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The Gym as a Culture of Body Achievement: Exploring Negative and Positive Body Image Experiences in Men Attending University:

The Gym as a Culture of Body Achievement: Exploring Negative and Positive Body Image Experiences... This study qualitatively explored the body image experiences of men attending university (N = 20). Participants were interviewed about comfortable and uncomfortable body-related situations. Participants also completed a measure of drive for muscularity. A thematic analysis was conducted. The results showed that the most commonly identified comfortable situation was the gym and was characterized by opportunities for positive social comparison and to wear physique-salient clothing to emphasize those positive comparisons and feelings of achievement. The gym and the beach were identified as the most common uncomfortable body-related situations characterized by a negative social comparison and associated negative thoughts and feelings related to the self and body, as well as situations involving the presence of women. Coping strategies included exercise and diet to change one’s appearance, avoidance, self-talk, and social support. Findings add to the growing understanding of the complexity of both negative and positive body image in men. Keywords social evaluation, positive body image, men, university students, qualitative research There has been much research examining how body image theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), using the sweater- concerns change depending on certain contextual factors. swimsuit paradigm to maximize body exposure (and self- This body of research has found that manipulations such as objectification), have resulted in mixed results. Specifically, watching media images representing the “ideal” body, the some research has shown such exposure to exacerbate body presence of a group, the gender make-up of the group, and image concerns (i.e., body shame, appearance anxiety), body exposure (i.e., clothing type) among other manipula- whereas others have shown no change in some body image tions can exacerbate body image concerns (Bailey, Lamarche, outcomes (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, & Gammage, 2014; Cloudt, Lamarche, & Gammage, 2014; 1998). In addition, findings testing the tenets of self-objecti- Gammage, Martin Ginis, & Hall, 2004; Hausenblas, Janelle, fication in women have been both similar and different to Gardner, & Hagan, 2003; Lamarche, Gammage, Kerr, findings in men. Moradi and Huang (2008) highlighted that Faulkner, & Klentrou, 2014, 2016; Martin Ginis, Strong, it cannot be assumed that situations related to body image Arent, & Bray, 2012; Quinn, Kallen, & Cathey, 2006). concerns in women are the same for men. In a study of uni- Traditionally, this area of research comprises of samples of versity students highlighting this point, Morry and Staska White, young adult women. (2001) found that exposing women to magazines featuring There has been an effort to expand this literature to the female ideal (e.g., beauty magazines) was associated include other samples including, but not limited to, adoles- cent boys, young men, older adults, and special populations. McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada For example, Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004) showed that Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada exposing male university students to media images that rep- Corresponding Author: resent the ideal male physique compared with neutral images Larkin Lamarche, Assistant Professor (Part-time), Research Associate, increases muscle dissatisfaction. Other manipulations have Department of Family Medicine, David Braley Health Sciences Centre, also been shown to increase body image concerns among McMaster University, 100 Main Street West, 5th Floor, Hamilton, men although findings have been mixed (Moradi & Huang, Ontario, Canada L8P 1H6. 2008). For example, studies framed in self-objectification Email: lamarche@mcmaster.ca Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open with the internalization of the thin ideal, which in turn was as self-esteem and positive body image outcomes (Swami linked to self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and eat- et al., 2008; Swami, Stieger, Haubner, & Voracek, 2008; ing disorder symptoms (Moradi & Huang, 2008). However, Tylka, 2013; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013), with much for men, exposure to fitness, rather than beauty magazines, focus on psychometric evaluation of surveys. Webb, Wood- was linked to internalization of cultural standards of attrac- Barcalow, and Tylka (2015) stated that qualitative research tiveness, which in turn was associated with body dissatisfac- (see McHugh, Coppola, & Sabiston, 2014) has contributed tion (Moradi & Huang, 2008). greatly to the area of positive body image. Qualitative Although the above findings are informative regarding approaches have also been instrumental in theory and mea- contextual factors that elicit body-related concerns, one key surement development (Tylka, 2011; Tylka & Wood- shortcoming to this area of research is that the majority of Barcalow, 2015; Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, & Augustus- these experimental manipulations have been determined by Horvath, 2010). researchers, thus, findings are not participant-driven. Mixed-methods approaches have also been useful to fur- Allowing participants to freely identify situations of height- ther our understanding of components of positive body ened body-related concerns and describe the