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Affordable dye sensitizer by waste

Affordable dye sensitizer by waste Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 DOI 10.1007/s40243-017-0101-9 ORIGINAL PAPER 1 1 1 • • • Harsasi Setyawati Handoko Darmokoesoemo Faidur Rochman Ahmadi Jaya Permana Received: 22 October 2016 / Accepted: 27 August 2017 The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication Abstract The development of dye sensitizer is growing in released into the environment and causing environmental line with the increasing demand for renewable energy. A pollution [1]. In addition to substances of high color, batik research to obtain a dye sensitizer that is economical, safe, and textile industry waste contain synthetic ingredients and produces a great value of DSSC efficiency is a chal- poorly soluble or hard to decompose. Coloring process in lenge unresolved. On the other hand, the efforts for waste batik will produce cloudy and dark liquid waste. Usually reduction are also intensively conducted to create better the color of liquid waste depends on the dye used [2]. environment. In this paper, the variation of synthetic dye Actually, dye compounds in aquatic environments can wastes from batik industries have been successfully applied decompose naturally by the presence of sunlight. However, as dye sensitizer and fabricated on DSSC cells. Congo red the reaction is relatively slow because the intensity of UV (1.0133%) yielded higher efficiency than rhodamine B light reaching the earth surface is relatively low. In addi- (0.0126%), methyl orange (0.7560%), and naphthol blue tion, the energy needs of the world prompted many black (0.0083%). The divergence of the efficiency of DSSC researchers to pursue alternative renewable energy such as is very dependent upon the chromophore group owned by DSSC. DSSC is promising renewable energy resource dye. This study has proven that the more chromophore because of zero waste, low cost and eco-friendly [3–5]. group possessed by dye, the higher the efficiency of DSSC DSSC is a solar cell that utilizes a sensitized dye to harvest generated. This research concludes that the dye wastes sunlight [6]. The dye plays important role to harvest solar have a bright future to be implemented as dye sensitizer on energy and convert it to electrical energy [7, 8]. The effort solar cells. to combine the dye wastes as a dye sensitizer on DSSC is a novel solution to overcome the problem of waste and Keywords Affordable  Batik waste  Dye sensitizer  energy at once. In this research, dye wastes from batik DSSC  Chromophore home industries in Indonesia (congo red, rhodamine B, methyl orange, naphthol blue black) are applied as dye sensitizer on DSSC. Thin layer titanium dioxide is used as Introduction semiconductor and prepared in various synthesis methods. KI is used as electrolyte and graphite as counter electrode. Batik industries in Indonesia are great contributors of liq- FTO glass is used in the body of DSSC cell. uid waste originating from the dyeing process. During the production process, about 10–15% of the dye will be Experimental & Harsasi Setyawati All chemicals were purchased from commercial sources harsasi85@gmail.com (Sigma Aldrich) except liquid dye wastes which were collected from batik home industries in Indonesia. The dye Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and wastes were rhodamine B, congo red, methyl orange, and Technology, Airlangga University, 60115 Surabaya, naphthol blue black. Materials for preparation of DSSC Indonesia 123 17 Page 2 of 6 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 Table 1 The maximum wavelength of dye wastes matched with color theory [12] Dye k max (nm) Absorbed color Complementary color Rhodamine B 554 Green Red Congo red 498 Green Red Methyl orange 464 Blue Orange Naphthol blue black 619 Orange Blue were titanium(IV) isopropoxide(Ti(OC H ) ) (TTIP), Preparation of counter electrode 3 7 4 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl) phenylpolyethylene glycol (Triton X-100), iodine (I ), potassium iodide (KI), ethanol The counter electrode was prepared by coating the con- (CH CH OH), hydrochloric acid (HCl), ether and acetic ductive side of FTO glass with carbon from a graphite 2 3 acid (CH COOH). Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) (10 X, pencil until evenly distributed. Then, FTO glasses were 25 9 25 9 3.2 mm) was used as the conductive glass plate heated at 450 C for 30 min and then washed and dried. and purchased from Latech scientific supply Pte. Ltd Sin- Graphite was chosen as a counter electrode because less gapore. The top and the left of FTO glass was isolated by costly and easily prepared. adhesive tape about 0.5 cm for the clamp side and to control the thickness of the coating of TiO . Graphite was used as a counter electrode. Fabrication of DSSC cells Before the working electrode and counter electrode were Preparation of semiconductor assembled, the electrolyte solution was prepared by dis- solving the iodium (I ) into potassium iodide (KI) solution In this study, synthesis of semiconductor (titanium dioxide) until formed KI . The DSSC cells were assembled by was done by two techniques. First, thin film of titanium sandwiched working electrode and counter electrodes, dioxide was prepared using surfactants triton X-100 by sol– respectively, and then sealed with crocodile clips. gel method. Second, thin film of titanium dioxide was prepared without surfactants triton X-100 by sol–gel method. First technique, 5 mL of triton X-100 was added Characterizations into acetic acid and transferred into a 225 mL ethanol while being stirred for 3 min. Then 15 mL TTIP was added The maximum wavelength of each synthetic dye was mea- to 1 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the solution. sured using UV–VIS Shimadzu 1800. The functional groups The mixture was stirred for 2 h to form a sol [9]. In the and infrared spectra were recorded using Jasco FTIR 5300. second technique, 15 mL TTIP in 1 mL of concentrated The electrical conductivity of dye was analyzed using hydrochloric acid in the solution was stirred for 2 h to form a sol. Preparation of working electrode First, the FTO glasses were washed with deionized water and then dried at 80 C for 10 min. The conductive side of the FTO glass was covered on two edges with adhesive tape to control the thickness of TiO film. Subsequently, the FTO glass was coated with TiO sol 3 times. Then each FTO glass was dried at 80 C for 10 min. In the last coating, FTO glasses were calcined at 450 C for 2 h and then cooling down in ambient temperature [10]. The electrode was immersed in the each solution of dye -1 (0.1 mmol L ) for 24 h at room temperature and then dried [11]. The dyes were congo red, rhodamine B, methyl orange and naphthol blue black. Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of dye wastes 123 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 Page 3 of 6 17 Table 2 The functional groups of dye wastes and the wavenumber Methyl orange Congo red Naphthol blue black Rhodamine Functional Wave number Functional Wavenumber Functional Wavenumber Functional Wavenumber -1 -1 -1 -1 groups (cm ) groups (cm ) groups (cm ) groups (cm ) C=C aromatic 1604.77 [13] C=C aromatic 1612 [14] C=C aromatic 1573.91 [15] C=C aromatic 1589.34 [13] - - - RSO 1118.71 [13] RSO 1149.28 [14] RSO 1141.86 [16] C–H aromatic 925.83 [13] 3 3 3 N=N 1365.60 [13] N=N 1458.15 [14] N=N 1419.61 [17] Cl– 794.67 [18] NH 3448.72 [14]NH 3749.62 [17] C=N 1342.46 [13] 2 2 C–S 594.08 [14]NO 1489.05 [17] –CH3 1411.89 [13] O–H 3441.01 [19] C=O 1697.36 [13] O–H 3425.58 [13] Napthol blue black Congo red Rhodamine B Methyl orange Fig. 2 Structure of dye wastes Table 3 Theoretical calculation of the amount of chromophore Compound Chromophore C=O N=N S=O Benzene Total Methyl orange 0 1 2 2 5 Congo red 0 2 4 6 12 Naphthol blue black 0 2 4 4 10 Rhodamine 1 0 0 3 4 EUTECH conductometer. The crystallinity and phase analysis Results and discussion of two kinds of thin film titanium dioxide was characterized using X’pert PRO Diffractometer. Photovoltaic performance This research successfully developed a novel dye sensitizer of DSSC cells for each dye sensitizer was measured by mea- from dye wastes. Liquid dye wastes used are rhodamine B, suring current density–voltage curves under solar irradiation congo red, methyl orange and naphthol blue black obtained in real condition (outdoor) as long as 5 days. The voltage and from batik industries. At batik home industries, dyeing current density of the cell were measured with multimeter process is generally done manually by immersion of fabric Dekko using potentiometer circuit while intensity of light was into the dye in large vat. Each vat containing a particular measured with Light Meter Krisbow KW06-288. dye. Liquid dye wastes in the study came from the vat dye 123 17 Page 4 of 6 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 energy range is so wide that allows many levels of energy to be absorbed by the dyes [11]. Figure 1 shows the fourier transform infrared spectra of rhodamine B, congo red, methyl orange and naphthol blue black. The spectra have been recorded using Jasco FTIR -1 5300 in the wave number range 500–4000 cm . Each dye has specific functional group and is tabulated in Table 2. Table 2 shows that each dye has chromophore group in their structure