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The Other Side of the Mirror: An Analytic Journalistic Approach to the Subjective Well-Being of Filipino Women Migrant Workers in Japan:

The Other Side of the Mirror: An Analytic Journalistic Approach to the Subjective Well-Being of... In its political structural reform, the Japanese government presents the urgency to consider an increase in labor mobility that includes the issue of immigration to Japan. Women from Southeast Asia represent a large proportion of this immigration. The aim of this case study was to identify factors associated with subjective well-being (SWB) among Filipino women migrant workers in Tokyo, Japan. The study used an analytic journalistic approach. A focus group interview was conducted with three women and the data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Communication, support network, faith, and sense of identity were identified as the main factors contributing to SWB among these women. In conclusion, the feminization of migration will continue; therefore, better understanding about the factors associated to SWB is needed to ease the impact of migration on home and host countries. Keywords analytic journalistic approach, female migration, focus group, subjective well-being, Japan “Sexual harassment is the norm in hostess work” (Parreñas, Introduction 2011). Living conditions for migrant women are challenging More open and flexible immigration laws have been dis- in several aspects and not limited to work circumstances cussed at the highest levels of Japanese government for sev- (Parreñas, 2015). The results of a recent systematic review of eral years (“Japanese Women and Work”, 2014). In fact, the the physical, mental, social, and economic situation of Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, highlighted the urgency migrant women in Japan in the perinatal period revealed of increasing labor mobility in his political structural reform. important issues. It is not uncommon for these women to This reform includes the revision of Japanese immigration experience language barriers, problematic relationships with law. Its objective is to raise the country’s gross domestic prod- partners, illegal residency, emotional distress, physical dis- uct (GDP) and to solve the emerging demographic crisis, tress, adjustment difficulties, lack of utilization of services, which are both sensitive topics in Japan (Sanda, 2014). social isolation, lack of support, lack of information, low Most migrants to Japan working in low-skilled occupa- economic status, unsatisfactory health care, and discrimina- tions are women from Southeast Asia, more specifically the tion (Kita et al., 2015). These results are supported by other Philippines (Asis, 2002; Llewelyn & Hirano, 2009). These studies describing the difficulties these women face trying to women often travel to the host country alone and find them- integrate into Japanese society either as wives or as workers selves in a vulnerable position. Despite the risks, an increas- (Cheng & Choo, 2015; Parreñas, 2010). ing number of Filipino women, married and unmarried, Human rights activists have raised legitimate alarm regard- skilled and unskilled, are seeking work abroad (Asis, 2002). ing the legal status, working conditions, undocumented over- Strict immigration policy has made it historically difficult for time, salaries, and rights of migrants (Llewelyn & Hirano, these women to immigrate to Japan. For instance, time-lim- ited working visas have traditionally been provided to women “entertainers,” while job-training schemes funnel The Swedish Red Cross University College, Huddinge, Sweden migrants into low-paid jobs (Roberts, 2008). Many Filipino Corresponding Author: women work in Japan as hostesses or entertainers. However, Stéphanie Paillard-Borg, The Swedish Red Cross University College, there are many downsides to this occupation. As Rhacel Department of Health Sciences, P.O. 1059, SE-141 21 Huddinge, Sweden. Email: pais@rkh.se Salazar Parreñas articulates in her book Illicit Flirtations, Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open 2009). Human trafficking is one of the many dangers faced by to different people and varies according to individual and com- these women, and Japan has been placed on a United Nations munity expectations and context. Even though the WHO defi- (UN) watch list in this regard (Noguchi, 2006). A clearer nition has frequently been criticized for its vagueness, it is immigration policy might mitigate these issues, as long as it relevant to this study of female migration. Indeed, the health of respects international labor law standards and human rights these vulnerable women is not based merely on the presence or regulations (International Organization for Migration [IOM], absence of disease but also their well-being. Indeed, well-being 2013). By continuing without a well-defined and rigorous is an aspect of health that individuals, public health profession- immigration law, the risk of abuse remains high (Noguchi, als, and policymakers alike wish to improve. However, it is 2006). From a societal perspective, a relatively high degree of also an ambiguous concept lacking a universally acceptable uneasiness regarding foreign immigration prevails in Japan. definition and often subject to competing interpretations. Well- “Social costs” associated with education, lower wages due to being is generally viewed as a description of the state of a per- competition, and deteriorating public safety caused by son’s life situation (McGillivray, 2007, p. 3). Well-being is increasing criminality are among the main concerns (Llewelyn challenging to define and even harder to measure. In general, & Hirano, 2009). Furthermore, increased immigration would well-being measures can be classified into two broad catego- force Japan to move from a homogeneous and exclusionist ries: objective and subjective. Objective measures utilize society to a heterogeneous and inclusive one. Consequently, observable facts, such as economic, social, and environmental this development would threaten ancestral social organiza- statistics. In contrast, subjective measures capture people’s tion. Historically, conservative political groups have widely feelings or real experiences directly, assessing well-being exploited this fear (Komai, 1995). In accordance with the through ordinal measures (McGillivray & Clarke, 2006). general concern regarding immigration, Japanese labor Ed Diener, a leading researcher in positive psychology, unions tend to refuse immigration of “skilled” workers, such coined the expression “subjective well-being” (SWB) as the as proficient nurses from Southeast Asia, even though demand aspect of happiness that can be empirically measured (Diener, for nurses is increasing in this aging society (The Japan 1984). He developed a theory “The tripartite model of subjec- Institute for Labor Policy and Training, 2004). Interestingly, tive well-being,” which describes how individuals experience statistics show that Japanese women, in general, tend to be the quality of their lives by including both cognitive judg- more in favor of immigration than men, and “Generation Y” ments and emotional reactions (Diener, 1984). The theory of is more accepting than “Generation X” and previous genera- SWB is built on the following three constructs: positive tions (Llewelyn & Hirano, 2009). affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction based on evalua- Migration is a global phenomenon provoking social dis- tions of one’s satisfaction with general and specific areas of ruption in both home and host countries at various levels one’s life (Diener, 1984; Diener, 2000; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & (Adanu & Johnson, 2009). The Filipino population since the Smith, 1999). It has been argued that these three constructs 1970s has experienced this phenomenon (IOM, 2013). At an must be understood separately, even though they are closely individual level, the process of migration is often associated related. In the same study, Diener et al. (1999) claim that with physical and mental illness and even severe trauma SWB tends to be stable over time and is strongly related to (Helgesson, Tinghög, Niederkrotenthaler, Saboonchi, & personality traits. Furthermore, there is evidence that health Mittendorfer-Rutz, 2016). The migratory conditions of the and SWB may reciprocally affect each other, as good health female population are complex in at least two regards. The tends to be associated with greater happiness. Many studies first is mental stress related to the migration process, which have found that optimism and positive emotions can have a can go undiagnosed or underdiagnosed by health profession- favorable impact on health (Diener & Chan, 2011). als, as the presentation of symptoms may be unfamiliar due As increasing concerns are raised about the working condi- to cultural differences (Lassetter & Callister, 2009). Another tions and respect for the human rights of low-skilled foreign issue is that many of these women work to the point of female workers, Japanese politicians and economists both see exhaustion, as they often accumulate multiple jobs (Lassetter foreign immigration as an urgent necessity for boosting the & Callister, 2009; Simon, 2010). economy and demographic growth (IOM, 2013; Sanda, 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) definition of health However, very little is known about the SWB of migrant is “A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being women in general (Adanu & Johnson, 2009; Iglesias, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” It suggests Robertson, Johansson, Engfeldt, & Sundquist, 2003; Kita that health is a continuum and extends the notion of health to et al., 2015), and to our knowledge, no studies have looked at include states of positive well-being (WHO, 1946). Health is the SWB of Filipino women migrant workers in Japan. still often presented in terms of its negative aspect (e.g., ill health), and the main concern of the “medical field” is the pres- Aim ence or absence of sickness, disease, injury, and disability. However, the situation is much more complex. Health is a con- An analogy sometimes used by migrants is that living as a cept that relates to and describes a person’s state of being. It is migrant woman in Japan is living “on the other side of that therefore highly subjective. Good health means different things society” or “the other side of the mirror.” The analogy Paillard-Borg and Hallberg 3 illustrates their thoughts about living in a society where they public understanding. It was developed as