calculated based on the chuncho, the native cacao variety (11 farmers). questions presented in Box 1. Overall patterns of the Farmers obtained the seeds of TS and CV from most used species and varieties and related questions different organizations, technicians, NGOs and coop- asked during the 4SqA were analyzed. The PCA eratives, or from other farmers (Table 1). Regarding explanatory variables were six different TS and CV, the CV, the first source of seeds and seedlings was namely: VRAE99, CCN51, CCN95, cacao chuncho, farmer outreach programs, whether through local macambo and copoazu; while the illustrative variables NGOs or public institutions. For the TS (macambo, were the 13 questions introduced in Box 1. We omitted cacauillo and copoazu´), seeds and seedlings were from the PCA the lesser used CV and TS (two farmers picked up from the forest or neighboring AFS systems or less), because of the normalization and the few data through seed exchange. The CV that farmers wanted to available for them. The PCA was carried out using R plant more of in the future were VRAE99, VRAE15, 2.13.0 (R Core Team 2013) with the packages mco CCN51, CCN95, cacao chuncho, and porcelana. The (Mersmann 2014) and psych (Revelle 2017). reason that motivated the cultivation of the more intensive CCN varieties, was related to the confidence farmers have gained in producing the varieties Results successfully. For porcelana, this reason was related to a better resistance to pests, and for cacao chuncho, it The 20 cacao producers that we interviewed were was related to traditional use and delicious taste. familiar with the common names of their cultivated TS Regarding TS, farmers were mainly interested in and CV. In total, the farmers mentioned 10 CV investing in macambo and copoazu, due to their (Theobroma cacao), 9 of which were identified as resistance to pests and the perception that these species have a high market potential. Overall, farmers con- sidered these species a better investment for the future than the CV. Only one farmer mentioned cacauillo for its good business potential. We combined the 4SqA interviews within a single figure to represent the overall farmers’ perspectives on the cultivation of the different species and varieties (Fig. 2). The 4SqA highlighted the difference in cultivation of the TS and CV, showing which of those are cultivated on large areas and by many households, i.e. copoazu and CCN51; and those cultivated on small areas by few households, i.e. macambo and cacauillo (Fig. 2). In our PCA, the first and the second axes explained 48.16 and 20.39% of the total variance for the questions asked during the 4SqA interviews. From the PCA results (Fig. 3) we could identify two main clusters. The first cluster is composed of copoazu, macambo and CCN51. CCN51 is well represented by Fig. 1 Representations of the Theobrama species and cacao varieties mentioned by farmers. Each Theobroma species (in the first axis, that is mainly influenced by Q2 (low bold): cacao (Theobroma cacao), copoazu (Theobroma grandi- demand), Q4 (high yield) and Q11 (self-consumption). florum), macambo (Theobroma bicolor) and cacauillo (Theo- It is also the one farmers pointed to as most resistant to broma speciosum) is represented by a sketch of its fruit. Cacao droughts (Q8). Copoazu and macambo were charac- varieties are divided between traditional varieties and hybrids (or clones) terized by farmers as desirable species to be planted 123 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 1363 Table 1 List of Theobroma species (TS) and cacao varieties (CV) mentioned by farmers, along with the source of seeds and seedlings and the reasons mentioned for wanting to cultivate them in the future Common name Scientific Number of Seed sources Reasons mentioned for cultivating the name farmers species/variety in the future Species Variety cultivating it Cacao Cacao Theobroma 11 NGO Caritas, Forest, Traditional, Taste Chuncho cacao neighbor, Seed exchange CCN95 6 Technicians, NGO Caritas, Confident to produce it successfully Forest, Cooperative, VRAE99 8 Technicians, NGO Caritas, Confident to produce it successfully neighbor, Cooperative, CCN51 5 Technicians, NGO Caritas, High yield neighbor, GOREMAD VRAE 15 2 NGO Caritas / TSH 2 Technicians, GOREMAD / Porcelana 2 NGOs, Other farmers Pest resistant Cacao 1 NGOs / Rojo Macambo Theobroma 3 Forest, Seed exchange Pest resistant, Diversification, Good bicolor business Copoazu Theobroma 6 Forest, Brazilian border High nutritional content, grandiflorum (In˜apari), Seed exchange Diversification, Pest resistant, Good business Cacauillo Theobroma 1 Forest Good business speciosa (Q10) and better resistance to pests (Q7). Q6 (full sun) was pointing in the opposite direction to the copoazu and macambo cluster, suggesting a cultivation of those species in the shade. The second cluster is composed of VRAE99, CCN95 and cacao chuncho. All three were associated to low yields (Q3) and a high demand on the market (Q1). Discussion In this study, we identified four Theobroma species (TS) and 9 cacao varieties (CV) managed by small- holder farmers in the Peruvian Amazon. We identified how farmers provided themselves with seeds and seedlings, managed the species and varieties and explored their motivations for cultivating each TS and Fig. 2 Results of the 4SqA representing different Theobroma species (TS) and cacao varieties (CB) on two scales—cultivated CV. area and number of households cultivating the species or variety more in the future (Q13). In addition, they tended to associate it with an increased social and cultural value 123 1364 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 Fig. 3 Results of the PCA Theobroma diversity valued for its flavor and robustness. It is associated to the forastero genetic group (MINAGRI 2019a, b). The CV are usually