which is able to support their performance as dye sensitizer on DSSC. Chromophore is the part of molecule that is sensitive to light [20, 21]. The chro- mophore owned by dye will increase the dye’s ability for capturing the photon from sunlight so the amount of photon used to generate a cycle of electrons in DSSC cells will increase. This process will generate a continuous electrical Fig. 3 XRD pattern of thin layer titanium dioxide as semiconductor current. The number of chromophore groups highly influ- on DSSC ences the ability of dye on capturing photon of solar light. The more of chromophore groups the more photons absorbed. Thus, the current produced will be higher. Description of the structure and the amount of dye chro- mophore are presented in Fig. 2 and Table 3. Characteristic of thin layer TiO as semiconductor on DSSC Figure 3 shows the result of semiconductor characteriza- tion using XRD X’pert PRO Diffractometer. In this work, preparation of thin film titanium dioxide was varied by adding surfactants and without surfactants. The result shows that the patterns of thin film titanium dioxide by adding and without surfactants is similar and refers to the structure of TiO anatase according the database JCPDS 84-1286. If we see the intensity, thin film with surfactants is different from that without surfactants. It means that surfactants that added contributed to form structure in film Fig. 4 FTIR spectra of the interaction bonding of TiO -dye wastes 2 layer titanium dioxide [22, 23]. In DSSC, dye sensitizer was attached to the semicon- ductor. Therefore, the interaction of TiO and dye was that can be ascertained dye waste is not mixed with each characterized using FTIR to determine the bonding of TiO other. and dye. Figure 4 shows that the interaction of TiO and dye was chemical interaction of Ti and O from dye formed -1 Ti–O bonding at 400–500 cm [18]. This interaction Characteristic of dye wastes highly supports the flow of electron transfer from dye to the semiconductor [7, 8]. Characterizations of dyes have been done to determine the characteristics of each dye that support their dye sensitizer performance. The result of measurement spectrophotome- Photovoltaic performance ter UV–VIS is shown in Table 1. All of dyes show the maximum wavelength in the 400–600 nm range as the The performance of dye wastes as dye sensitizer is shown absorbed color is blue-orange. This result indicates that in Fig. 5 and Table 4. The current density–voltage (J-V) each dye can absorb the visible light from solar light. These curve of dye wastes are shown in Fig. 5. Table 4 shows properties are very advantageous because the visible that congo red yielded the highest efficiency (1.9%) among 123 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 Page 5 of 6 17 Fig. 5 J-V characteristic curve of dye wastes on DSSC Table 4 The photovoltaic parameters of the DSSC cells -2 -2 -2 Dye J (mAcm ) V (V) Jmax (mAcm ) Vmax (V) P Lux (W m )FF g (%) Sc oc Congo red 3.130 0.18 3 0.167 49.44 0.8892 1.0133 Rhodamine B 0.010 1 0.00625 1 49.44 0.6250 0.0126 Methyl orange 3 0.15 2.67 0.14 49.44 0.8306 0.7560 Naphthol blue black 0.024 0.218 0.019 0.216 49.44 0.7844 0.0083 Area of DSSC cells: 4 cm dyes because congo red has the highest number of chro- DSSC sensitized by other synthetics dyes or natural dyes. mophore group, i.e., benzene rings, azo (N=N), and sul- Synthetics dyes from hydrazonoyl and their derivatives foxide (S=O). This result indicates that congo red has the reported obtain the efficiency of DSSC of 0.00009–0.003% best ability in capturing photon from solar energy because [24]. Natural dyes from five plants Amaranthus caudatus, of the supporting of their chromophore group. The highest Bougainvillea spectabilis, Delonix regia, Nerium oleander efficiency means that the most photon of solar energy can and Spathodea campanulata obtained the highest efficiency be absorbed by dye sensitizer [10, 20, 21]. of DSSC reached 0.610% from Amaranthus caudatus [25]. Table 4 shows that dye wastes generate diverse effi- Natural dyes from beet, red cabbage, strawberry, spinach, ciency of DSSC value; the efficiency of DSSC reached is mallow, and henna extract obtained the highest efficiency of 1.0133%. This value is considerably higher than those of the 0.229% [26]. Chlorophyll and xanthophyll from 123 17 Page 6 of 6 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 9. Fagnern, N., Letphayakkarat, R., Chawengkijwanich, C., Glee- Cladophora sp. reported obtained the highest efficiency of som, M.P., Koonsaeng, N., Sanguanruang, S.: Effect of titanium- 0.08% [27]. This result indicates that dye waste was tetraisopropoxide concentration on the photocatalytic efficiency potentially applied as dye sensitizer on DSSC. of textile dyes. J. Phys. Chem. Solid 73, 1483–1486 (2012) 10. Setyawati, H., Darmokoesoemo, H., Hamami, H., Rochman, F., Permana, A.J.: Promising dye sensitizer on solar cell from complexes of metal and rhodamine B. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. Conclusion 5(3), 694–698 (2015) 11. Setyawati, H., Purwaningsih, A., Darmokoesoemo, H., Hamami, In this work, DSSC were assembled using four dye wastes H., Rochman, F., Permana, A., P: Potential complex of rho- damine B and copper (II) for dye sensitizer on solar cell. In: from batik industries in Indonesia as dye sensitizer. Congo ICOWOBAS 2015, Indonesia, pp. 070004-1–070004-6. AIP red has been proven to yield the highest efficiency among Publishing, New York (2016) the dye wastes, i.e., 1.0133%. This is because congo red 12. Denny, R., Sinclair, R.: Visible and Ultraviolet Spectroscopy, has the most of chromophore group than the other dyes. Analytical Chemistry by Open Learning. Wiley, New York (1987) 13. Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., Kriz, G.S., Vyvyan, J.A.: Intro- This study proves that the chromophore group greatly duction to Spectroscopy. Cengage Learning, Boston (2008) contributes to improving the efficiency of DSSC. 14. Pretsch, E., Clerc, T., Seibl, J., Simon, W.: Tables of Determination of Organic Compounds. 13C NMR, 1H NMR, IR, MS, UV/Vis, Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the finan- Chemical Laboratory Practice. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1989) cial support provided by the research Grant ‘‘Hibah Dosen Muda’’ 15. Farhadyar, N., Rahimi, A., Ershad Langroudi, A.: Synthesis and sponsored by Faculty of Science and Technology, Airlangga characterization of inorganic-organic hybrid produced from University and Penelitian Unggulan Perguruan Tinggi (PUPT) spon- tetraethoxysilane and epoxy-aromatic amine. In: IUPAC World sored by Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education Polymer Congress Macro, pp. 2 (2004) (RISTEKDIKTI) and also Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sci- 16. Pretsch, E., Clerc, T., Seibl, J., Simon, W.: Tables of Spectral ence and Technology, Airlangga University Surabaya, Indonesia for Data for Structure Determination of Organic Compounds. support the facilities. Springer Science and Business Media, Berlin (2013) 17. Yuen, C., Ku, S., Choi, P., Kan, C., Tsang, S.: Determining Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the functional groups of commercially available ink-jet printing Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// reactive dyes using infrared spectroscopy. Res. J. Text. Appar. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted 9(2), 26–38 (2005) use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give 18. Nakamoto, K.: Infrared and raman spectra of inorganic and coor- appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a dination compounds. In: Handbook of Vibrational Spectroscopy. link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were Wiley, New York (2006). doi:10.1002/0470027320.s4104 made. 19. Duygu, D.Y., Udoh, A.U., Ozer, T.B., Akbulut, A., Erkaya, I.A., Yildiz, K., Guler, D.: Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spec- troscopy for identification of Chlorella vulgaris Beijerinck 1890 and Scenedesmus obliquus (Turpin) Ku¨tzing 1833. Afr. References J. Biotech. 11(16), 3817–3824 (2012) 20. Qin, P., Wiberg, J., Gibson, E.A., Linder, M., Li, L., Brinck, T., Hagfeldt, A., Albinsson, B., Sun, L.: Synthesis and mechanistic studies 1. Amaliasani, R.: Pengolahan Limbah Batik Dengan Menggunakan of organic chromophores with different energy levels for p-type dye- Metode Elektrolisis Dengan Anoda dan Katoda Platinum (Pt). sensitized solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 114(10), 4738–4748 (2010) Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta (2013) 21. Zhang, G., Bala, H., Cheng, Y., Shi, D., Lv, X., Yu, Q., Wang, P.: 2. Suprihatin, H.: Kandungan Organik Limbah Cair Industri Batik High efficiency and stable dye-sensitized solar cells with an Jetis Sidoarjo dan Alternatif Pengolahannya Pusat Penelitian organic chromophore featuring a binary p-conjugated spacer. Lingkungan Hidup Universitas Riau (2014) Chem. Commun. 16, 2198–2200 (2009) 3. Giribabu, L., Sudhakar, K., Velkannan, V.: Phthalocyanines: ˇ ˇ 22. Cernigoj, U., Stangar, U.L., Trebsˇe, P., Krasˇovec, U.O., Gross, S.: potential alternative sensitizers to Ru (II) polypyridyl complexes Photocatalytically active TiO thin films produced by surfactant-as- for dye-sensitized solar cells. Curr. Sci. 102(7), 991–1000 (2012) 2 sisted sol–gel processing. Thin Solid Films 495(1), 327–332 (2006) 4. Baldenebro-Lopez, J., Flores-Holguin, N., Castorena-Gonzalez, J., 23. Inoue, M., Hirasawa, I.: The relationship between crystal mor- Glossman-Mitnik, D.: Molecular design of copper complexes as phology and XRD peak intensity on CaSO 2H O. J. Cryst. sensitizers for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Photochem. 