a response to the might lead invisible, anonymous, and sometimes difficult growing complexity of the globalized world and information lives. Therefore, the aim of this case study is to identify the overload. Its ambition is to generate evidence-based interpre- domains in the lives of Filipino women migrant workers in tations of reality or a specific phenomenon (Hunter, 2015). Tokyo (Japan) associated with SWB. In doing so, this study Methods from social science research are often used in seeks to reduce their anonymity. analytic journalism (Lindolf & Taylor, 2011). The primary goal of investigative journalism is to expose (though it may also be somewhat analytical). However, the central aim of Method analytic journalism is to contextualize the subject according to its background, historical, statistical, and qualitative data. This case study is part of a larger project called “Women’s The usefulness of analytic journalism is often found in the voices in a shifting global health landscape.” It was moti- analysis and exploration of the facts rather than the mere facts vated by combined scientific and journalistic desire to hear themselves (John & Johnson, 2012). The use of qualitative the “voices” of women around the world regarding urgent data in analytic journalism allows the investigation of a given modern issues in which they play central roles (Paillard-Borg topic to begin with a preliminary idea before revealing more & Holmgren, 2016; Paillard-Borg & Strömberg, 2014). The significant issues than were originally apparent. This then condition of migrant Filipino women in Japan is among these permits the research to capture the complexity of a phenom- concerns. enon within its real-life context (Author, 2014; Iorio, 2004). The term migrant has become increasingly controversial, The influence of language is of major importance for journal- and a pertinent question is now being asked in academia and ists and researchers, as they often meet people of diverse the media: What is the difference between “migrants,” “expats,” backgrounds. To understand how the choice of language “guest workers,” etc.? According to Koutonin (2015), migra- influences an interview situation, the cultural background of tion is a complex phenomenon, and its related terminology the interviewee must be recognized as far as is possible, that must be used correctly, especially in the media. The author fur- is, cultural validity (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013). ther argues, “In the popular lexicon of human migration there are still hierarchical words, created with the purpose of putting white people above everyone else.” He comments that Arabs, Combining Journalism and Social Science Africans, and Asians are considered to be (im)migrants, A focus group interview with an analytic journalistic whereas Europeans are treated as expats. He adds, approach is an appropriate choice of method for describing social phenomena in a world of increasing complexity It’s strange to hear some people in Hong Kong described as expats, but not others. Anyone with roots in a Western country is (Greenbaum, 2000; Iorio, 2004; McLafferty, 2004). The considered an expat . . . Filipino domestic helpers are just guest journalistic approach uncovers human values and lived expe- workers, even if they’ve been here for decades. riences without making any claims of generalizability (Partlett & Hamilton, 1976). Adams and van de Vijver (2015) also support this argu- The purpose of using a group was to encourage the par- ment, suggesting that an expatriate is a highly skilled indi- ticipants to interact with one another during the session. vidual who is most likely expected to be from a Western According to Greenbaum (2000), there are no substantive country and work for a multinational company. Ultimately, differences regarding group size other than the absolute the UN Convention on the Rights of Migrants defines a number of participants. Indeed, smaller groups are often migrant worker as a “person who is engaged or has been more manageable than larger groups composed of strangers, engaged in a remunerated activity in a State of which he or which require more moderator intervention. A smaller group, she is not a national” (UN, 1998). Therefore, for the purpose as it was the case in the present study, requires a more inti- of this study, the term migrant is based on the UN definition. mate approach before commencing, which is often favored Consistent with this definition, Filipino women working out- when the topic requires more in-depth analysis (McLafferty, side the Philippines for a finite period mostly as low- or 2004). The group including three women in the present study semi-skilled workers are referred to as Filipino women was rather homogeneous concerning demographic character- migrant workers (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality istics, which helped increase the internal validity of the and the Empowerment of Women, 2017). study, as preexisting differences in knowledge, skill, ability, and attitudes were minimized. Therefore, the difference in data is less likely to be attributed to individual differences Analytic Journalistic Approach (Morgan, 1996). The major limitations of group interviews The analytic journalistic approach, which is a field of jour- are fear of judgment, forced compliance, and conformity in nalism that combines aspects of investigative journalism and relation to the group. In addition, in term of ethics, the issue explanatory reporting, was used for this study. Analytic jour- of confidentiality is sensitive, as the participants knew each nalism seeks to make sense of complex reality to foster other (Côté-Arsenault & Morrison-Beedy, 2005). 4 SAGE Open As described above, the participants had similar demo- Table 1. The Themes and Subthemes Identified From the Data. graphic characteristics, such as being in their 40s, being Themes Subthemes mothers and wives, and working in low-skilled jobs. However, they each had unique work experiences in Japan Communication Language Technology preceding their work at a preschool and abroad prior to their Support network Family arrival. In addition, the length of the women’s stays in Japan Church varied. They are unique individuals with unique experiences; Faith Dreams and hopes the homogeneity of their profiles along with the heterogene- Religion ity of their life experiences contributed to a lively discussion. Sense of identity Motherhood The participants tended to agree and not contradict one Honesty another. This lack of divergent opinions might be interpreted as a lack of dynamism; however, the participants continu- ously reinforced one another’s views by giving examples the three participants was semirandom as, after describing from their personal experience. The women each spent the study, three women were available and agreeable to par- approximately equal amounts of time discussing their ticipate. The inclusion criterion was to be a Filipino woman opinions. working legally in Japan but without permanent resident sta- In addition, this study was intercultural in at least two tus. There were no criteria based on age, health condition, ways. The setting in which the study was carried out was the marital status, or number of years lived in Japan. A focus native country of neither the moderator nor the interviewees. group interview was conducted in English after informed Although the interviewees were temporarily residing in consent was obtained from all three women. The interview Japan, it was obvious that none of them considered Japan lasted approximately 115 min in a private space close to the their “home.” preschool. An oral recording was made, transcribed verba- tim, checked against the recording, and finally edited for accuracy. The interview session began by asking the women The Participants to introduce themselves and describe their marital and famil- Three Filipino women aged 40, 43, and 44 years participated ial status, working situation, education, living conditions, in this study. They were all married and mothers. One was a and migration history. Next, a discussion was conducted mother of two teenage boys, the second a mother of a 5-year- regarding their migration experience and well-being. The old girl, and the third a mother of a 10-year-old boy. Their types of questions were influenced by the SWB theory based respective husbands were taking care of the children in the on three main constructs: positive affect, negative affect, and Philippines. All three women had experiences of working life satisfaction. Supplementary questions were asked for abroad, away from their families for many years, as nannies, clarifying some answers, such as the following: “Can you teachers’ aides, housekeepers, and caregivers. Before mov- give me examples?” “What do you mean?” “Interesting, ing to Japan, they had worked primarily in Singapore and please could you expand?” “You are telling me that [ . . . ]. Is Hong Kong. Their stay in Japan ranged from 2 to 11 years. that right or would you like to add something that I missed?” Each of the participants had a high school diploma, and one All questions aimed to explore factors related to health and had a degree in agronomy from a university in the Philippines. female immigration to a new country. They all had a certificate in caregiving, focusing on the care The terms discussion and interview are used synony- of young children and the elderly. The Filipino government mously in this study. The author was the moderator during following a training period issued the certificates. All three the group discussion. women had similar responsibilities in the present work. Their main responsibility was to assist the teachers with the chil- Data Analysis dren. They worked an average of 8 hr a day at the school. In addition, two of the women worked as personal home assis- The data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. tants for the elderly in private home setting four and five The data analysis is similarly reflexive and interactive, as nights per week. researchers continuously modified their treatment of the data to accommodate new data and insights about existing data (Sandelowski, 2000). Inspired by Sandelowski’s qualitative Data Collection description method, four themes and eight subthemes were In January 2015, one of the authors (S.P.