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The Use of Social Media on Political Participation Among University Students: An Analysis of Survey Results From Rural Pakistan:

The Use of Social Media on Political Participation Among University Students: An Analysis of... Over the last decade, extensive literature has been published regarding social media effects on real-life political participation. Many argue that social media stimulates online and offline political participation. This study investigates how online political activities impact political efficacy and real-life political participation among university students in rural Pakistan. In addition, this study also sheds light on the relationship between political activities and political awareness. We conducted an online survey of (N = 200) male and female undergraduate and graduate students from the University of Narowal, Pakistan. We used Qualtrics software to distribute our survey among students for data-collection purposes. The results reveal that the majority of the students use social media for political awareness and information. Political efficacy is significantly based on online political participation. In addition to that, social media is a vital platform for netizens to participate in real-life political activities. In conclusion, the findings of the study suggest that online political activities strongly correlate to political awareness and offline political participation. In rural areas of Pakistan, the younger generations are very active on social media to participate in online and offline political happenings. Keywords social media, political efficacy, real-life participation, political participation, Pakistan, survey knowledge, and political participation are associated with Introduction one another. This trend is playing a key role in elections, More than a decade ago, information and communication especially in developing countries like Pakistan, India, and technologies dramatically changed the world. For instance, Bangladesh. Internet and social media have become increas- new media and technology have changed the interpersonal ingly important for disseminating political information interaction, communication patterns, and social and political (McAllister, 2015). Conversely, it also poses threats to discussions. Media and communication scholars, political democracies, as was seen in the 2016 United States presiden- scientists, sociologists, and international relations scholars tial elections and some of the European countries. Social have conducted hundreds of studies on various aspects of media is one of the biggest sources of information for bil- social media usage (Golan, Arceneaux, & Soule, 2019). The lions of its users; however, it also has huge potential for dis- Internet is playing a significant role in providing information information to manipulate public opinion. The to the public on political events, engaging its users and above-mentioned effects of social media on political activ- encouraging them to get involved in offline political activi- ism are important in gauging political dynamics. The Internet ties. The Internet has become vital for political discussions encourages its users toward politics and strengthens offline and political participation. In the beginning, Internet was used as a one-way communication tool for political parties to University of Narowal, Pakistan inform the public through their websites. However, new Lahore College for Women University, Pakistan media and technology have changed communication patterns 3 The University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA in two-way communication (Emruli & Bača, 2011). Corresponding Author: Millennials are the most active users of the Internet and Muhammad Ittefaq, William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass social media. Online activities related to politics are useful Communications, The University of Kansas, Stauffer-Flint Hall, 1435 and encourage youth to participate in political events Jayhawk Boulevard, Lawrence, KS 66045-7515, USA. (Quintelier & Vissers, 2008). Internet use, political Email: muhammadittefaq@ku.edu; ittefaqmuhammad1@gmail.com Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open political participation which shows the dual effect of Internet of online political activities of the participants and their real- on information and participation toward politics (Nam, life participation in politics. The relationship of this efficacy 2012). and participation toward politics has also been investigated. The use of social media among millennials is not only Previous studies have investigated the role of social and new popular in the developed world but also in developing coun- media in bigger cities and other sectors of society like educa- tries. In Pakistan, political parties and individual politicians tion, health, and politics as well, but marginalized areas are have very active social media accounts to disseminate infor- ignored by most of the researchers. But our study focuses on mation for social media users and voters (Michaelsen, 2011). rural area of Pakistan to examine their social media use in New technology and social media have an impact on politi- political spectrum. cal communication in both developed and developing coun- tries, although developed countries experience larger impact Literature Review because of proliferation of the Internet (Riaz, 2010). Social networking sites (SNS) have significant influence on the New Media and Political Efficacy social and political learning of netizens, especially youth The Internet and social media provide an opportunity to the (Khan & Shahbaz, 2015). A recent study revealed that SNS young population for political discussion through various have powerful political impact on individuals in Pakistan online groups, pages, and accounts. Bimber and Copeland (Karamat & Farooq, 2016). Students actively use new media (2011) emphasized on the role of new media for providing for political information such as sharing opinions and dis- the platform for political participation and changing their cussing issues around politics with fellow community mem- political efficacy. Schulz’s (2005) study suggested that new bers (Arshad & Hassan, 2014). media users are active in politics and political discourse. The In Pakistan, Facebook is the most used network among Internet has developed the interests toward politics of its youth for political information compared with other social users and improved political efficacy of the respondent networks such as Twitter. According to the recent study, which create their online and offline political engagements. Pakistan has the second highest population of youth in the Jiang (2016) examined the effects of the Internet on online world after Yemen which has created huge impact on the and offline political participation. He also investigated the dynamics of Pakistan’s politics (Ittefaq & Iqbal, 2018). Since Internet’s role in molding citizens’ perceptions of politics. 2008, Pakistan’s political parties are actively using social This strong relationship creates political efficacy and elec- media and it has changed the dynamics of politics in Pakistan tion interest among Internet users and increases their politi- (Eijaz, 2013). The majority of survey respondents partici- cal involvement (Jiang, 2016). The use of the Internet has pated in politics via social media, especially Facebook. The become the main source of political efficacy and political Internet penetration is very low in Pakistan compared with participation, enhancing awareness about voting and cam- the other Asian countries, but the users are increasing with paigning. New media also increases the ratio of voters’ turn- the passage of time. According to the latest statistics, only out among users. It develops the approach which helps in 19% people has Internet access in Pakistan; however, sub- voting and donating campaign for politics (Larson, 2004). stantial use of social and new media in different sectors Users’ efficacy helps them to understand the political affairs including politics, health, and education is encouraging in a better way through the acquisition of political informa- researchers to analyze the usage of social and new media tion from new media. Kahne, Middaugh, and Allen (2014) (Ittefaq & Iqbal, 2018). It provides an opportunity to discuss investigated the youth, new media, and the rise of participa- different multifaceted issues facing Pakistani