4 2 Growth 380, 169–175 (2013) Photobiol. A 267, 1–5 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2013.06.005 24. Abdel-Latif, M.S., Batniji, A., El-Agez, T.M., Younis, M.J., 5. Bignozzi, C., Argazzi, R., Boaretto, R., Busatto, E., Carli, S., Ghamri, H., Thaher, B.A.A., Qeshta, B.S., Abu-Awwad, F.M., Ronconi, F., Caramori, S.: The role of transition metal complexes Taya, S.A.: Dye sensitized solar cells based on hydrazonoyl in dye sensitized solar devices. Coord. Chem. Rev. 257(9), synthetic dyes. J. Nano Electron. Phys. 8(4), 4038 (2016) 1472–1492 (2013) 25. Godibo, D.J., Anshebo, S.T., Anshebo, T.Y.: Dye sensitized solar 6. Gra¨tzel, M.: Dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Photochem. Photobiol. cells using natural pigments from five plants and quasi-solid state C 4(2), 145–153 (2003) electrolyte. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 26(1), 92–101 (2015) 7. Alhamed, M., Issa, A.S., Doubal, A.W.: Studying of natural dyes 26. Torchani, A., Saadaoui, S., Gharbi, R., Fathallah, M.: Sensitized solar properties as photo-sensitizer for dye sensitized solar cells cells based on natural dyes. Curr. Appl. Phys. 15(3), 307–312 (2015) (DSSC). J. Electron Devices 16(11), 1370–1383 (2012) 27. Lim, A., Haji Manaf, N., Tennakoon, K., Chandrakanthi, R., Lim, 8. Tennakone, K., Kumara, G., Kumarasinghe, A., Sirimanne, P., L.B.L., Bandara, J., Ekanayake, P.: Higher performance of DSSC Wijayantha, K.: Efficient photosensitization of nanocrystalline with dyes from Cladophora sp. as mixed cosensitizer through TiO films by tannins and related phenolic substances. J. Pho- synergistic effect. J. Biophys. (2015). doi:10.1155/2015/510467 tochem. Photobiol. A 94(2), 217–220 (1996) http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Springer Journals

Affordable dye sensitizer by waste

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Materials Science; Materials Science, general; Renewable and Green Energy; Renewable and Green Energy
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Abstract

Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 DOI 10.1007/s40243-017-0101-9 ORIGINAL PAPER 1 1 1 • • • Harsasi Setyawati Handoko Darmokoesoemo Faidur Rochman Ahmadi Jaya Permana Received: 22 October 2016 / Accepted: 27 August 2017 The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication Abstract The development of dye sensitizer is growing in released into the environment and causing environmental line with the increasing demand for renewable energy. A pollution [1]. In addition to substances of high color, batik research to obtain a dye sensitizer that is economical, safe, and textile industry waste contain synthetic ingredients and produces a great value of DSSC efficiency is a chal- poorly soluble or hard to decompose. Coloring process in lenge unresolved. On the other hand, the efforts for waste batik will produce cloudy and dark liquid waste. Usually reduction are also intensively conducted to create better the color of liquid waste depends on the dye used [2]. environment. In this paper, the variation of synthetic dye Actually, dye compounds in aquatic environments can wastes from batik industries have been successfully applied decompose naturally by the presence of sunlight. However, as dye sensitizer and fabricated on DSSC cells. Congo red the reaction is relatively slow because the intensity of UV (1.0133%) yielded higher efficiency than rhodamine B light reaching the earth surface is relatively low. In addi- (0.0126%), methyl orange (0.7560%), and naphthol blue tion, the energy needs of the world prompted many black (0.0083%). The divergence of the efficiency of DSSC researchers to pursue alternative renewable energy such as is very dependent upon the chromophore group owned by DSSC. DSSC is promising renewable energy resource dye. This study has proven that the more chromophore because of zero waste, low cost and eco-friendly [3–5]. group possessed by dye, the higher the efficiency of DSSC DSSC is a solar cell that utilizes a sensitized dye to harvest generated. This research concludes that the dye wastes sunlight [6]. The dye plays important role to harvest solar have a bright future to be implemented as dye sensitizer on energy and convert it to electrical energy [7, 8]. The effort solar cells. to combine the dye wastes as a dye sensitizer on