-B.) was visiting identified (Table 1). Tokyo for scientific research. A Japanese acquaintance assisted the first author in contacting an international pre- Ethical Considerations school in central Tokyo where English was the working lan- guage for all employees. In that particular school, eight The data collection and presentation of the findings are sub- Filipino women worked as teachers’ aides. The selection of ject to the principles of international ethical standards for Paillard-Borg and Hallberg 5 conducting interviews with an individual capable of provid- working in Singapore and her children were still very young. ing informed consent to participate in a study with a descrip- She recalled crying every night because she was unable to tive design voluntarily. Swedish legal guidelines (The see them. She commented, “I do not know how I survived it, Swedish Code of Statutes, 2003) were followed. Relevant then came the application Messenger which allowed me to ethical guidelines were applied, such as autonomy, integrity, communicate with my family daily . . . now it is Skype, and and confidentiality of the informant and her surroundings I can see them . . . almost touch them.” Another participant when describing the results, in accordance with the World added that the Internet and Skype make a big difference and Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki (The World that without such technology she might have returned to the Medical Association, 2013). Philippines. They agreed that progress in communication technology was allowing them to keep their spirits up when they felt depressed: “When I am sad and depressed I talk to Results my sister via Skype and talk about my feelings or my hus- In this study, four main themes and six subthemes (described band and my kid and then suddenly I feel well. That is where below) were identified. The four main themes are communi- I get my strength from.” cation, support network, faith, and sense of identity. Communication and support network are related to the need Support Network to actively connect with a group and the importance of being a part of that group. In other words, the significance of not Family. The word family was recurrent throughout the inter- being alone and having external comfort. In contrast, faith view. It was mentioned 34 times—more often than any other and sense of identity are associated with the deepest sense of term. The absence of close family members, such as spouses self and personal values, or internal beliefs. All of these iden- and children, was a source of sadness to the interviewees, tified themes are associated with SWB. but at the same time, these relatives were an important per- sonal and emotional support network. The participants agreed that it was very painful to be away from their fami- Communication lies, but not having a family waiting and caring for them, Language. Difficulty in speaking and reading basic Japanese even from a distance, would be even more difficult. Two of is described as stressful for the participants. They added that, the women had family members living in Tokyo with whom at times, even after living in Japan for several years, it was a they met regularly. One woman said, “I meet every Sunday challenge to manage the basics, such as shopping at the super- with my sister-in-law and her family and it is nice because market: “ . . . language barrier is difficult especially when we talk about my family . . . it helps.” Another woman added going to the supermarket and not knowing what it is and what that her in-laws had lived in Japan longer than she had and to buy . . . ” The language barrier was the first factor reported this was a source of reassurance in case something were to by all three participants as having a negative impact on their happen to her. everyday well-being. Furthermore, not mastering the Japa- nese language created a feeling of dependency: “Whenever I Church. The three women belonged to different congrega- do not understand a document I ask some of my friends who tions and church groups, but they all agreed that these groups married Japanese men to translate . . . or even their children.” provided them not only with emotional support but also with The informants agreed that the feeling of having to bother functional support: “I go to church twice a week, and I meet somebody had an impact on their self-esteem. They com- my ‘brother and sisters’ from the Philippines, it feels good.” mented that it was especially unpleasant because they consid- They explained that this support from church members ered themselves proud and strong women, so this includes advice and practical solutions to problems. Such powerlessness regarding language was particularly difficult. support was synonymous with security and belonging, was One woman even added that her lack of Japanese language experienced as beneficial, and was associated with well- skills created a sense of alienation: “We also have Japanese being. Furthermore, when asked what the best support net- nationals in my church, so I get to see some Japanese, but I work available to them outside of work was, they all agreed can’t talk to them.” The women agreed that they were con- that it was the church network. tinually trying to learn the language, but it was difficult. They also agreed that, although the option to join Japanese lan- Faith guage courses had been offered to them, they could not find the time because of their workloads. Dreams and hopes. The participants’ willingness to continue working away from their families was motivated by their Technology. The participants unanimously praised progress hopes for a better future for their children. They wished for in technology for allowing them to communicate daily with their children to go to university and have the possibility of a their families and thereby remain “part of their children’s good job in the Philippines without needing to emigrate. One lives.” One participant remembered the time when she was woman shared that her son wanted to become a pilot: “If it is 6 SAGE Open his dream then it is my job, as a mother, to help him . . . but Discussion it is extending my time in Japan even longer.” They agreed Inadequate Language Ability that their dreams gave them faith and helped them feel better. They all had a plan for their future in the Philippines. They During the interview, the women showed the utmost respect dreamt of owning a store selling school supplies and rice, for their host country and acknowledged that it was better to building a house, owning and managing an organic farm: work in Japan compared with other Asian countries where “We share our dreams and talk about them . . . we feel they had previously worked. They said that the environment better.” felt safe and the salaries were higher in Japan. The interview- ing author observed that the women were guarded in their Religion. Faith in God was a recurrent theme for all three par- statements about Japan and did not want to risk revealing ticipants. One woman described herself as a Catholic, and their thoughts and feelings about it too openly to a stranger. the others belonged to different Christian communities with- Their statements regarding salary and safety, for instance, out naming them specifically. The agreed that they were were superficial. This attitude is common among migrants God-fearing people and that they obeyed the Bible: “We get and women, as they tend to feel vulnerable and often do not our trust from God . . . we pray when we have difficult days wish to expose themselves more than necessary (Piquero- and get our strength from that.” Ballescas, 2009). However, over the course of the interview, specific questions were asked regarding their well-being in the context of migration to Japan, and they became increas- Sense of Identity ingly more outspoken. One participant even stated that it felt Motherhood. Their roles as mothers were central to the inter- good to talk about feelings even in English. This comment view. Motherhood was described as the main reason for raised the opportunity to discuss their poor ability to com- immigrating alone: “Being a woman immigrating away from municate in Japanese. None of the women spoke fluent her family . . . it is a sacrifice . . . I am a sacrifice.” Living in Japanese, but just enough “To manage basic caretaking another country without being physically present for their duties” as they described it. The women shared their lack of children was reported to be emotionally painful. The women confidence in the Japanese social environment and the feel- explained that they were willing to deal with the pain because ing of being excluded, in great part due to the language bar- they were doing it “Out of motherhood” and for the future of rier. Beier and Kroneberg (2013) confirmed this statement their children. “We do that for the future of our children with the results of their study of immigrants in a European because if we stay in our country, it is too difficult to find a context. The authors showed that the language boundaries very good job, so we had to . . . even though it is difficult to drawn in different host societies affect the SWB of first- and separate from your children . . . we had to do it . . . ” The second-generation immigrants. Similar results were found in women expressed this common heartbreak, “hurting the an Israeli study of 50+ immigrants for whom the proficiency heart, the body and the soul,” in different ways. One referred of language was highly correlated to their SWB (Amit & to bodily aches and headaches, another to constant sadness, Litwin, 2010). The three participants admitted that it was up and the third even used the term mild depression. to them to learn the language of course, but Japanese is a dif- ficult language, and they could not find the time to study and Honesty. The participants were asked how they saw them- felt guilty about it. The ability to master a language is not selves, identified themselves, and wished to be seen. They only crucial for communication but also a necessity to described themselves as honest workers: “I would like to express emotions. In turn, it affects how people are perceived show that Filipino people are hard workers. It is our identity, in their social environment. It is directly linked to the three our pride. We are usually hard workers. Some are maybe not, constructs of SWB, which are positive affect, negative affect, but usually, we are.” They explained that, in Japan, the Fili- and life satisfaction (Diener, 1984). pino people are seen as “Hard workers who are ready to work extra.” One woman added that female Filipino workers were Emotional and Psychological Aspects highly trusted in Japanese homes: “Japanese employers need to see us as good people, trustworthy, quality people.” During the interview, the emotional and psychological Another woman explained that to have the reputation of aspects of SWB were primarily