contextual fac- image. Castonguay, Gilchrist, Mack, and Sabiston (2013) tors of these situations in their own words can provide unique examined triggers, contexts, cognitive attributions, and information missed through a quantitative research design in affective, cognitive, and behavior outcomes of body pride in which the researchers determine which contextual factors to young adult men and women. The authors used a relived manipulate and how these factors will be manipulated. This emotion task protocol that required participants to write a limitation in the literature was also noted by Smith-Jackson, detailed narrative of an experience of body-related pride. Reel, and Thackeray (2011) and Lamarche, Kerr, Faulkner, Their findings highlighted important theoretical and empiri- Gammage, and Klentrou (2012) who explored body image cal differences between hubristic and authentic body-related experiences of women qualitatively. pride. Hubristic pride situations were sport or exercise con- In a study on young adult men, Adams, Turner, and Bucks texts, involved evaluating one’s appearance as superior com- (2005) used semistructured interviews to explore the phe- pared with others, and feelings of superiority. Authentic nomenon of body dissatisfaction. Findings supported the pride situations were sport or exercise contexts, involved cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of body dis- meeting or exceeding a physical performance or fitness goal, satisfaction (Cash, 2002), with the perception and awareness and associated with feelings of positivity of one’s self and of a discrepancy between themselves and the ideal para- accomplishment. The present study will not only qualita- mount to the experience of body dissatisfaction. Adams et al. tively explore negative body image experiences, beyond (2005) provided support for taking a qualitative approach to body dissatisfaction (Adams et al., 2005), but, consistent bring out the complexity of body image in men. However, with the positive body image movement, it will also explore Adams et al. focused on one type of negative body image situations of male body comfort or confidence (beyond experience—body dissatisfaction. Broadening the under- body-related pride; Castonguay et al., 2013) and the context standing of negative body image to include other types of of those experiences. This was particularly important, given experiences, beyond body dissatisfaction, can further illus- that in studies with female samples participants report expe- trate the complexity of body image. The present study riencing both positive and negative body image (Smith- allowed men to identify and describe uncomfortable body- Jackson et al., 2011). related situations aimed to capture a comprehensive picture In addition to allowing men to identify and describe spe- of negative body image experiences in the words of men. cific situations of body confidence/comfort and discomfort The primary focus of Adams et al. (2005) was the experi- in their own words, the present study sought to understand ence of body dissatisfaction—a negative body image experi- coping responses to deal with the heightened body image ence, which is consistent with body image research concerns. Past research has provided limited understanding historically. That is, traditionally research has focused on regarding coping with situations that influence body image negative body image (Smolak & Cash, 2011). However, concerns. Although still limited in scope, findings from past within the past 10 years, there has been a shift to explore research have identified both adaptive and maladaptive cop- positive body image (i.e., Menzel & Levine, 2011; Piran & ing responses to situations of heightened body image con- Teall, 2012; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Tylka (2011, cerns. In both men and women, maladaptive coping strategies 2012) noted that studying body image should include an (e.g., avoidant coping) are associated with greater body dis- exploration of both positive and negative aspects to allow satisfaction, body dyphoria, less positive body image quality researchers to gain a full understanding of body image as a of life, and a greater belief that physical appearance influ- construct. The examination of positive body image in men ences personal self-worth (Cash, Santos, & Williams, 2005). has generally taken a quantitative approach, assessing gender Research on coping with body image concerns has primarily differences in body appreciation (Swami, Hadji-Michael, & explored associations between coping strategies as measured Furnham, 2008; Tylka, 2013; Tylka & Kroon van Diest, by the Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory (Cash et al., 2013) or relationships between psychosocial variables, such 2005) and psychological variables in women or adolescents Lamarche et al. 3 (Bailey, Lamarche, Gammage, & Sullivan, 2016; Choma, “breeding grounds” for body image issues (Striegel-Moore Shove, Busseri, Sadava, & Hosker, 2009; Hrabosky et al., & Franko, 2002, p. 189), and university is an important time 2009; Hughes & Gullone, 2011). Two qualitative studies in which physical appearance is critical to the impressions have explored coping strategies to two situations differing in formed by others, therefore providing the potential for many level of body evaluation in women (Bailey et al., 2014) and opportunities of high body image concerns. Exclusion crite- in a participant-identified situation of high social physique ria included self-reported diagnosis of, or treatment for, an anxiety in adolescent girls and boys (Kowalski, Mack, eating disorder. Participant demographic