society and tory politics and concluded that new media has given a plat- encouraged them to participate in national elections, for bet- form to individuals for information and communication with ter turnout in electoral process (Ahmad & Sheikh, 2013). large audiences and a means to participate in political activi- Political participation by university students on Facebook ties. The above-mentioned studies have been conducted in influenced their offline activism and is linked that how much developed countries and shared the similar findings. time they spend and engage in politics online. The study However, marginalized and rural areas youth have been shows that political activities of the Punjab University stu- excluded and neglected in the research domain. Our study dents and their perception about politics have changed focuses on rural active youth in political process through through this platform (Zaheer, 2016). This study was con- social media. ducted in Lahore which is a metropolitan city of Pakistan and has one of the largest universities in Pakistan. Finding a gap in literature and especially marginalized and New Media and Political Participation rural area of Pakistan, this study sheds a light on the effects that social media has on political participation and how uni- It is fair claim that social media has its disadvantages too. versity students participate in online and offline political For instance, Calder’s (2013) study argued that “it is neces- activities and what is the theme of discussion on social media sary to know the disadvantages of new media for political networking sites. In addition, the study examines the effects communication and we have to save political participation Ahmad et al. 3 from this situation rather than to accept it” (p. 66). Mahmud more positively to politicians’ personal content rather than to and Amin (2017) focused on the usage of online media in their professional content. Similarly, Kalsnes (2016) dis- political activities among university students. The findings cussed Facebook as a unique platform for interaction between of the study show the relationship of online and offline politi- political parties and voters; the study provides best practices cal participation; however, compared with Facebook, email to link with voters for political engagement. Raoof, Zaman, plays a small role in political discussion. Similarly, Ahmad, and Al-Qaraghuli (2013) studied social network sys- Schmiemann (2015) examined SNS and political participa- tems as a tool for political change. Their findings clearly tion and concluded that Facebook content shows a positive showed that social media was widely used as a communica- response regarding political participation. Gibson and tion network among candidates and voters. By providing McAllister (2012) evaluated online social ties and political information about politics, social media invites participation engagement and examined how online platforms increase and mobilization and plays a vital role in political education political interaction. In addition, online interaction is enhanc- as well as the mobilization of the public in politics (Doris, ing similar bonds among unrelated bridging networks; they 2014). found that online social contact fosters offline participation. According to the latest statistics, Pakistan has 44.61 mil- Following the trend in this research domain, Papagiannidis lion Internet users. Among these Internet users, 37 million and Manika (2016) investigated political participation and are considered as active users of social media. Among them, engagement via different online and offline channels and 36 million use Facebook, 6.30 million use Instagram, 1.26 found that new media and other online channels allow politi- million use Twitter, 2.15 million use Snapchat, and 5.10 mil- cal participants to get involved in politics and express their lion use LinkedIn. Moreover, 41% users are between 18 and opinion openly. Individual attitudes vary as do their digital 24 years and 36% people are between 25 and 34-years-old. media use and real-life political participation. These statistics indicate that the majority of social media and The use of Internet and all other e-activities improves the Internet users are young people in Pakistan (We Are Social, knowledge of online users about politics and spurs political 2019). Another digital marketing company published latest engagement and participation. Cantijoch and his colleagues report named Digital Statistical Indicators 2018 and claims studied the use of Internet, political engagement, and the that 44.6 million out of 198.9 million are Internet users, impact of e-discussion, e-information, and e-political cam- which is 22% of the total population. Out of them, only 35 paigning. Their findings claimed that e-campaigning directly million are active users of social media, which is 18% of the connects and engages Internet users before and after elec- total population. Mobile users are 109.5 million out of the tions (Cantijoch, Cutts, & Gibson, 2012). Marco, Robles, total population, and among them, 32 million are active and Antino (2017) also observed this political attitudes and Internet and social media users from their mobile devices, engagement in the case of individuals on digital platforms in which is just 16% of the total population. The majority of Spain. Study findings show significance difference between social media users are the young people both in rural and cognitive and effective components of attitude. Rainie, urban areas. Smith, Schlozman, Brady, and Verba (2012) investigated social media and political engagement and found that 39% of Facebook and Political Efficacy adults in the United States used social media and one out of every eight adults used social media for civic and political Write a topic sentence here. Build a concept of a story. Social purposes. media, especially Facebook, plays an important role in politi- Social media generated new trends for political participa- cal efficacy. Abdulrauf (2016) examined cognitive engage- tion and changed the patterns of political communication. ment and online political participation on Facebook and Siluveru (2015) endeavored to dig out the facts about social Twitter among youth in Nigeria and Malaysia and concluded and digital media in political communication and concluded that political knowledge and needs increased the political that social media is being used for the purpose of social rela- involvement and trust in young people. Abdu and his col- tions and updating the users about happenings. Stieglitz, leagues measured the role of Facebook and its use, interactiv- Brockmann, and Xuan (2012) analyzed the usage of social ity, quality information, and political interest among youth. media for political communication and found a strong rela- The study concluded that “Facebook use, and political interest tionship among politicians and social media users. In addi- positively correlates with online political participation” (Abdu, tion to that, due to SNS, interaction between voters and Mohamad, & Muda, 2017, p. 1). Conroye and his colleagues politicians has improved significantly. Biswas, Ingle, and found that online political groups are mutually connected with Roy (2014) examined the influence of social media in India, offline political participation; however, the relationship on voting behavior, their results show that social media between online political groups and political knowledge is unites people within political parties. Storck (2011) revealed limited because of online group discourse, but the connection that activists used social media for collective action. Hellweg between online and offline participation is very strong (2011) examined politicians’ social media use to influence (Conroye, Feezellb, & Guerreroc, 2012). Heiss and Matthes constituent perceptions and found that voters responded (2016) studied the effects of politicians’ participatory Facebook 4 SAGE Open posts on young people’s political efficacy and revealed signifi- that Obama’s campaign in 2012 utilized Facebook as a tool cant positive effects on those with high external and collective for promotion; this online campaign highlighted Obama’s efficacy traits and low cynicism traits. Chan and Guo (2013) personality as a strategy which motivated followers to acts investigated Facebook use in political activities and concluded rather than to become empowered. Stumpel (2010) has given that “social media use among youth can facilitate greater