divided in three generic groups: CCN varieties refer to international hybrids that were criollo, usually valued for its fine aroma; forastero, crossed in Ecuador to produce high yields, but which originally from the Amazon basin, making up most of produce lower quality chocolate. VRAE varieties are the global production because of its higher yield; and forastero clones originating from the Valle del Rı´o trinitario, a hybrid derivative between criollo and Apurımac-Ene in the Peruvian department of Ayacu- forastero (Whitkus et al. 1998). Some varieties are cho (Motamayor et al. 2002). TSH (Trinidad Select hybrids between these different groups. In our study, Hybrids) cacao is a hybrid originally bread in Trinidad most mentioned species were known to regional and Tobago. Porcelana, also called cacao blanco, is a agronomists and mentioned in the Cacao Management criollo variety originating from the department of Plan of Madre de Dios (MINAGRI 2019a, b). This was Piura in Peru, valued for its fine aroma (Quin˜ones et al. not the case for the variety ‘‘VRAE95’’, mentioned by 2018). Cacao Rojo probably refers to an unidentified two farmers, which led us to conclude to a mistake hybrid. The benefits mentioned by the farmers for each related to the confusing acronyms and considered it CV (e.g. yield, pest tolerance, taste) where coherent VRAE99 instead. Cacao chuncho, the variety culti- with the information available about the varieties in vated by most farmers, refers to the native cacao that the literature. This suggests they were well informed grows naturally in the region of Madre de Dios and it is on the topic and that our results are based on expert 123 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 1365 knowledge. The same is true for copoazu, macambo, local government and farmer outreach programs focus and cacauillo, the TS mentioned by farmers. on the donation of few CV, mainly known for their productivity, e.g. CCN51, instead of incentivizing the Theobroma seeds and seedlings cultivation of a variety of Theobromas. This loss of agricultural variety, following the introduction of Seed sources, supply chains and support systems by higher-yielding varieties, was already documented in the government and NGOs were already analyzed in Peru for the case of potatoes cultivation (Brush et al. Peru (Bordie et al. 1997). It was shown that more than 1992). In this case, local varieties such as cacao 65% of the fruit tree species came from smallholder chuncho, with traditional value, could suffer from systems (Bordie et al. 1997). Access to seeds and competition with newly introduced clonal varieties. seedlings can be facilitated during events such as the Indeed, cacao chuncho was the most adopted Theo- seed fair, during which our study took place. This fair broma by the farmers we interviewed, but it was in particular was self-organized and informal, without perceived as cultivated by few households. A local governmental support. Yet, such events are valuable NGO (Caritas) had provided some farmers with tools to establish social networks, which are important seedlings, but government-led donation campaigns drivers for genetic resource and knowledge exchange were not promoting the native variety. (Almekinders et al. 2016). This is particularly true for Theobroma decision-making and management regions such as Madre de Dios, in which farmers live geographically dispersed. Our results showed that the access to seeds and Our results suggest that cacao farmers in Madre de seedlings varied between three groups of Theobromas: Dios mainly choose CV and TS that improve their first the international clones, i.e. CCN and VRAE position on the market. Specifically, they mainly varieties, that were often accessed through technicians choose varieties that have a high demand on the (meaning that they were donated by public institution market (e.g. CCN95, VRAE99, cacao chuncho) or that projects) and by the local government (GOREMAD); they believe to be part of a growing market (e.g. second the native and criollo varieties i.e. cacao copoazu, macambo). Surprisingly, some of the most chuncho and porcelana, that were mainly accessed cultivated varieties were associated to low yields. This through local NGOs and other farmers; and finally the is the case for cacao chuncho, that was also valued for TS, which were only accessed directly from the forest its taste and traditionality. This is consistent with the or through exchange with other farmers. Overall, the species being a high quality but low-yielding cultivar. most popular Theobromas were accessed through a This is also in line with findings from another study multitude of sources, with exchange between farmers using the same methodology (4SqA), in which farmers (neighbors, cooperatives, seed-exchange events) not only chose highly producing banana cultivars, but being an important source. This highlights the impor- also varieties with contrasting favorable characteris- tance of seed and seedling access to the development tics, including taste (Kilwinger et al. 2019). The two of diverse farming systems. more industrial CCN cacao varieties were perceived Increasing the diversity of the local farming very differently: CCN51 was valued for its high yield systems is important for a variety of reasons. Clough and drought resistance, but associated to a low et al. (2009) describe the ‘‘cacao boom and bust’’, in demand, and possibly therefore valued for self- which the increase in cacao production leads to shade consumption instead. CCN95 was associated to low removal and biodiversity loss and eventually to land yields (despite one farmer mentioning high yields as a depletion. This scenario could be avoided by increas- driver for increased cultivation in the future) and to a ing the diversity of Theobromas on smallholders’ high demand on the market. It was also the one out of farms. The promotion of diverse TS and CV with high the two adopted by most farmers. Yet, it is notable that market potential—such as macambo, copoazu and the more industrial varieties, incentivized by public cacao chuncho, would give farmers access to global institutions, were much less often mentioned as and local markets, while maintaining biodiversity and desirable for future investment than TS i.e. macambo fertile soils, thereby avoiding the cacao ‘‘boom and and copoazu, which were valued for their resistance to bust’’ effect. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the pests, high market potential and cultural value. 123 1366 Agroforest Syst (2021) 95:1359–1368 With the results from the 4SqA (Fig. 2), we were Madre de Dios, in the Peruvian Amazon, the ‘‘cacao able to highlight TS and CV facing a possible risk of boom’’ is already reaching hundreds of smallholder local erosion (Grum et al. 2003): two TS, macambo farmers who are incentivized to shift their production and cacauillo; and two CV, TSH and Porcelana. In the towards cacao-based systems. This study highlights case of macambo, this is consistent with the species the role of different TS and CV in the management of being a slower maturing fruit tree which needs over the agroecosystem, and the risks associated to the 25 years to thrive (Coomes et al. 2000) and that is promotion of single cacao varieties. Farmers are successful in local communities mainly for domestic currently incentivized by public programs to plant consumption and sales on the local market (Lo´pez more high-yielding cacao varieties, such as CCN51, et al. 2017). The species sustains the farming house- that they perceive as having a low demand on the holds with regional market access and is part of more market and that they are less motivated to plant more diversified agroforestry system, which contrasts with of in the future. In parallel, farmers intend to invest in the CV CCN95, which has an internationally estab- species such as macambo, which are not promoted by lished market, and species like copoazu, believed to local farmer outreach programs, despite their potential have a high market potential. Nevertheless, the to diversify the farming system. Therefore, we mention of macambo as a desirable species for the recommend the extension of public cacao-donation future suggests a limited risk of local erosion, in campaigns to neglected and underutilized TS such as macambo and cacauillo, and native CV such as cacao comparison to cacauillo. Regarding TSH cacao, a variety accessed by farmers through government-led chuncho and porcelana. These varieties have socio- donation campaigns, the perception that it is cultivated economic and environmental benefits to offer, in by few farmers on small areas could mean that it is in addition to being well suited for multi-strata agro- competition with more promoted clones such as CCN forestry systems and perceived as desirable to farmers. varieties. In the case of porcelana cacao, the high- This study also highlights the importance of seed and quality variety that farmers accessed through informal seedling exchange networks for the farmers manage- exchange, its low adoption could suggest an insuffi- ment of a diversity of Theobroma species and cient local production, keeping potential buyers away varieties. Tailored seed supply chains for smallholder and thereby reinforcing the loop of low adoption. farmers have the potential to make the local farming We learned from farmer’s motivations that they systems more diverse, more resilient and less vulner- used different management techniques depending on able to global cacao prices. Finally, we stress the which Theobroma they cultivate. For example, we importance of research focusing on farmers prefer- highlighted that TS such as macambo and copoazu are ences and decision-making, in particular in such not planted in full sunlight. In parallel, farmers rapidly changing contexts, where local agrobiodiver- mentioned in the case of macambo and copoazu, the sity in put in jeopardy. diversification of the farming system as a motivation Acknowledgements This research did not receive any for future cultivation. These results suggest that specific grant from funding agencies in the public, agroforestry systems that include TS are multi-strata commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. We are grateful to all and more diverse than systems based on cacao farmers who participated in this study and to the NGO production only. Yet, this study is one of the first to Asociacion Agricultura Ecologica for organizing the seed- exchange fair in Puerto Maldonado. We also thank Robin Van look at Theobroma-based agroforestry systems, and Loon from the NGO Camino Verde, for his precious suggestions many more questions remain for future research about and expert advices. the potential of adding other Theobroma species to cacao-based agroforestry systems. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Com- mons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any med- ium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the Conclusions original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in In a booming context of cultivar transition, it is easy the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated for public institutions to neglect the long-term impacts otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not of their investments in a single crop. 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Journal

Agroforestry Systems – Springer Journals

Published: Oct 1, 2021

Keywords: Agrobiodiversity; Neglected and underutilized species; Seed-exchange; Seed sourcing strategies; Cacao genetic diversity; Theobromas

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