disclosed, whereas the physi- being an honest worker was important, but not sufficient. For cal or somatic aspects were relatively downplayed. In fact, her, it was also important to be identified as an honest resi- the mental health of migrants has become a major public dent: “For me, it is important that I am a law-abiding citizen health issue (Adanu & Johnson, 2009; Conrad & Pacquiao, because I am a foreigner here and I have to follow the law of 2005; Sigvardsdotter, Malm, Tinghög, Vaez, & Saboonchi, the country.” The participants agreed that it was a very posi- 2016). Physical distress, illness, and disease were only men- tive feeling to be recognized as honest. One woman added tioned when the situations of some of their acquaintances that it gave her self-respect, helped her in hard times, and were given as examples. The participants stated that they increased her SWB. knew of “some Filipino women” who worked to the point of Paillard-Borg and Hallberg 7 exhaustion and ignored symptoms of serious illnesses. To some extent, self-sacrifice becomes bearable and almost Examples of women dying from untreated cancers and heart the norm among migrant women. The women’s pragmatism disease were described. They clarified that the diseases went was reflected by their use of the church as a practical support untreated because these women did not seek treatment for network equally as important as their spiritual faith in God, as which they were eligible as legal migrants in Japan. They expressed by one of the women. To this comment, another added that these cases were not due to distrust toward the woman giggled and added, “Oh well . . . it is true; we need Japanese system but rather self-neglect and “emotional both . . . support and faith.” Indeed, self-accomplishment col- pain.” Adanu and Johnson (2009) explained that it is com- ored by religious faith and a strong sense of identity was cen- mon for women migrants to neglect their health due to fear of tral to SWB for these women even though the interviewees facing illness in a foreign country. This attitude can also be described their situation as very painful emotionally. However, linked to other psychological aspects related to the trauma of they described themselves as strong women with a sense of migration. A recent study on Serbian immigrants in Canada purpose as well as being “God-fearing” women. As one showed that self-esteem and sense of control have a positive woman said, “We never feel alone really . . . God is with us.” effect on mental health and all aspects of the SWB, whereas Another woman added that they did not belong to the same perceived discrimination and multiple discrepancies nega- churches, but their faith in God was identical. Tay, Li, Myers, tively affect SWB and mental health (Vukojević, Kuburić, & and Diener (2014) showed a pan-cultural positive relation Damjanović, 2016). between religiosity and SWB. More specifically, at the indi- vidual level, religiosity fulfills needs, and at the national level, collective religiosity can enhance prosocial behaviors. Pragmatism, Self-Accomplishment, Faith, and Furthermore, recent research also points to contextual effects Religion of religiosity. National religiosity can serve as a buffer against The migrant women in this study appeared to display mental difficult life circumstances, but it can also augment personal strength and relatively high satisfaction with life, one of the religiosity effects on SWB (Tay et al., 2014). In fact, the firm constructs of SWB, despite the hardship of their situation. Christian faith of the Filipino women is also affecting Japanese Pragmatism and self-accomplishment appear as essential com- society, as an increasing number of Christian free churches are ponents in the lives of these women. Pragmatism is necessary being established in Japan (Tsuda, 2002). for survival and the sense of self-accomplishment needed for life’s transcendences. In the context of this study, it seems like Implications pragmatism and self-accomplishment are not contradictory concepts but are rather complementary. Indeed, they coexist Japan will soon need to make significant decisions about the and even reinforce one another in the lives of these women. immigration issue (Sanda, 2014). Independently of the deci- The constructs of SWB, positive, negative affects, and life sat- sion made, the repercussions will likely have an impact on isfaction are well-illustrated in this dynamic (Diener, 1984). Japan and the countries’ sources of migrants. In the case of Two of the women defined their lives as a sacrifice for the Japan, Filipino women migrant workers are at the center of sake of their families and more specifically their children. The this debate (IOM, 2013). third participant nodded in approbation. Communicating daily Women’s health and well-being are crucial factors in achiev- with their families, via Skype or other social media, was very ing sustainable positive health development globally (Kuruvilla important for their emotional well-being as they described it. et al., 2016). More specifically, the feminization of migration It was foremost important for them to be able “to mother” their has become a major global health challenge for demographers, children even from a distance. These mothers were highly effi- as women represent the majority of migrants worldwide (IOM, cient and practical in this role. Uy-Tioco (2007) argues that the 2013). As the feminization of migration will probably intensify role of technology in the remote parent–child relationship is in the upcoming decades, a better understanding of the factors mostly positive, as it offers a new type of parenting and contributing to SWB is needed. Indeed, the migration process increases the well-being of the mothers and children. Being a can have a direct impact on SWB, as shown by Nowok, van mother was defined as the most important aspect of their lives, Ham, Findlay, and Gayle (2013) in a longitudinal study on a source of joy, and sometimes pain. Motherhood was migration and SWB. The authors argue that long-distance described as the reason for their actions and decisions. migrants have the potential to be at least as happy as short-dis- However, a study looking at the effects of transnational par- tance migrants despite the higher social and psychological enting on the subjective health and well-being of Ghanaian costs involved. In the case of international female migrants, migrants in the Netherlands found that migrant parents who migration can even provide new prospects to leave oppressive are separated from their children display worse outcomes than social relations, to improve their own lives and the lives of chil- their counterparts who live with their children in the destina- dren and other family members in the home country (De Leon tion country. Importantly, however, these differences were Siantz, 2013). However, women are, in the majority, vulnerable mediated by these parents’ lower socioeconomic and undocu- during the migration process due to their precarious legal sta- mented status (Dito, Mazzucato, & Schans, 2017). tus, often challenging working conditions, and health risks. 8 SAGE Open Migrant women are underprivileged by race/ethnicity, their sta- will improve, stigmatization will be prevented, long-term tus as nonnationals, and gender inequalities (Piper, 2005). health and social costs will be reduced, and integration will Therefore, concerns relate to their well-being and its impact on be facilitated. These strategies can only contribute to the their health. social and economic development of future generations. The implication of female migrants’ SWB relates not only Accessibility to health care is at the center of such discus- to themselves but also to their families in their home country. sions, as failure to provide such access will continue to ostra- Indeed, Emigration often results in disruption for the fami- cize migrant women in society, interfere with their human lies left behind (IOM, 2013). When a mother, sister, or rights, and sanction poor public health practices. daughter emigrates, it creates a void in the home country, and Finally, the civil society in host countries should take more specifically in her community. An adequate and sup- more responsibility by being informed about the actual liv- portive psychosocial environment in the host country might ing conditions of these migrant women. Greater understand- contribute to a more positive SWB and therefore mitigate the ing might potentially lead to more empathy, integration, and negative effects of migration in both the home and host coun- therefore a higher SWB. tries (Parreñas, 2005). Knowing that family and community members have a decent life in the host country alleviates Acknowledgments anxiety and worry in the home country (Parreñas, 2005). The authors thank the three participants for participating in the study. Conclusion Declaration of Conflicting Interests The findings of this case study highlight the extraordinary The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect capacity of migrant women to adapt. One can then wonder if to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. this adaptability is a blessing or a curse. It is a blessing because of the power of resilience. It is also a curse, as miser- Funding able living conditions, affecting health and well-being, are The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support endured by too many. The banalization of the situation and for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This acceptance of such living conditions, which should be unac- study was supported by the Swedish Red Cross University College. ceptable, has become the norm in the context of female migration in too many places. More specifically, in this ORCID iD study, the women reported finding comfort or at least a Stéphanie Paillard-Borg https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1968-2326 source of well-being by being in contact with others, belong- ing to a group, and in experiencing a strong sense of self and References personal values. The domains related to SWB identified herein belong to a larger global health perspective. Adams, B. G., & van de Vijver, F. J. (2015). The many faces of expatriate identity. 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In Filipino diaspora in Asia: Social and per- at the Swedish Red Cross University College in Stockholm, sonal networks, organizing, empowerment, ethnicity, and cul- Sweden. He mainly researches on information systems for socio- ture (pp.19-33). Report submitted to the Japan Academy for the economic development in lifelong learning and health contexts, Promotion of Sciences: Grant-in-Aid for International Scientific with focus on the UN Global Goals for Sustainable Development. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