polit- insight in his thesis on politics of social media (Facebook) ical and civic engagement, particularly for those who perceive and argues that discursive processes and counter protoco- that they have limited ability to participate and understand logical implementations should be an essential political fac- political affairs” (p. 461). tor which governs user activities on SNS. Based on the extensive amount of literature which has been devoted to social media and political communication, we can argue that Facebook and Political Participation published literature shows the opportunities and challenges Considerable research over the decade has been produced on of social media in politics in various countries across the the impact of social media and Internet on online and offline globe. Based on the presented literature, the following political participation. For instance, Facebook has become hypotheses are derived to address in this study: one of the most significant platforms for online users to dis- cuss politics and participate in politics offline. Njegomir Hypothesis 1 (H1): Online political activities have a sig- (2016) examined the impact of Facebook, Twitter, and nificant relationship with political efficacy. YouTube on millennials’ political behavior and found that Hypothesis 2 (H2): Online political activities have a sig- Twitter and YouTube were not used for political purposes; nificant relationship with real-life participation. however, Facebook was used for political content and may Hypothesis 3 (H3): Political participation and political have a negative effect on formal political participation in efficacy have a significant relationship with each other. both developing and developed countries. Westling (2007) examined the expansion of the public sphere and the impact Method of Facebook on political communication. He interlinked the political communication strategies with public sphere expan- In this study, the population includes students of University sion and found that Facebook was a valid platform for bridg- of Narowal, Pakistan. We selected a sample of (N = 200) ing political communication among public. Another study respondents including (N = 100) BS students (Hons) and (N conducted by Marcheva (2008) found that there was a strong = 100) pursuing master’s degrees (male and female for both correlation between social media platforms and collective groups). The quantitative survey method has been utilized movements. Facebook helped in understanding the various along with its data-collection techniques to get better results. impressions of political participation such as discussions of For the collection of information from the selected sample of controversial issues. study respondents, we used Qualtrics software to distribute Researchers have developed multiple scales to study the our survey among students in University of Narowal. In this impact of Internet on campaign and political messages. Due study, the questionnaire is constructed with analytical, close- to the monolithic nature of the medium, it is difficult to ended questions along with the 5-point Likert-type scale assess the effects of social media on netizens. Political par- (summated rating scale), consisting of multiple options, that ticipation on Facebook is robust during elections. Rustad and is, 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, and Sæbø (2013) found that politicians use Facebook to connect 5 = Never. Respondents chose one option to answer each with citizens and keep them updated about their agenda and question. In this study, both independent and dependent vari- political activities. Borah (2014) presented his paper at the ables were taken from previous published studies, operation- annual conference in International Communication alized and modified. Online activities were used as the Association on the use of Facebook amid the presidential independent variable, and political efficacy and real partici- campaign and found that posts promoting the candidate pation were the dependent variable. We used the Zaheer increased political participation in individuals whose party (2016) scale regarding the measurement of items such as affiliation is congruent with the post (p. 1). Similar to that, political participation, political efficacy, use of social media, Vitak et al. (2009) observed the usage of Facebook and polit- and online and offline political activities. ical involvement in the 2008 election. They concluded that The concepts of the study show that online media pro- there are possible effects to change the usage of SNS among vides support to the dependent variable’s political efficacy, applicants and political organizations. Hanson, Haridakis, real participation, and online activities. Political efficacy Cunningham, Sharma, and Ponder (2010) revealed that reveals respondents’ political beliefs, political ideologies, social media usage shows negative predictions for political and their feelings about the political system. Several cynicism. Andersen and Medaglia (2009) found that the researchers used political efficacy as a variable to examine online sphere is popular among voters because they know youth’s pre-existing understandings about politics and their about their political candidates through various means of real-life political participation. Real-life participation party organization. Gerodimos and Justinussen (2014) found includes political activities such as active political Ahmad et al. 5 Table 1. Relationship of Online Political Activities With Political Efficacy (N = 200). 2 2 Model R R Adjusted R SE of the estimate 1 (PE) .286 .082 .077 .43914 Note. PE = political efficacy; OA = online activities; SE = standard error. Predictors: (Constant), OA. Table 2. Relationship of Online Political Activities With Real-Life Participation (N = 200). 2 2 Model R R Adjusted R SE of the estimate 2 (RP) .366 .084 .098 .51286 Note. RP = real participation; OA = online activities; SE = standard error. Predictors: (Constant), OA. campaigning, attendance in rallies and protests, and take established statistical sampling principles of sampling” part in the voting process during elections. Online activities (p. 23). Survey method is very popular in media and com- include sharing posts, liking pictures, and commenting on munication studies. videos on different digital platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube. We studied the correla- Findings tion between online political activities and real-life partici- pation among young university students in a rural area of In pursuance to analyze the H1 of this study, that is, online Pakistan. political activities have a significant relationship with politi- In the beginning, data collection was difficult due to lack cal efficacy, Table 1 depicts political efficacy (PE) with an R 2 2 of understanding of online surveys in Pakistan; especially in value .286, R value .082, adjusted R .077, and SE of the rural areas. At that time, English was the language used in estimate .43914. The scale of political efficacy has been surveys. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (n.d.) developed from Niemi, Craig, and Franco (1991). In this World Factbook, Pakistan uses English and Lingua Franca to 7-item scale (α = .756), questions have been asked of communicate in offices and schools, and government offi- respondents. A Likert-type scale has been applied with the cials primarily use English as their means of communication. response options of 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, Second, University of Narowal offers all courses in English 4 = Often, and 5 = Never. Hence, the study findings support and English language is the central medium of instruction. H1, that there is a significant relationship between online After personally visiting several departments, in person, political activities and political efficacy. response rate was significantly improved. We used our per- To test the H2 of this study, that is, online political activi- sonal contacts, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Emails to distrib- ties have a significant relationship with real-life participa- ute the link of our survey. We distributed our survey to all tion, the regression analysis square test was applied to data. departments and schools in University of Narowal, Pakistan. Table 2 depicts real participation (RP) with an R value .366, 2 2 After the data-collection phase, we ran several descriptive R value .084, adjusted R .098, and SE of the estimate