DSSC is a novel solution to overcome the problem of waste and Keywords Affordable  Batik waste  Dye sensitizer  energy at once. In this research, dye wastes from batik DSSC  Chromophore home industries in Indonesia (congo red, rhodamine B, methyl orange, naphthol blue black) are applied as dye sensitizer on DSSC. Thin layer titanium dioxide is used as Introduction semiconductor and prepared in various synthesis methods. KI is used as electrolyte and graphite as counter electrode. Batik industries in Indonesia are great contributors of liq- FTO glass is used in the body of DSSC cell. uid waste originating from the dyeing process. During the production process, about 10–15% of the dye will be Experimental & Harsasi Setyawati All chemicals were purchased from commercial sources harsasi85@gmail.com (Sigma Aldrich) except liquid dye wastes which were collected from batik home industries in Indonesia. The dye Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and wastes were rhodamine B, congo red, methyl orange, and Technology, Airlangga University, 60115 Surabaya, naphthol blue black. Materials for preparation of DSSC Indonesia 123 17 Page 2 of 6 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 Table 1 The maximum wavelength of dye wastes matched with color theory [12] Dye k max (nm) Absorbed color Complementary color Rhodamine B 554 Green Red Congo red 498 Green Red Methyl orange 464 Blue Orange Naphthol blue black 619 Orange Blue were titanium(IV) isopropoxide(Ti(OC H ) ) (TTIP), Preparation of counter electrode 3 7 4 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl) phenylpolyethylene glycol (Triton X-100), iodine (I ), potassium iodide (KI), ethanol The counter electrode was prepared by coating the con- (CH CH OH), hydrochloric acid (HCl), ether and acetic ductive side of FTO glass with carbon from a graphite 2 3 acid (CH COOH). Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) (10 X, pencil until evenly distributed. Then, FTO glasses were 25 9 25 9 3.2 mm) was used as the conductive glass plate heated at 450 C for 30 min and then washed and dried. and purchased from Latech scientific supply Pte. Ltd Sin- Graphite was chosen as a counter electrode because less gapore. The top and the left of FTO glass was isolated by costly and easily prepared. adhesive tape about 0.5 cm for the clamp side and to control the thickness of the coating of TiO . Graphite was used as a counter electrode. Fabrication of DSSC cells Before the working electrode and counter electrode were Preparation of semiconductor assembled, the electrolyte solution was prepared by dis- solving the iodium (I ) into potassium iodide (KI) solution In this study, synthesis of semiconductor (titanium dioxide) until formed KI . The DSSC cells were assembled by was done by two techniques. First, thin film of titanium sandwiched working electrode and counter electrodes, dioxide was prepared using surfactants triton X-100 by sol– respectively, and then sealed with crocodile clips. gel method. Second, thin film of titanium dioxide was prepared without surfactants triton X-100 by sol–gel method. First technique, 5 mL of triton X-100 was added Characterizations into acetic acid and transferred into a 225 mL ethanol while being stirred for 3 min. Then 15 mL TTIP was added The maximum wavelength of each synthetic dye was mea- to 1 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the solution. sured using UV–VIS Shimadzu 1800. The functional groups The mixture was stirred for 2 h to form a sol [9]. In the and infrared spectra were recorded using Jasco FTIR 5300. second technique, 15 mL TTIP in 1 mL of concentrated The electrical conductivity of dye was analyzed using hydrochloric acid in the solution was stirred for 2 h to form a sol. Preparation of working electrode First, the FTO glasses were washed with deionized water and then dried at 80 C for 10 min. The conductive side of the FTO glass was covered on two edges with adhesive tape to control the thickness of TiO film. Subsequently, the FTO glass was coated with TiO sol 3 times. Then each FTO glass was dried at 80 C for 10 min. In the last coating, FTO glasses were calcined at 450 C for 2 h and then cooling down in ambient temperature [10]. The electrode was immersed in the each solution of dye -1 (0.1 mmol L ) for 24 h at room temperature and then dried [11]. The dyes were congo red, rhodamine B, methyl orange and naphthol blue black. Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of dye wastes 123 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 Page 3 of 6 17 Table 2 The functional groups of dye wastes and the wavenumber Methyl orange Congo red Naphthol blue black Rhodamine Functional Wave number Functional Wavenumber Functional Wavenumber Functional Wavenumber -1 -1 -1 -1 groups (cm ) groups (cm ) groups (cm ) groups (cm ) C=C aromatic 1604.77 [13] C=C aromatic 1612 [14] C=C aromatic 1573.91 [15] C=C aromatic 1589.34 [13] - - - RSO 1118.71 [13] RSO 1149.28 [14] RSO 1141.86 [16] C–H aromatic 925.83 [13] 3 3 3 N=N 1365.60 [13] N=N 1458.15 [14] N=N 1419.61 [17] Cl– 794.67 [18] NH 3448.72 [14]NH 3749.62 [17] C=N 1342.46 [13] 2 2 C–S 594.08 [14]NO 1489.05 [17] –CH3 1411.89 [13] O–H 3441.01 [19] C=O 1697.36 [13] O–H 3425.58 [13] Napthol blue black Congo red Rhodamine B Methyl orange Fig. 2 Structure of dye wastes Table 3 Theoretical calculation of the amount of chromophore Compound Chromophore C=O N=N S=O Benzene Total Methyl orange 0 1 2 2 5 Congo red 0 2 4 6 12 Naphthol blue black 0 2 4 4 10 Rhodamine 1 0 0 3 4 EUTECH conductometer. The crystallinity and phase analysis Results and discussion of two kinds of thin film titanium dioxide was characterized using X’pert PRO Diffractometer. Photovoltaic performance This research successfully developed a novel dye sensitizer of DSSC cells for each dye sensitizer was measured by mea- from dye wastes. Liquid dye wastes used are rhodamine B, suring current density–voltage curves under solar irradiation congo red, methyl orange and naphthol blue black obtained in real condition (outdoor) as long as 5 days. The voltage and from batik industries. At batik home industries, dyeing current density of the cell were measured with multimeter process is generally done manually by immersion of fabric Dekko using potentiometer circuit while intensity of light was into the dye in large vat. Each vat containing a particular measured with Light Meter Krisbow KW06-288. dye. Liquid dye wastes in the study came from the vat dye 123 17 Page 4 of 6 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 energy range is so wide that allows many levels of energy to be absorbed by the dyes [11]. Figure 1 shows the fourier transform infrared spectra of rhodamine B, congo red, methyl orange and naphthol blue black. The spectra have been recorded using Jasco FTIR -1 5300 in the wave number range 500–4000 cm . Each dye has specific functional group and is tabulated in Table 2. Table 2 shows that each dye has chromophore group in their structure which is able to support their performance as dye sensitizer on DSSC. Chromophore is the part of molecule that is sensitive to light [20, 21]. The chro- mophore owned by dye will increase the dye’s ability for capturing the photon from sunlight so the amount of photon used to generate a cycle of electrons in DSSC cells will increase. This process will generate a continuous electrical Fig. 3 XRD pattern of thin layer titanium dioxide as semiconductor current. The number of chromophore groups highly influ- on DSSC ences the ability of dye on capturing photon of solar light. The more of chromophore groups the more photons absorbed. Thus, the current produced will be higher. Description of the structure and the amount of dye chro- mophore are presented in Fig. 2 and Table 3. Characteristic of thin layer TiO as semiconductor on DSSC Figure 3 shows the result of semiconductor characteriza- tion using XRD X’pert PRO Diffractometer. In this work, preparation of thin film titanium dioxide was varied by adding surfactants and without surfactants. The result shows that the patterns of thin film titanium dioxide by adding and without surfactants is similar and refers to the structure of TiO anatase according the database JCPDS 84-1286. If we see the intensity, thin film with surfactants is different from that without surfactants. It means that surfactants that added contributed to form structure in film Fig. 4 FTIR spectra of the interaction bonding of TiO -dye wastes 2 layer titanium dioxide [22, 23]. In DSSC, dye sensitizer was attached to the semicon- ductor. Therefore, the interaction of TiO and dye was that can be ascertained dye waste is not mixed with each characterized using FTIR to determine the bonding of TiO other. and dye. Figure 4 shows that the interaction of TiO and dye was chemical interaction of Ti and O from dye formed -1 Ti–O bonding at 400–500 cm [18]. This interaction Characteristic of dye wastes highly supports the flow of electron transfer from dye to the semiconductor [7, 8]. Characterizations of dyes have been done to determine the characteristics of each dye that support their dye sensitizer performance. The result of measurement spectrophotome- Photovoltaic performance ter UV–VIS is shown in Table 1. All of dyes show the maximum wavelength in the 400–600 nm range as the The performance of dye wastes as dye sensitizer is shown absorbed color is blue-orange. This result indicates