The Other Side of the Mirror: An Analytic Journalistic Approach to the Subjective Well-Being of Filipino Women Migrant Workers in Japan:

SAGE Open , Volume 8 (1): 1 – Feb 7, 2018

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Abstract

In its political structural reform, the Japanese government presents the urgency to consider an increase in labor mobility that includes the issue of immigration to Japan. Women from Southeast Asia represent a large proportion of this immigration. The aim of this case study was to identify factors associated with subjective well-being (SWB) among Filipino women migrant workers in Tokyo, Japan. The study used an analytic journalistic approach. A focus group interview was conducted with three women and the data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Communication, support network, faith, and sense of identity were identified as the main factors contributing to SWB among these women. In conclusion, the feminization of migration will continue; therefore, better understanding about the factors associated to SWB is needed to ease the impact of migration on home and host countries. Keywords analytic journalistic approach, female migration, focus group, subjective well-being, Japan “Sexual harassment is the norm in hostess work” (Parreñas, Introduction 2011). Living conditions for migrant women are challenging More open and flexible immigration laws have been dis- in several aspects and not limited to work circumstances cussed at the highest levels of Japanese government for sev- (Parreñas, 2015). The results of a recent systematic review of eral years (“Japanese Women and Work”, 2014). In fact, the the physical, mental, social, and economic situation of Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, highlighted the urgency migrant women in Japan in the perinatal period revealed of increasing labor mobility in his political structural reform. important issues. It is not uncommon for these women to This reform includes the revision of Japanese immigration experience language barriers, problematic relationships with law. Its objective is to raise the country’s gross domestic prod- partners, illegal residency, emotional distress, physical dis- uct (GDP) and to solve the emerging demographic crisis, tress, adjustment difficulties, lack of utilization of services, which are both sensitive topics in Japan (Sanda, 2014). social isolation, lack of support, lack of information, low Most migrants to Japan working in low-skilled occupa- economic status, unsatisfactory health care, and discrimina- tions are women from Southeast Asia, more specifically the tion (Kita et al., 2015). These results are supported by other Philippines (Asis, 2002; Llewelyn & Hirano, 2009). These studies describing the difficulties these women face trying to women often travel to the host country alone and find them- integrate into Japanese society either as wives or as workers selves in a vulnerable position. Despite the risks, an increas- (Cheng & Choo, 2015; Parreñas, 2010). ing number of Filipino women, married and unmarried, Human rights activists have raised legitimate alarm regard- skilled and unskilled, are seeking work abroad (Asis, 2002). ing the legal status, working conditions, undocumented over- Strict immigration policy has made it historically difficult for time, salaries, and rights of migrants (Llewelyn & Hirano, these women to immigrate to Japan. For instance, time-lim- ited working visas have traditionally been provided to women “entertainers,” while job-training schemes funnel The Swedish Red Cross University College, Huddinge, Sweden migrants into low-paid jobs (Roberts, 2008). Many Filipino Corresponding Author: women work in Japan as hostesses or entertainers. However, Stéphanie Paillard-Borg, The Swedish Red Cross University College, there are many downsides to this occupation. As Rhacel Department of Health Sciences, P.O. 1059, SE-141 21 Huddinge, Sweden. Email: pais@rkh.se Salazar Parreñas articulates in her book Illicit Flirtations, Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open 2009). Human trafficking is one of the many dangers faced by to different people and varies according to individual and com- these women, and Japan has been placed on a United Nations munity expectations and context. Even though the WHO defi- (UN) watch list in this regard (Noguchi, 2006). A clearer nition has frequently been criticized for its vagueness, it is immigration policy might mitigate these issues, as long as it relevant to this study of female migration. Indeed, the health of respects international labor law standards and human rights these vulnerable women is not based merely on the presence or regulations (International Organization for Migration [IOM], absence of disease but also their well-being. Indeed, well-being 2013). By continuing without a well-defined and rigorous is an aspect of health that individuals, public health profession- immigration law, the risk of abuse remains high (Noguchi, als, and policymakers alike wish to improve. However, it is 2006). From a societal perspective, a relatively high degree of also an ambiguous concept lacking a universally acceptable uneasiness regarding foreign immigration prevails in Japan. definition and often subject to competing interpretations. Well- “Social costs” associated with education, lower wages due to being is generally viewed as a description of the state of a per- competition, and deteriorating public safety caused by son’s life situation (McGillivray, 2007, p. 3). Well-being is increasing criminality are among the main concerns (Llewelyn challenging to define and even harder to measure. In general, & Hirano, 2009). Furthermore, increased immigration would well-being measures can be classified into two broad catego- force Japan to move from a homogeneous and exclusionist ries: objective and subjective. Objective measures utilize society to a heterogeneous and inclusive one. Consequently, observable facts, such as economic, social, and environmental this development would threaten ancestral social organiza- statistics. In contrast, subjective measures capture people’s tion. Historically, conservative political groups have widely feelings or real experiences directly, assessing well-being exploited this fear (Komai, 1995). In accordance with the through ordinal measures (McGillivray & Clarke, 2006). general concern regarding immigration, Japanese labor Ed Diener, a leading researcher in positive psychology, unions tend to refuse immigration of “skilled” workers, such coined the expression “subjective well-being” (SWB) as the as proficient nurses from Southeast Asia, even though demand aspect of happiness that can be empirically measured (Diener, for nurses is increasing in this aging society (The Japan 1984). He developed a theory “The tripartite model of subjec- Institute for Labor Policy and Training, 2004). Interestingly, tive well-being,” which describes how individuals experience statistics show that Japanese women, in general, tend to be the quality of their lives by including both cognitive judg- more in favor of immigration than men, and “Generation Y” ments and emotional reactions (Diener, 1984). The theory of is more accepting than “Generation X” and previous genera- SWB is built on the following three constructs: positive tions (Llewelyn & Hirano, 2009). affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction based on evalua- Migration is a global phenomenon provoking social dis- tions of one’s satisfaction with general and specific areas of ruption in both home and host countries at various levels one’s life (Diener, 1984; Diener, 2000; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & (Adanu & Johnson, 2009). The Filipino population since the Smith, 1999). It has been argued that these three constructs 1970s has experienced this phenomenon (IOM, 2013). At an must be understood separately, even though they are closely individual level, the process of migration is often associated related. In the same study, Diener et al. (1999) claim that with physical and mental illness and even severe trauma SWB tends to be stable over time and is strongly related to (Helgesson, Tinghög, Niederkrotenthaler, Saboonchi, & personality traits. Furthermore, there is evidence that health Mittendorfer-Rutz, 2016). The migratory conditions of the and SWB may reciprocally affect each other, as good health female population are complex in at least two regards. The tends to be associated with greater happiness. Many studies first is mental stress related to the migration process, which have found that optimism and positive emotions can have a can go undiagnosed or underdiagnosed by health profession- favorable impact on health (Diener & Chan, 2011). als, as the presentation of symptoms may be unfamiliar due As increasing concerns are raised about the working condi- to cultural differences (Lassetter & Callister, 2009). Another tions and respect for the human rights of low-skilled foreign issue is that many of these women work to the point of female workers, Japanese politicians and economists both see exhaustion, as they often accumulate multiple jobs (Lassetter foreign immigration as an urgent necessity for boosting the & Callister, 2009; Simon, 2010). economy and demographic growth (IOM, 2013; Sanda, 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) definition of health However, very little is known about the SWB of migrant is “A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being women in general (Adanu & Johnson, 2009; Iglesias, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” It suggests Robertson, Johansson, Engfeldt, & Sundquist, 2003; Kita that health is a continuum and extends the notion of health to et al., 2015), and to our knowledge, no studies have looked at include states of positive well-being (WHO, 1946). Health is the SWB of Filipino women migrant workers in Japan. still often presented in terms of its negative aspect (e.g., ill health), and the main concern of the “medical field” is the pres- Aim ence or absence of sickness, disease, injury, and disability. However, the situation is much more complex. Health is a con- An analogy sometimes used by migrants is that living as a cept that relates to and describes a person’s state of being. It is migrant woman in Japan is living “on the other side of that therefore highly subjective. Good health means different things society” or “the other side of the mirror.” The