statistic results to find the inconsistencies and errors. We .51286. The scale for real-life political participation used in used Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software this study has been resulting by means of merging the scales to analyze the data and regression analysis, correlations, and of Verba and Nie (1972) and Cao (2008). To measure real- descriptive statistics to test the proposed hypothesis. life political participation, a 7-item scale was adopted We used probability sampling and selected simple-ran- (α = .756). A Likert-type scale was applied with the response dom sampling technique in this study. Wimmer and Dominick options of 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, (2011) noted that probability sampling uses mathematical 4 = Often, and 5 = Never. Hence, the study findings support calculations and random sampling uses the element, subject, H2, that there is a significant relationship between online and the unit of population. Consequently, students of bache- political activities and real-life participation. lor’s and master’s degrees are selected in random sampling In pursuance of H3 of this study, that is, political partici- and considered as youth. The method was a quantitative sur- pation and political efficacy have a significant relationship vey study design. Wimmer and Dominick (2011) discussed with each other, the correlation test has been applied to the that quantitative research method has been performed data. Table 3 shows that online political activities (OPA) cor- through using different survey methods. Similarly, Williams relate with political efficacy (PE) at .286 and significant at (2003) said that “survey research is based upon the well- .000, and moreover, with real political participation (RPP) 6 SAGE Open Table 3. Relationship Between Political Participation and Political Efficacy. OA PE RP OA Pearson’s correlation 1 .286** .066 Significant (two-tailed) .000 .355 N 200 200 200 Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation. **Relationship between two variables. Table 4. Correlation of Online Activities With Political Efficacy and Real-Life Participation. OA PE RP OA Pearson’s correlation 1 .286** .066 Significant (two-tailed) .000 .355 N 200 200 200 PE Pearson’s correlation .286** 1 .316** Significant (two-tailed) .000 .000 N 200 200 200 RP Pearson’s correlation .066 .316** 1 Significant (two-tailed) .355 .000 N 200 200 200 Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation. **Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed). Table 5. Sample’s Descriptive Statistics. M SD N OA 3.9029 .26707 200 PE 3.9714 .45717 200 RP 3.6929 .21278 200 Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation. correlated at .066. This study hypothesis shows positive cor- respondents often discussed political activities with their relations between online and offline political participation as family, colleagues, and others, while 19.0% respondents Schulz’s (2005) and Vitak et al.’s (2009) studies. Hence, the never attended political party meetings. Moreover, results of study findings support H3 because a significant relationship online political activities indicate that 37.5% of respondents was found between political participation and political visit online video channels (e.g., YouTube) to view official or efficacy. unofficial videos about election issues, party leaders, or local Table 4 depicts that OA correlate with PE at .286 and sig- candidates on a daily basis and 44.0% of respondents daily nificant at .000, and moreover, with RP correlated at .066. visit the Twitter accounts of parties, leaders, and local On the contrary, PE is correlated with RP at .316. The overall candidates. correlation among these three variables is significant at .01. There were 50.5% undergraduate and 49.5% graduate stu- Conclusion dents. However, percentage distribution regarding age shows that 41.0% were from 18 to 23 years old and 57.0% of the The findings of the first variable political efficacy (PE) rela- respondents were from 24 to 28 years old. Moreover, 51.0% tionship through online media show that the majority of were male and 49.0% were female. The results of the survey respondents strongly agree that they use online media and related to political efficacy showed that 51.0% respondents feel well-aware of political issues. Majority of the respon- strongly agreed that they are well-qualified to participate in dents said that they use SNS for political information and politics through online media. However, 41.5% respondents discussions. However, education results show that both strongly agreed that sometimes politics and government undergraduate and graduate students are highly active on activities seemed too complicated to them. Survey results online media and are politically conscious, while age cross- also showed that in terms of real-life participation, 43.0% of tabulation indicates that students of age 24 to 28 years more Ahmad et al. 7 actively use online media compared with students of age 18 Abdulrauf, A. A. (2016). Cognitive engagement and online politi- cal participation on Facebook and Twitter among youths in to 23 years. Overall, the study findings suggest that online Nigeria and Malaysia (Doctoral thesis). Universiti Utara political activities have a significant influence on political Malaysia, Changlun. efficacy. Results of the second variable real participation Ahmad, K., & Sheikh, K. S. (2013). Social media and youth partici- (RP) relationship through online media results show that patory politics: A study of university students. Journal of South respondents actively share political content online with their Asian Studies, 28, 353-360. friends, family, and colleagues. They actively participate in Andersen, K. N., & Medaglia, R. (2009). The use of Facebook in real-life political activities. The majority of respondents had national election campaigns: Politics as usual. In International contact with members of the national assembly and members Conference on Electronic Participation (pp. 101-111). Berlin, of the provincial assembly. In addition, the study’s third vari- Germany: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03781-8_10 able online activities (OA) results reveals that the majority of Arshad, A., & Hassan, S. A. (2014). Role of new media in political respondents visited political websites and also blogs of lead- discussion and changing voting behavior of university students. International Research Journal of Social Sciences, 3(7), 4-9. ers, politicians, and local candidates. Bimber, B., & Copeland, L. (2011, August 25). 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Internet use, political knowledge Vitak, J., Zube, P., Smock, A., Carr, C., Ellison, N., & Lampe, C. and political participation among young voters in Australia. (2009, May). “Poking” people to participate: Facebook and The Conference Democracy: A Citizen Perspective, Åbo political participation in the 2008 election. Paper presented at Akademi University, Turku, Finland. the Annual Conference of the International Communication Michaelsen, M. (2011). New media vs. old politics the inter- Association, Chicago, IL. net, social media, and democratisation in Pakistan. Berlin, We Are Social. (2019). Global digital report 2019. Retrieved from Germany: fesmedia Asia Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. https://wearesocial.com/global-digital-report-2019 Ahmad et al. 9 Westling, M. (2007). Expanding the public sphere: The impact and Publication as a Research Executive. He joined academic career of Facebook on political communication. Social Media and as a visiting lecturer at Center for Media and Communication Political Movement, 28, 835-860. Studies, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan. His Williams, M. (2003). Making sense of social research. London, research interests are political communication, framing theory, and England: Sage. analysis of political talk shows in broadcast media. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass media research: Aima Alvi is a MPhil scholar in Department of Mass Communication An introduction (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth CENGAGE at Lahore College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan. Learning. Zaheer, L. (2016). Use of social media and political participation Muhammad Ittefaq did his first master’s degree in Communication among university students. Pakistan Vision, 17, 278-299. Studies at Institute of Communication Studies, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. He earned his second master’s degree at Author Biographies the Institute of Media and Communication Science, Technical University Ilmenau, Germany. Currently, he is a PhD student at Taufiq Ahmad is a lecturer at Center for Media and Communication William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass Studies in University of Narowal, Pakistan. He started his career as Communications, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA. His a Sub-Editor in Pakistan Observer, and he worked with News research interests are social media, health communication, and new Network International (NNI) as Monitoring Officer at International media technology. Desk. He has also been associated with Uks Research, Resource http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