that in Fig. 5 and Table 4. The current density–voltage (J-V) each dye can absorb the visible light from solar light. These curve of dye wastes are shown in Fig. 5. Table 4 shows properties are very advantageous because the visible that congo red yielded the highest efficiency (1.9%) among 123 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 Page 5 of 6 17 Fig. 5 J-V characteristic curve of dye wastes on DSSC Table 4 The photovoltaic parameters of the DSSC cells -2 -2 -2 Dye J (mAcm ) V (V) Jmax (mAcm ) Vmax (V) P Lux (W m )FF g (%) Sc oc Congo red 3.130 0.18 3 0.167 49.44 0.8892 1.0133 Rhodamine B 0.010 1 0.00625 1 49.44 0.6250 0.0126 Methyl orange 3 0.15 2.67 0.14 49.44 0.8306 0.7560 Naphthol blue black 0.024 0.218 0.019 0.216 49.44 0.7844 0.0083 Area of DSSC cells: 4 cm dyes because congo red has the highest number of chro- DSSC sensitized by other synthetics dyes or natural dyes. mophore group, i.e., benzene rings, azo (N=N), and sul- Synthetics dyes from hydrazonoyl and their derivatives foxide (S=O). This result indicates that congo red has the reported obtain the efficiency of DSSC of 0.00009–0.003% best ability in capturing photon from solar energy because [24]. Natural dyes from five plants Amaranthus caudatus, of the supporting of their chromophore group. The highest Bougainvillea spectabilis, Delonix regia, Nerium oleander efficiency means that the most photon of solar energy can and Spathodea campanulata obtained the highest efficiency be absorbed by dye sensitizer [10, 20, 21]. of DSSC reached 0.610% from Amaranthus caudatus [25]. Table 4 shows that dye wastes generate diverse effi- Natural dyes from beet, red cabbage, strawberry, spinach, ciency of DSSC value; the efficiency of DSSC reached is mallow, and henna extract obtained the highest efficiency of 1.0133%. This value is considerably higher than those of the 0.229% [26]. Chlorophyll and xanthophyll from 123 17 Page 6 of 6 Mater Renew Sustain Energy (2017) 6:17 9. Fagnern, N., Letphayakkarat, R., Chawengkijwanich, C., Glee- Cladophora sp. reported obtained the highest efficiency of som, M.P., Koonsaeng, N., Sanguanruang, S.: Effect of titanium- 0.08% [27]. This result indicates that dye waste was tetraisopropoxide concentration on the photocatalytic efficiency potentially applied as dye sensitizer on DSSC. of textile dyes. J. Phys. Chem. Solid 73, 1483–1486 (2012) 10. Setyawati, H., Darmokoesoemo, H., Hamami, H., Rochman, F., Permana, A.J.: Promising dye sensitizer on solar cell from complexes of metal and rhodamine B. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. Conclusion 5(3), 694–698 (2015) 11. Setyawati, H., Purwaningsih, A., Darmokoesoemo, H., Hamami, In this work, DSSC were assembled using four dye wastes H., Rochman, F., Permana, A., P: Potential complex of rho- damine B and copper (II) for dye sensitizer on solar cell. In: from batik industries in Indonesia as dye sensitizer. Congo ICOWOBAS 2015, Indonesia, pp. 070004-1–070004-6. AIP red has been proven to yield the highest efficiency among Publishing, New York (2016) the dye wastes, i.e., 1.0133%. This is because congo red 12. Denny, R., Sinclair, R.: Visible and Ultraviolet Spectroscopy, has the most of chromophore group than the other dyes. Analytical Chemistry by Open Learning. Wiley, New York (1987) 13. Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., Kriz, G.S., Vyvyan, J.A.: Intro- This study proves that the chromophore group greatly duction to Spectroscopy. Cengage Learning, Boston (2008) contributes to improving the efficiency of DSSC. 14. Pretsch, E., Clerc, T., Seibl, J., Simon, W.: Tables of Determination of Organic Compounds. 13C NMR, 1H NMR, IR, MS, UV/Vis, Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the finan- Chemical Laboratory Practice. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1989) cial support provided by the research Grant ‘‘Hibah Dosen Muda’’ 15. Farhadyar, N., Rahimi, A., Ershad Langroudi, A.: Synthesis and sponsored by Faculty of Science and Technology, Airlangga characterization of inorganic-organic hybrid produced from University and Penelitian Unggulan Perguruan Tinggi (PUPT) spon- tetraethoxysilane and epoxy-aromatic amine. In: IUPAC World sored by Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education Polymer Congress Macro, pp. 2 (2004) (RISTEKDIKTI) and also Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sci- 16. Pretsch, E., Clerc, T., Seibl, J., Simon, W.: Tables of Spectral ence and Technology, Airlangga University Surabaya, Indonesia for Data for Structure Determination of Organic Compounds. support the facilities. Springer Science and Business Media, Berlin (2013) 17. 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