analogy Paillard-Borg and Hallberg 3 illustrates their thoughts about living in a society where they public understanding. It was developed as a response to the might lead invisible, anonymous, and sometimes difficult growing complexity of the globalized world and information lives. Therefore, the aim of this case study is to identify the overload. Its ambition is to generate evidence-based interpre- domains in the lives of Filipino women migrant workers in tations of reality or a specific phenomenon (Hunter, 2015). Tokyo (Japan) associated with SWB. In doing so, this study Methods from social science research are often used in seeks to reduce their anonymity. analytic journalism (Lindolf & Taylor, 2011). The primary goal of investigative journalism is to expose (though it may also be somewhat analytical). However, the central aim of Method analytic journalism is to contextualize the subject according to its background, historical, statistical, and qualitative data. This case study is part of a larger project called “Women’s The usefulness of analytic journalism is often found in the voices in a shifting global health landscape.” It was moti- analysis and exploration of the facts rather than the mere facts vated by combined scientific and journalistic desire to hear themselves (John & Johnson, 2012). The use of qualitative the “voices” of women around the world regarding urgent data in analytic journalism allows the investigation of a given modern issues in which they play central roles (Paillard-Borg topic to begin with a preliminary idea before revealing more & Holmgren, 2016; Paillard-Borg & Strömberg, 2014). The significant issues than were originally apparent. This then condition of migrant Filipino women in Japan is among these permits the research to capture the complexity of a phenom- concerns. enon within its real-life context (Author, 2014; Iorio, 2004). The term migrant has become increasingly controversial, The influence of language is of major importance for journal- and a pertinent question is now being asked in academia and ists and researchers, as they often meet people of diverse the media: What is the difference between “migrants,” “expats,” backgrounds. To understand how the choice of language “guest workers,” etc.? According to Koutonin (2015), migra- influences an interview situation, the cultural background of tion is a complex phenomenon, and its related terminology the interviewee must be recognized as far as is possible, that must be used correctly, especially in the media. The author fur- is, cultural validity (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013). ther argues, “In the popular lexicon of human migration there are still hierarchical words, created with the purpose of putting white people above everyone else.” He comments that Arabs, Combining Journalism and Social Science Africans, and Asians are considered to be (im)migrants, A focus group interview with an analytic journalistic whereas Europeans are treated as expats. He adds, approach is an appropriate choice of method for describing social phenomena in a world of increasing complexity It’s strange to hear some people in Hong Kong described as expats, but not others. Anyone with roots in a Western country is (Greenbaum, 2000; Iorio, 2004; McLafferty, 2004). The considered an expat . . . Filipino domestic helpers are just guest journalistic approach uncovers human values and lived expe- workers, even if they’ve been here for decades. riences without making any claims of generalizability (Partlett & Hamilton, 1976). Adams and van de Vijver (2015) also support this argu- The purpose of using a group was to encourage the par- ment, suggesting that an expatriate is a highly skilled indi- ticipants to interact with one another during the session. vidual who is most likely expected to be from a Western According to Greenbaum (2000), there are no substantive country and work for a multinational company. Ultimately, differences regarding group size other than the absolute the UN Convention on the Rights of Migrants defines a number of participants. Indeed, smaller groups are often migrant worker as a “person who is engaged or has been more manageable than larger groups composed of strangers, engaged in a remunerated activity in a State of which he or which require more moderator intervention. A smaller group, she is not a national” (UN, 1998). Therefore, for the purpose as it was the case in the present study, requires a more inti- of this study, the term migrant is based on the UN definition. mate approach before commencing, which is often favored Consistent with this definition, Filipino women working out- when the topic requires more in-depth analysis (McLafferty, side the Philippines for a finite period mostly as low- or 2004). The group including three women in the present study semi-skilled workers are referred to as Filipino women was rather homogeneous concerning demographic character- migrant workers (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality istics, which helped increase the internal validity of the and the Empowerment of Women, 2017). study, as preexisting differences in knowledge, skill, ability, and attitudes were minimized. Therefore, the difference in data is less likely to be attributed to individual differences Analytic Journalistic Approach (Morgan, 1996). The major limitations of group interviews The analytic journalistic approach, which is a field of jour- are fear of judgment, forced compliance, and conformity in nalism that combines aspects of investigative journalism and relation to the group. In addition, in term of ethics, the issue explanatory reporting, was used for this study. Analytic jour- of confidentiality is sensitive, as the participants knew each nalism seeks to make sense of complex reality to foster other (Côté-Arsenault & Morrison-Beedy, 2005). 4 SAGE Open As described above, the participants had similar demo- Table 1. The Themes and Subthemes Identified From the Data. graphic characteristics, such as being in their 40s, being Themes Subthemes mothers and wives, and working in low-skilled jobs. However, they each had unique work experiences in Japan Communication Language Technology preceding their work at a preschool and abroad prior to their Support network Family arrival. In addition, the length of the women’s stays in Japan Church varied. They are unique individuals with unique experiences; Faith Dreams and hopes the homogeneity of their profiles along with the heterogene- Religion ity of their life experiences contributed to a lively discussion. Sense of identity Motherhood The participants tended to agree and not contradict one Honesty another. This lack of divergent opinions might be interpreted as a lack of dynamism; however, the participants continu- ously reinforced one another’s views by giving examples the three participants was semirandom as, after describing from their personal experience. The women each spent the study, three women were available and agreeable to par- approximately equal amounts of time discussing their ticipate. The inclusion criterion was to be a Filipino woman opinions. working legally in Japan but without permanent resident sta- In addition, this study was intercultural in at least two tus. There were no criteria based on age, health condition, ways. The setting in which the study was carried out was the marital status, or number of years lived in Japan. A focus native country of neither the moderator nor the interviewees. group interview was conducted in English after informed Although the interviewees were temporarily residing in consent was obtained from all three women. The interview Japan, it was obvious that none of them considered Japan lasted approximately 115 min in a private space close to the their “home.” preschool. An oral recording was made, transcribed verba- tim, checked against the recording, and finally edited for accuracy. The interview session began by asking the women The Participants to introduce themselves and describe their marital and famil- Three Filipino women aged 40, 43, and 44 years participated ial status, working situation, education, living conditions, in this study. They were all married and mothers. One was a and migration history. Next, a discussion was conducted mother of two teenage boys, the second a mother of a 5-year- regarding their migration experience and well-being. The old girl, and the third a mother of a 10-year-old boy. Their types of questions were influenced by the SWB theory based respective husbands were taking care of the children in the on three main constructs: positive affect, negative affect, and Philippines. All three women had experiences of working life satisfaction. Supplementary questions were asked for abroad, away from their families for many years, as nannies, clarifying some answers, such as the following: “Can you teachers’ aides, housekeepers, and caregivers. Before mov- give me examples?” “What do you mean?” “Interesting, ing to Japan, they had worked primarily in Singapore and please could you expand?” “You are telling me that [ . . . ]. Is Hong Kong. Their stay in Japan ranged from 2 to 11 years. that right or would you like to add something that I missed?” Each of the participants had a high school diploma, and one All questions aimed to explore factors related to health and had a degree in agronomy from a university in the Philippines. female immigration to a new country. They all had a certificate in caregiving, focusing on the care The terms discussion and interview are used synony- of young children and the elderly. The Filipino government mously in this study. The author was the moderator during following a training period issued the certificates. All three the group discussion. women had similar responsibilities in the present work. Their main responsibility was to assist the teachers with the chil- Data Analysis dren. They worked an average of 8 hr a day at the school. In addition, two of the women worked as personal home assis- The data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. tants for the elderly in private home setting four and five The data analysis is similarly reflexive and interactive, as nights per week. researchers continuously modified their treatment of the data to accommodate new data and insights about existing data (Sandelowski, 2000). Inspired by Sandelowski’s qualitative Data Collection description method, four themes and eight subthemes were In January 2015, one of the authors (S.P.