The Use of Social Media on Political Participation Among University Students: An Analysis of Survey Results From Rural Pakistan:

SAGE Open , Volume 9 (3): 1 – Jul 17, 2019

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Abstract

Over the last decade, extensive literature has been published regarding social media effects on real-life political participation. Many argue that social media stimulates online and offline political participation. This study investigates how online political activities impact political efficacy and real-life political participation among university students in rural Pakistan. In addition, this study also sheds light on the relationship between political activities and political awareness. We conducted an online survey of (N = 200) male and female undergraduate and graduate students from the University of Narowal, Pakistan. We used Qualtrics software to distribute our survey among students for data-collection purposes. The results reveal that the majority of the students use social media for political awareness and information. Political efficacy is significantly based on online political participation. In addition to that, social media is a vital platform for netizens to participate in real-life political activities. In conclusion, the findings of the study suggest that online political activities strongly correlate to political awareness and offline political participation. In rural areas of Pakistan, the younger generations are very active on social media to participate in online and offline political happenings. Keywords social media, political efficacy, real-life participation, political participation, Pakistan, survey knowledge, and political participation are associated with Introduction one another. This trend is playing a key role in elections, More than a decade ago, information and communication especially in developing countries like Pakistan, India, and technologies dramatically changed the world. For instance, Bangladesh. Internet and social media have become increas- new media and technology have changed the interpersonal ingly important for disseminating political information interaction, communication patterns, and social and political (McAllister, 2015). Conversely, it also poses threats to discussions. Media and communication scholars, political democracies, as was seen in the 2016 United States presiden- scientists, sociologists, and international relations scholars tial elections and some of the European countries. Social have conducted hundreds of studies on various aspects of media is one of the biggest sources of information for bil- social media usage (Golan, Arceneaux, & Soule, 2019). The lions of its users; however, it also has huge potential for dis- Internet is playing a significant role in providing information information to manipulate public opinion. The to the public on political events, engaging its users and above-mentioned effects of social media on political activ- encouraging them to get involved in offline political activi- ism are important in gauging political dynamics. The Internet ties. The Internet has become vital for political discussions encourages its users toward politics and strengthens offline and political participation. In the beginning, Internet was used as a one-way communication tool for political parties to University of Narowal, Pakistan inform the public through their websites. However, new Lahore College for Women University, Pakistan media and technology have changed communication patterns 3 The University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA in two-way communication (Emruli & Bača, 2011). Corresponding Author: Millennials are the most active users of the Internet and Muhammad Ittefaq, William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass social media. Online activities related to politics are useful Communications, The University of Kansas, Stauffer-Flint Hall, 1435 and encourage youth to participate in political events Jayhawk Boulevard, Lawrence, KS 66045-7515, USA. (Quintelier & Vissers, 2008). Internet use, political Email: muhammadittefaq@ku.edu; ittefaqmuhammad1@gmail.com Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open political participation which shows the dual effect of Internet of online political activities of the participants and their real- on information and participation toward politics (Nam, life participation in politics. The relationship of this efficacy 2012). and participation toward politics has also been investigated. The use of social media among millennials is not only Previous studies have investigated the role of social and new popular in the developed world but also in developing coun- media in bigger cities and other sectors of society like educa- tries. In Pakistan, political parties and individual politicians tion, health, and politics as well, but marginalized areas are have very active social media accounts to disseminate infor- ignored by most of the researchers. But our study focuses on mation for social media users and voters (Michaelsen, 2011). rural area of Pakistan to examine their social media use in New technology and social media have an impact on politi- political spectrum. cal communication in both developed and developing coun- tries, although developed countries experience larger impact Literature Review because of proliferation of the Internet (Riaz, 2010). Social networking sites (SNS) have significant influence on the New Media and Political Efficacy social and political learning of netizens, especially youth The Internet and social media provide an opportunity to the (Khan & Shahbaz, 2015). A recent study revealed that SNS young population for political discussion through various have powerful political impact on individuals in Pakistan online groups, pages, and accounts. Bimber and Copeland (Karamat & Farooq, 2016). Students actively use new media (2011) emphasized on the role of new media for providing for political information such as sharing opinions and dis- the platform for political participation and changing their cussing issues around politics with fellow community mem- political efficacy. Schulz’s (2005) study suggested that new bers (Arshad & Hassan, 2014). media users are active in politics and political discourse. The In Pakistan, Facebook is the most used network among Internet has developed the interests toward politics of its youth for political information compared with other social users and improved political efficacy of the respondent networks such as Twitter. According to the recent study, which create their online and offline political engagements. Pakistan has the second highest population of youth in the Jiang (2016) examined the effects of the Internet on online world after Yemen which has created huge impact on the and offline political participation. He also investigated the dynamics of Pakistan’s politics (Ittefaq & Iqbal, 2018). Since Internet’s role in molding citizens’ perceptions of politics. 2008, Pakistan’s political parties are actively using social This strong relationship creates political efficacy and elec- media and it has changed the dynamics of politics in Pakistan tion interest among Internet users and increases their politi- (Eijaz, 2013). The majority of survey respondents partici- cal involvement (Jiang, 2016). The use of the Internet has pated in politics via social media, especially Facebook. The become the main source of political efficacy and political Internet penetration is very low in Pakistan compared with participation, enhancing awareness about voting and cam- the other Asian countries, but the users are increasing with paigning. New media also increases the ratio of voters’ turn- the passage of time. According to the latest statistics, only out among users. It develops the approach which helps in 19% people has Internet access in Pakistan; however, sub- voting and donating campaign for politics (Larson, 2004). stantial use of social and new media in different sectors Users’ efficacy helps them to understand the political affairs including politics, health, and education is encouraging in a better way through the acquisition of political informa- researchers to analyze the usage of social and new media tion from new media. Kahne, Middaugh, and Allen (2014) (Ittefaq & Iqbal, 2018). It provides an opportunity to discuss investigated the youth, new media, and the rise of participa- different multifaceted issues facing Pakistani society and tory politics and concluded that new media has given a plat- encouraged them to participate in national elections, for bet- form to individuals for information and communication with ter turnout in electoral process (Ahmad & Sheikh, 2013). large audiences and a means to participate in political activi- Political participation by university students on Facebook ties. The above-mentioned studies have been conducted in influenced their offline activism and is linked that how much developed countries and shared the similar findings. time they spend and engage in politics online. The study However, marginalized and rural areas youth have been shows that political activities of the Punjab University stu- excluded and neglected in the research domain. Our study dents and their perception about politics have changed focuses on rural active youth in political process through through this platform (Zaheer, 2016). This study was con- social media. ducted in Lahore which is a metropolitan city of Pakistan and has one of the largest universities in Pakistan. Finding a gap in literature and especially marginalized and New Media and Political Participation rural area of Pakistan, this study sheds a light on the effects that social media has on political participation and how uni- It is fair claim that social media has its disadvantages too. versity students participate in online and offline political For instance, Calder’s (2013) study argued that “it is neces- activities and what is the theme of discussion on social media sary to know the disadvantages of new media for political networking sites. In addition, the study examines the effects communication and we have to save political participation Ahmad et al. 3 from this situation rather than to accept it” (p. 66). Mahmud more positively to politicians’ personal content rather than to and Amin (2017) focused on the usage of online media in their professional content. Similarly, Kalsnes (2016) dis- political activities among university students. The findings cussed Facebook as a unique platform for interaction between of the study show the relationship of online and offline politi- political parties and voters; the study provides best practices cal participation; however, compared with Facebook, email to link with voters for political engagement. Raoof, Zaman, plays a small role in political discussion. Similarly, Ahmad, and Al-Qaraghuli (2013) studied social network sys- Schmiemann (2015) examined SNS and political participa- tems as a tool for political change. Their findings clearly tion and concluded that Facebook content shows a positive showed that social media was widely used as a communica- response regarding political participation. Gibson and tion network among candidates and voters. By providing McAllister (2012) evaluated online social ties and political information about politics, social media invites participation engagement and examined how online platforms increase and mobilization and plays a vital role in political education political interaction. In addition, online interaction is enhanc- as well as the mobilization of the public in politics (Doris, ing similar bonds among unrelated bridging networks; they 2014). found that online social contact fosters offline participation. According to the latest statistics, Pakistan has 44.61 mil- Following the trend in this research domain, Papagiannidis lion Internet users. Among these Internet users, 37 million and Manika (2016) investigated political participation and are considered as active users of social media. Among them, engagement via different online and offline channels and 36 million use Facebook, 6.30 million use Instagram, 1.26 found that new media and other online channels allow politi- million use Twitter, 2.15 million use Snapchat, and 5.10 mil- cal participants to get involved in politics and express their lion use LinkedIn. Moreover, 41% users are between 18 and opinion openly. Individual attitudes vary as do their digital 24 years and 36% people are between 25 and 34-years-old. media use and real-life political participation. These statistics indicate that the majority of social media and The use of Internet and all other e-activities improves the Internet users are young people in Pakistan (We Are Social, knowledge of online users about politics and spurs political 2019). Another digital marketing company published latest engagement and participation. Cantijoch and his colleagues report named Digital Statistical Indicators 2018 and claims studied the use of Internet, political engagement, and the that 44.6 million out of 198.9 million are Internet users, impact of e-discussion, e-information, and e-political cam- which is 22% of the total population. Out of them, only 35 paigning. Their findings claimed that e-campaigning directly million are active users of social media, which is 18% of the connects and engages Internet users before and after elec- total population. Mobile users are 109.5 million out of the tions (Cantijoch, Cutts, & Gibson, 2012). Marco, Robles, total population, and among them, 32 million are active and Antino (2017) also observed this political attitudes and Internet and social media users from their mobile devices, engagement in the case of individuals on digital platforms in which is just 16% of the total population. The majority of Spain. Study findings show significance difference between social media users are the young people both in rural and cognitive and effective components of attitude. Rainie, urban areas. Smith, Schlozman, Brady, and Verba (2012) investigated social media and political engagement and found that 39% of Facebook and Political Efficacy adults in the United States used social media and one out of every eight adults used social media for civic and political Write a topic sentence here. Build a concept of a story. Social purposes. media, especially Facebook, plays an important role in politi- Social media generated new trends for political participa- cal efficacy. Abdulrauf (2016) examined cognitive engage- tion and changed the patterns of political communication. ment and online political participation on Facebook and Siluveru (2015) endeavored to dig out the facts about social Twitter among youth in Nigeria and Malaysia and concluded and digital media in political communication and concluded that political knowledge and needs increased the political that social media is being used for the purpose of social rela- involvement and trust in young people. Abdu and his col- tions and updating the users about happenings. Stieglitz, leagues measured the role of Facebook and its use, interactiv- Brockmann, and Xuan (2012) analyzed the usage of social ity, quality information, and political interest among youth. media for political communication and found a strong rela- The study concluded that “Facebook use, and political interest tionship among politicians and social media users. In addi- positively correlates with online political participation” (Abdu, tion to that, due to SNS, interaction between voters and Mohamad, & Muda, 2017, p. 1). Conroye and his colleagues politicians has improved significantly. Biswas, Ingle, and found that online political groups are mutually connected with Roy (2014) examined the influence of social media in India, offline political participation; however, the relationship on voting behavior, their results show that social media between online political groups and political knowledge is unites people within political parties. Storck (2011) revealed limited because of online group discourse, but the connection that activists used social media for collective action. Hellweg between online and offline participation is very