-B.) was visiting identified (Table 1). Tokyo for scientific research. A Japanese acquaintance assisted the first author in contacting an international pre- Ethical Considerations school in central Tokyo where English was the working lan- guage for all employees. In that particular school, eight The data collection and presentation of the findings are sub- Filipino women worked as teachers’ aides. The selection of ject to the principles of international ethical standards for Paillard-Borg and Hallberg 5 conducting interviews with an individual capable of provid- working in Singapore and her children were still very young. ing informed consent to participate in a study with a descrip- She recalled crying every night because she was unable to tive design voluntarily. Swedish legal guidelines (The see them. She commented, “I do not know how I survived it, Swedish Code of Statutes, 2003) were followed. Relevant then came the application Messenger which allowed me to ethical guidelines were applied, such as autonomy, integrity, communicate with my family daily . . . now it is Skype, and and confidentiality of the informant and her surroundings I can see them . . . almost touch them.” Another participant when describing the results, in accordance with the World added that the Internet and Skype make a big difference and Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki (The World that without such technology she might have returned to the Medical Association, 2013). Philippines. They agreed that progress in communication technology was allowing them to keep their spirits up when they felt depressed: “When I am sad and depressed I talk to Results my sister via Skype and talk about my feelings or my hus- In this study, four main themes and six subthemes (described band and my kid and then suddenly I feel well. That is where below) were identified. The four main themes are communi- I get my strength from.” cation, support network, faith, and sense of identity. Communication and support network are related to the need Support Network to actively connect with a group and the importance of being a part of that group. In other words, the significance of not Family. The word family was recurrent throughout the inter- being alone and having external comfort. In contrast, faith view. It was mentioned 34 times—more often than any other and sense of identity are associated with the deepest sense of term. The absence of close family members, such as spouses self and personal values, or internal beliefs. All of these iden- and children, was a source of sadness to the interviewees, tified themes are associated with SWB. but at the same time, these relatives were an important per- sonal and emotional support network. The participants agreed that it was very painful to be away from their fami- Communication lies, but not having a family waiting and caring for them, Language. Difficulty in speaking and reading basic Japanese even from a distance, would be even more difficult. Two of is described as stressful for the participants. They added that, the women had family members living in Tokyo with whom at times, even after living in Japan for several years, it was a they met regularly. One woman said, “I meet every Sunday challenge to manage the basics, such as shopping at the super- with my sister-in-law and her family and it is nice because market: “ . . . language barrier is difficult especially when we talk about my family . . . it helps.” Another woman added going to the supermarket and not knowing what it is and what that her in-laws had lived in Japan longer than she had and to buy . . . ” The language barrier was the first factor reported this was a source of reassurance in case something were to by all three participants as having a negative impact on their happen to her. everyday well-being. Furthermore, not mastering the Japa- nese language created a feeling of dependency: “Whenever I Church. The three women belonged to different congrega- do not understand a document I ask some of my friends who tions and church groups, but they all agreed that these groups married Japanese men to translate . . . or even their children.” provided them not only with emotional support but also with The informants agreed that the feeling of having to bother functional support: “I go to church twice a week, and I meet somebody had an impact on their self-esteem. They com- my ‘brother and sisters’ from the Philippines, it feels good.” mented that it was especially unpleasant because they consid- They explained that this support from church members ered themselves proud and strong women, so this includes advice and practical solutions to problems. Such powerlessness regarding language was particularly difficult. support was synonymous with security and belonging, was One woman even added that her lack of Japanese language experienced as beneficial, and was associated with well- skills created a sense of alienation: “We also have Japanese being. Furthermore, when asked what the best support net- nationals in my church, so I get to see some Japanese, but I work available to them outside of work was, they all agreed can’t talk to them.” The women agreed that they were con- that it was the church network. tinually trying to learn the language, but it was difficult. They also agreed that, although the option to join Japanese lan- Faith guage courses had been offered to them, they could not find the time because of their workloads. Dreams and hopes. The participants’ willingness to continue working away from their families was motivated by their Technology. The participants unanimously praised progress hopes for a better future for their children. They wished for in technology for allowing them to communicate daily with their children to go to university and have the possibility of a their families and thereby remain “part of their children’s good job in the Philippines without needing to emigrate. One lives.” One participant remembered the time when she was woman shared that her son wanted to become a pilot: “If it is 6 SAGE Open his dream then it is my job, as a mother, to help him . . . but Discussion it is extending my time in Japan even longer.” They agreed Inadequate Language Ability that their dreams gave them faith and helped them feel better. They all had a plan for their future in the Philippines. They During the interview, the women showed the utmost respect dreamt of owning a store selling school supplies and rice, for their host country and acknowledged that it was better to building a house, owning and managing an organic farm: work in Japan compared with other Asian countries where “We share our dreams and talk about them . . . we feel they had previously worked. They said that the environment better.” felt safe and the salaries were higher in Japan. The interview- ing author observed that the women were guarded in their Religion. Faith in God was a recurrent theme for all three par- statements about Japan and did not want to risk revealing ticipants. One woman described herself as a Catholic, and their thoughts and feelings about it too openly to a stranger. the others belonged to different Christian communities with- Their statements regarding salary and safety, for instance, out naming them specifically. The agreed that they were were superficial. This attitude is common among migrants God-fearing people and that they obeyed the Bible: “We get and women, as they tend to feel vulnerable and often do not our trust from God . . . we pray when we have difficult days wish to expose themselves more than necessary (Piquero- and get our strength from that.” Ballescas, 2009). However, over the course of the interview, specific questions were asked regarding their well-being in the context of migration to Japan, and they became increas- Sense of Identity ingly more outspoken. One participant even stated that it felt Motherhood. Their roles as mothers were central to the inter- good to talk about feelings even in English. This comment view. Motherhood was described as the main reason for raised the opportunity to discuss their poor ability to com- immigrating alone: “Being a woman immigrating away from municate in Japanese. None of the women spoke fluent her family . . . it is a sacrifice . . . I am a sacrifice.” Living in Japanese, but just enough “To manage basic caretaking another country without being physically present for their duties” as they described it. The women shared their lack of children was reported to be emotionally painful. The women confidence in the Japanese social environment and the feel- explained that they were willing to deal with the pain because ing of being excluded, in great part due to the language bar- they were doing it “Out of motherhood” and for the future of rier. Beier and Kroneberg (2013) confirmed this statement their children. “We do that for the future of our children with the results of their study of immigrants in a European because if we stay in our country, it is too difficult to find a context. The authors showed that the language boundaries very good job, so we had to . . . even though it is difficult to drawn in different host societies affect the SWB of first- and separate from your children . . . we had to do it . . . ” The second-generation immigrants. Similar results were found in women expressed this common heartbreak, “hurting the an Israeli study of 50+ immigrants for whom the proficiency heart, the body and the soul,” in different ways. One referred of language was highly correlated to their SWB (Amit & to bodily aches and headaches, another to constant sadness, Litwin, 2010). The three participants admitted that it was up and the third even used the term mild depression. to them to learn the language of course, but Japanese is a dif- ficult language, and they could not find the time to study and Honesty. The participants were asked how they saw them- felt guilty about it. The ability to master a language is not selves, identified themselves, and wished to be seen. They only crucial for communication but also a necessity to described themselves as honest workers: “I would like to express emotions. In turn, it affects how people are perceived show that Filipino people are hard workers. It is our identity, in their social environment. It is directly linked to the three our pride. We are usually hard workers. Some are maybe not, constructs of SWB, which are positive affect, negative affect, but usually, we are.” They explained that, in Japan, the Fili- and life satisfaction (Diener, 1984). pino people are seen as “Hard workers who are ready to work extra.” One woman added that female Filipino workers were Emotional and Psychological Aspects highly trusted in Japanese homes: “Japanese employers need to see us as good people, trustworthy, quality