strong (2011) examined politicians’ social media use to influence (Conroye, Feezellb, & Guerreroc, 2012). Heiss and Matthes constituent perceptions and found that voters responded (2016) studied the effects of politicians’ participatory Facebook 4 SAGE Open posts on young people’s political efficacy and revealed signifi- that Obama’s campaign in 2012 utilized Facebook as a tool cant positive effects on those with high external and collective for promotion; this online campaign highlighted Obama’s efficacy traits and low cynicism traits. Chan and Guo (2013) personality as a strategy which motivated followers to acts investigated Facebook use in political activities and concluded rather than to become empowered. Stumpel (2010) has given that “social media use among youth can facilitate greater polit- insight in his thesis on politics of social media (Facebook) ical and civic engagement, particularly for those who perceive and argues that discursive processes and counter protoco- that they have limited ability to participate and understand logical implementations should be an essential political fac- political affairs” (p. 461). tor which governs user activities on SNS. Based on the extensive amount of literature which has been devoted to social media and political communication, we can argue that Facebook and Political Participation published literature shows the opportunities and challenges Considerable research over the decade has been produced on of social media in politics in various countries across the the impact of social media and Internet on online and offline globe. Based on the presented literature, the following political participation. For instance, Facebook has become hypotheses are derived to address in this study: one of the most significant platforms for online users to dis- cuss politics and participate in politics offline. Njegomir Hypothesis 1 (H1): Online political activities have a sig- (2016) examined the impact of Facebook, Twitter, and nificant relationship with political efficacy. YouTube on millennials’ political behavior and found that Hypothesis 2 (H2): Online political activities have a sig- Twitter and YouTube were not used for political purposes; nificant relationship with real-life participation. however, Facebook was used for political content and may Hypothesis 3 (H3): Political participation and political have a negative effect on formal political participation in efficacy have a significant relationship with each other. both developing and developed countries. Westling (2007) examined the expansion of the public sphere and the impact Method of Facebook on political communication. He interlinked the political communication strategies with public sphere expan- In this study, the population includes students of University sion and found that Facebook was a valid platform for bridg- of Narowal, Pakistan. We selected a sample of (N = 200) ing political communication among public. Another study respondents including (N = 100) BS students (Hons) and (N conducted by Marcheva (2008) found that there was a strong = 100) pursuing master’s degrees (male and female for both correlation between social media platforms and collective groups). The quantitative survey method has been utilized movements. Facebook helped in understanding the various along with its data-collection techniques to get better results. impressions of political participation such as discussions of For the collection of information from the selected sample of controversial issues. study respondents, we used Qualtrics software to distribute Researchers have developed multiple scales to study the our survey among students in University of Narowal. In this impact of Internet on campaign and political messages. Due study, the questionnaire is constructed with analytical, close- to the monolithic nature of the medium, it is difficult to ended questions along with the 5-point Likert-type scale assess the effects of social media on netizens. Political par- (summated rating scale), consisting of multiple options, that ticipation on Facebook is robust during elections. Rustad and is, 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, and Sæbø (2013) found that politicians use Facebook to connect 5 = Never. Respondents chose one option to answer each with citizens and keep them updated about their agenda and question. In this study, both independent and dependent vari- political activities. Borah (2014) presented his paper at the ables were taken from previous published studies, operation- annual conference in International Communication alized and modified. Online activities were used as the Association on the use of Facebook amid the presidential independent variable, and political efficacy and real partici- campaign and found that posts promoting the candidate pation were the dependent variable. We used the Zaheer increased political participation in individuals whose party (2016) scale regarding the measurement of items such as affiliation is congruent with the post (p. 1). Similar to that, political participation, political efficacy, use of social media, Vitak et al. (2009) observed the usage of Facebook and polit- and online and offline political activities. ical involvement in the 2008 election. They concluded that The concepts of the study show that online media pro- there are possible effects to change the usage of SNS among vides support to the dependent variable’s political efficacy, applicants and political organizations. Hanson, Haridakis, real participation, and online activities. Political efficacy Cunningham, Sharma, and Ponder (2010) revealed that reveals respondents’ political beliefs, political ideologies, social media usage shows negative predictions for political and their feelings about the political system. Several cynicism. Andersen and Medaglia (2009) found that the researchers used political efficacy as a variable to examine online sphere is popular among voters because they know youth’s pre-existing understandings about politics and their about their political candidates through various means of real-life political participation. Real-life participation party organization. Gerodimos and Justinussen (2014) found includes political activities such as active political Ahmad et al. 5 Table 1. Relationship of Online Political Activities With Political Efficacy (N = 200). 2 2 Model R R Adjusted R SE of the estimate 1 (PE) .286 .082 .077 .43914 Note. PE = political efficacy; OA = online activities; SE = standard error. Predictors: (Constant), OA. Table 2. Relationship of Online Political Activities With Real-Life Participation (N = 200). 2 2 Model R R Adjusted R SE of the estimate 2 (RP) .366 .084 .098 .51286 Note. RP = real participation; OA = online activities; SE = standard error. Predictors: (Constant), OA. campaigning, attendance in rallies and protests, and take established statistical sampling principles of sampling” part in the voting process during elections. Online activities (p. 23). Survey method is very popular in media and com- include sharing posts, liking pictures, and commenting on munication studies. videos on different digital platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube. We studied the correla- Findings tion between online political activities and real-life partici- pation among young university students in a rural area of In pursuance to analyze the H1 of this study, that is, online Pakistan. political activities have a significant relationship with politi- In the beginning, data collection was difficult due to lack cal efficacy, Table 1 depicts political efficacy (PE) with an R 2 2 of understanding of online surveys in Pakistan; especially in value .286, R value .082, adjusted R .077, and SE of the rural areas. At that time, English was the language used in estimate .43914. The scale of political efficacy has been surveys. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (n.d.) developed from Niemi, Craig, and Franco (1991). In this World Factbook, Pakistan uses English and Lingua Franca to 7-item scale (α = .756), questions have been asked of communicate in offices and schools, and government offi- respondents. A Likert-type scale has been applied with the cials primarily use English as their means of communication. response options of 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, Second, University of Narowal offers all courses in English 4 = Often, and 5 = Never. Hence, the study findings support and English language is the central medium of instruction. H1, that there is a significant relationship between online After personally visiting several departments, in person, political activities and political efficacy. response rate was significantly improved. We used our per- To test the H2 of this study, that is, online political activi- sonal contacts, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Emails to distrib- ties have a significant relationship with real-life participa- ute the link of our survey. We distributed our survey to all tion, the regression analysis square test was applied to data. departments and schools in University of Narowal, Pakistan. Table 2 depicts real participation (RP) with an R value .366, 2 2 After the data-collection phase, we ran several descriptive R value .084, adjusted R .098, and SE of the estimate statistic results to find the inconsistencies and errors. We .51286. The scale for real-life political participation used in used Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software this study has been resulting by means of merging the scales to analyze the data and regression analysis, correlations, and of Verba and Nie (1972) and Cao (2008). To measure real- descriptive statistics to test the proposed hypothesis. life political participation, a 7-item scale was adopted We used probability sampling and selected simple-ran- (α = .756). A Likert-type scale was applied with the response dom sampling technique in this study. Wimmer and Dominick options of 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, (2011) noted that probability sampling uses mathematical 4 = Often, and 5 = Never. Hence, the study findings support calculations and random sampling uses the element, subject, H2, that there is a significant relationship between online and the unit of population. Consequently, students of bache- political activities and real-life participation. lor’s and master’s degrees are selected in random sampling In pursuance of H3 of this study, that is, political partici- and considered as youth. The method was a quantitative sur- pation and political efficacy have a significant relationship vey study design. Wimmer and Dominick (2011) discussed with each other, the correlation test has been applied to the that quantitative research method has been performed data. Table 3 shows that online political activities (OPA) cor- through using different survey methods. Similarly, Williams relate with political efficacy (PE) at .286 and significant at (2003) said that “survey research is based upon the well- .000, and moreover, with real political participation (RPP) 6 SAGE Open Table 3. Relationship Between Political Participation and Political Efficacy. OA PE RP OA Pearson’s correlation 1 .286** .066 Significant (two-tailed) .000 .355 N 200 200 200 Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation. **Relationship between two variables. Table 4. Correlation of Online Activities With Political Efficacy and Real-Life Participation. OA PE RP OA Pearson’s correlation 1 .286** .066 Significant (two-tailed) .000 .355 N 200 200 200 PE Pearson’s correlation .286** 1 .316** Significant (two-tailed) .000 .000 N 200 200 200 RP Pearson’s correlation .066 .316** 1 Significant (two-tailed) .355 .000 N 200 200 200 Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation. **Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed). Table 5. Sample’s Descriptive Statistics. M SD N OA 3.9029 .26707 200 PE 3.9714 .45717 200 RP 3.6929 .21278 200 Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation. correlated at .066. This study hypothesis shows positive cor- respondents often discussed political activities with their relations between online and offline political participation as family, colleagues, and others, while 19.0% respondents Schulz’s (2005) and Vitak et al.’s (2009) studies. Hence, the never attended political party meetings. Moreover, results of study findings support H3 because a significant relationship online political activities indicate that 37.5% of respondents was found between political participation and political visit online video channels (e.g., YouTube) to view official or efficacy. unofficial videos about election issues, party leaders, or local Table 4 depicts that OA correlate with PE at .286 and sig- candidates on a daily basis and 44.0% of respondents daily nificant at .000, and moreover, with RP correlated at .066. visit the Twitter accounts of parties, leaders, and local On the contrary, PE is correlated with RP at .316. The overall candidates. correlation among these three variables is significant at .01. There were 50.5% undergraduate and 49.5% graduate stu- Conclusion dents. However, percentage distribution regarding age shows that 41.0% were from 18 to 23 years old and 57.0% of the The findings of the first variable political efficacy (PE) rela- respondents were from 24 to 28 years old. Moreover, 51.0% tionship through online media show that the majority of were male and 49.0% were female. The results of the survey respondents strongly agree that they use online media and related to political efficacy showed that 51.0% respondents feel well-aware of political issues. Majority of the respon- strongly agreed that they are well-qualified to participate in dents said that they use SNS for political information and politics through online media. However, 41.5% respondents discussions. However, education results show that both strongly agreed that sometimes politics and government undergraduate and graduate students are highly active on activities seemed too complicated to them. Survey results online media and are politically conscious, while age cross- also showed that in terms of real-life participation, 43.0% of tabulation indicates that students of age 24 to 28 years more Ahmad et al. 7 actively use online media compared with students of age 18 Abdulrauf, A. A. (2016). Cognitive engagement and online politi- cal participation on Facebook and Twitter among youths in to 23 years. Overall, the study findings suggest that online Nigeria and Malaysia (Doctoral thesis). Universiti Utara political activities have a significant influence on political Malaysia, Changlun. efficacy. Results of the second variable real participation Ahmad, K., & Sheikh, K. S. (2013). Social media and youth partici- (RP) relationship through online media results show that patory politics: A study of university students. Journal of South respondents actively share political content online with their Asian Studies, 28, 353-360. friends, family, and colleagues. 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Social Media and as a visiting lecturer at Center for Media and Communication Political Movement, 28, 835-860. Studies, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan. His Williams, M. (2003). Making sense of social research. London, research interests are political communication, framing theory, and England: Sage. analysis of political talk shows in broadcast media. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass media research: Aima Alvi is a MPhil scholar in Department of Mass Communication An introduction (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth CENGAGE at Lahore College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan. Learning. Zaheer, L. (2016). Use of social media and political participation Muhammad Ittefaq did his first master’s degree in Communication among university students. Pakistan Vision, 17, 278-299. Studies at Institute of Communication Studies, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. He earned his second master’s degree at Author Biographies the Institute of Media and Communication Science, Technical University Ilmenau, Germany. Currently, he is a PhD student at Taufiq Ahmad is a lecturer at Center for Media and Communication William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass Studies in University of Narowal, Pakistan. He started his career as Communications, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA. His a Sub-Editor in Pakistan Observer, and he worked with News research interests are social media, health communication, and new Network International (NNI) as Monitoring Officer at International media technology. Desk. He has also been associated with Uks Research, Resource

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Published: Jul 17, 2019

Keywords: social media; political efficacy; real-life participation; political participation; Pakistan; survey

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