people.” During the interview, the emotional and psychological Another woman explained that to have the reputation of aspects of SWB were primarily disclosed, whereas the physi- being an honest worker was important, but not sufficient. For cal or somatic aspects were relatively downplayed. In fact, her, it was also important to be identified as an honest resi- the mental health of migrants has become a major public dent: “For me, it is important that I am a law-abiding citizen health issue (Adanu & Johnson, 2009; Conrad & Pacquiao, because I am a foreigner here and I have to follow the law of 2005; Sigvardsdotter, Malm, Tinghög, Vaez, & Saboonchi, the country.” The participants agreed that it was a very posi- 2016). Physical distress, illness, and disease were only men- tive feeling to be recognized as honest. One woman added tioned when the situations of some of their acquaintances that it gave her self-respect, helped her in hard times, and were given as examples. The participants stated that they increased her SWB. knew of “some Filipino women” who worked to the point of Paillard-Borg and Hallberg 7 exhaustion and ignored symptoms of serious illnesses. To some extent, self-sacrifice becomes bearable and almost Examples of women dying from untreated cancers and heart the norm among migrant women. The women’s pragmatism disease were described. They clarified that the diseases went was reflected by their use of the church as a practical support untreated because these women did not seek treatment for network equally as important as their spiritual faith in God, as which they were eligible as legal migrants in Japan. They expressed by one of the women. To this comment, another added that these cases were not due to distrust toward the woman giggled and added, “Oh well . . . it is true; we need Japanese system but rather self-neglect and “emotional both . . . support and faith.” Indeed, self-accomplishment col- pain.” Adanu and Johnson (2009) explained that it is com- ored by religious faith and a strong sense of identity was cen- mon for women migrants to neglect their health due to fear of tral to SWB for these women even though the interviewees facing illness in a foreign country. This attitude can also be described their situation as very painful emotionally. However, linked to other psychological aspects related to the trauma of they described themselves as strong women with a sense of migration. A recent study on Serbian immigrants in Canada purpose as well as being “God-fearing” women. As one showed that self-esteem and sense of control have a positive woman said, “We never feel alone really . . . God is with us.” effect on mental health and all aspects of the SWB, whereas Another woman added that they did not belong to the same perceived discrimination and multiple discrepancies nega- churches, but their faith in God was identical. Tay, Li, Myers, tively affect SWB and mental health (Vukojević, Kuburić, & and Diener (2014) showed a pan-cultural positive relation Damjanović, 2016). between religiosity and SWB. More specifically, at the indi- vidual level, religiosity fulfills needs, and at the national level, collective religiosity can enhance prosocial behaviors. Pragmatism, Self-Accomplishment, Faith, and Furthermore, recent research also points to contextual effects Religion of religiosity. National religiosity can serve as a buffer against The migrant women in this study appeared to display mental difficult life circumstances, but it can also augment personal strength and relatively high satisfaction with life, one of the religiosity effects on SWB (Tay et al., 2014). In fact, the firm constructs of SWB, despite the hardship of their situation. Christian faith of the Filipino women is also affecting Japanese Pragmatism and self-accomplishment appear as essential com- society, as an increasing number of Christian free churches are ponents in the lives of these women. Pragmatism is necessary being established in Japan (Tsuda, 2002). for survival and the sense of self-accomplishment needed for life’s transcendences. In the context of this study, it seems like Implications pragmatism and self-accomplishment are not contradictory concepts but are rather complementary. Indeed, they coexist Japan will soon need to make significant decisions about the and even reinforce one another in the lives of these women. immigration issue (Sanda, 2014). Independently of the deci- The constructs of SWB, positive, negative affects, and life sat- sion made, the repercussions will likely have an impact on isfaction are well-illustrated in this dynamic (Diener, 1984). Japan and the countries’ sources of migrants. In the case of Two of the women defined their lives as a sacrifice for the Japan, Filipino women migrant workers are at the center of sake of their families and more specifically their children. The this debate (IOM, 2013). third participant nodded in approbation. Communicating daily Women’s health and well-being are crucial factors in achiev- with their families, via Skype or other social media, was very ing sustainable positive health development globally (Kuruvilla important for their emotional well-being as they described it. et al., 2016). More specifically, the feminization of migration It was foremost important for them to be able “to mother” their has become a major global health challenge for demographers, children even from a distance. These mothers were highly effi- as women represent the majority of migrants worldwide (IOM, cient and practical in this role. Uy-Tioco (2007) argues that the 2013). As the feminization of migration will probably intensify role of technology in the remote parent–child relationship is in the upcoming decades, a better understanding of the factors mostly positive, as it offers a new type of parenting and contributing to SWB is needed. Indeed, the migration process increases the well-being of the mothers and children. Being a can have a direct impact on SWB, as shown by Nowok, van mother was defined as the most important aspect of their lives, Ham, Findlay, and Gayle (2013) in a longitudinal study on a source of joy, and sometimes pain. Motherhood was migration and SWB. The authors argue that long-distance described as the reason for their actions and decisions. migrants have the potential to be at least as happy as short-dis- However, a study looking at the effects of transnational par- tance migrants despite the higher social and psychological enting on the subjective health and well-being of Ghanaian costs involved. In the case of international female migrants, migrants in the Netherlands found that migrant parents who migration can even provide new prospects to leave oppressive are separated from their children display worse outcomes than social relations, to improve their own lives and the lives of chil- their counterparts who live with their children in the destina- dren and other family members in the home country (De Leon tion country. Importantly, however, these differences were Siantz, 2013). However, women are, in the majority, vulnerable mediated by these parents’ lower socioeconomic and undocu- during the migration process due to their precarious legal sta- mented status (Dito, Mazzucato, & Schans, 2017). tus, often challenging working conditions, and health risks. 8 SAGE Open Migrant women are underprivileged by race/ethnicity, their sta- will improve, stigmatization will be prevented, long-term tus as nonnationals, and gender inequalities (Piper, 2005). health and social costs will be reduced, and integration will Therefore, concerns relate to their well-being and its impact on be facilitated. These strategies can only contribute to the their health. social and economic development of future generations. The implication of female migrants’ SWB relates not only Accessibility to health care is at the center of such discus- to themselves but also to their families in their home country. sions, as failure to provide such access will continue to ostra- Indeed, Emigration often results in disruption for the fami- cize migrant women in society, interfere with their human lies left behind (IOM, 2013). When a mother, sister, or rights, and sanction poor public health practices. daughter emigrates, it creates a void in the home country, and Finally, the civil society in host countries should take more specifically in her community. An adequate and sup- more responsibility by being informed about the actual liv- portive psychosocial environment in the host country might ing conditions of these migrant women. Greater understand- contribute to a more positive SWB and therefore mitigate the ing might potentially lead to more empathy, integration, and negative effects of migration in both the home and host coun- therefore a higher SWB. tries (Parreñas, 2005). Knowing that family and community members have a decent life in the host country alleviates Acknowledgments anxiety and worry in the home country (Parreñas, 2005). The authors thank the three participants for participating in the study. Conclusion Declaration of Conflicting Interests The findings of this case study highlight the extraordinary The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect capacity of migrant women to adapt. One can then wonder if to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. this adaptability is a blessing or a curse. It is a blessing because of the power of resilience. It is also a curse, as miser- Funding able living conditions, affecting health and well-being, are The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support endured by too many. The banalization of the situation and for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This acceptance of such living conditions, which should be unac- study was supported by the Swedish Red Cross University College. ceptable, has become the norm in the context of female migration in too many places. More specifically, in this ORCID iD study, the women reported finding comfort or at least a Stéphanie Paillard-Borg https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1968-2326 source of well-being by being in contact with others, belong- ing to a group, and in experiencing a strong sense of self and References personal values. The domains related to SWB identified herein belong to a larger global health perspective. Adams, B. G., & van de Vijver, F. J. (2015). The many faces of expatriate identity. 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SAGE OpenSAGE

Published: Feb 7, 2018

Keywords: analytic journalistic approach; female migration; focus group; subjective well-being; Japan

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