characteristics are Crocker, Niefer, & Fleming, 2006). One key finding across found in Table 1. No new information (positive or negative these qualitative studies is that people use a wider range of situations, responses, coping strategies) was emerging after coping strategies, beyond those identified quantitatively, and the 20th interview, which indicated saturation was achieved that the nature of the situation may lead to different coping and data collection ended (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Guest, strategies. Due to the relatively limited research on body Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). image coping in various situations and specific to young men, a second purpose of this study was to more fully explore Measures and describe body-related coping strategies among men. Demographic information (age, height, weight, university major) was completed. Participants also provided informa- Method tion regarding their strength training history and completed the Godin Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire Study Design (GLTPAQ; Godin & Shephard, 1985). Specifically, partici- A qualitative research design was used to allow for partici- pants indicated the number of times they participated in mild, pant-driven information regarding body image experiences moderate, and vigorous intensity physical activity for at least in which men felt body-related comfort or confidence and in 15 min over a 7-day period. For scoring, mild, moderate, and situations where men felt uncomfortable about their body. vigorous intensity activity is multiplied by known metabolic This approach was used to gain a rich understanding of the equivalents (3, 5, and 9, respectively) and then summed to context of such body image situations and the coping yield a total score. responses of men when faced with uncomfortable body situ- We sought to have a sample of men with different levels ations. As suggested by Lamarche et al. (2012), taking a of drive for muscularity to explore potential differences in qualitative approach provided the opportunity to get more responses based on this construct. Thus, the Drive for in-depth data often missed through the use of quantitative Muscularity Scale (DMS; McCreary & Sasse, 2000) was designs. Similar to Lamarche et al. (2012), an inductive the- used to measure drive for muscularity. Fifteen questions matic analysis approach was used to identify, code, and assess an individual’s perception of one’s musculature and report themes in the data as outlined by Braun and Clarke feeling that bulk should be added to one’s frame in the form (2006). Coding focused on the contextual factors of uncom- of muscle mass. Participants rate how each statement applies fortable body situations, responses to these situations, and to them from 1 to 6 (always to never). Participants were clas- coping strategies used to deal with the situations, as well as sified into high (DMS score ≥ 3.00; n = 12) or low (DMS the contextual factors of situations of body comfort or con- score < 3; n = 8) DMS groups to explore potential differences fidence and responses to these positive body situations. This in their responses to interview questions. specific approach has been suggested to explore positive body image as it can advance theory and as it advocates for Interview. Interviews were used for data collection. Mousta- consensus of multiple coders that enhances credibility and kas’s (1994) recommendations were followed as noted above replicability (Webb et al., 2015). Based on Moustakas’s to gain textual and structural descriptions of participants’ (1994) recommendation for in-depth interviews, two broad, body-related experiences. Using Lamarche et al.’s (2012) general questions were used as a guide: (a) “What have you interview guide questions, participants were asked to list experienced in terms of the phenomenon?” and (b) “What uncomfortable and comfortable body-related situations. situational factors or contexts have influenced the experi- Other open-ended questions were asked to gain information ence of the phenomenon?” Such questions provide the tex- about the contextual factors of these situations and how men tual and structural description necessary for understanding cope with uncomfortable body situations. Participants were experiences. asked about their personal lived experiences, as well as what they thought other men at university experience in terms of uncomfortable and comfortable/confidence body situations. Participants This approach is suggested to allow for greater discussion of The sample consisted of 20 men who were attending a south- potentially sensitive information (Lamarche et al., 2012). western university in Ontario, Canada. We interviewed men See the appendix for the interview guide, which was adapted attending university because colleges have been described as from Lamarche et al. (2012). 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Demographic Characteristics for Each Participant. Pseudonym Age Weight (lb) Height (in.) BMI Length of interview DMS Steve 21 220 68 33.45 16:22 High Josh 18 175 73 23.09 17:38 High Peter 22 200 73 26.38 15:33 High Dylan 19 230 72 31.19 18:07 Low Jake 19 133 67 20.83 17:44 Low Matt 18 168 68 25.54 29:40 High Chris 20 140 68 21.28 19:02 Low Mike 19 150 67 23.49 15:00 High Larry 23 245 72 33.22 23:34 Low Lucas 19 140 66 22.59 26:53 High Mark 23 181 70 25.97 16:55 High Alex 23 170 70 24.39 15:54 High Henry 24 165 70 23.67 33:42 Low John 22 137 70 19.66 27:36 Low Nick 22 155 70 22.24 27:37 Low Zac 21 165 67 25.84 19:33 High Tyson 19 195 75 24.37 15:24 High Derek 23 174 62 31.82 19:37 Low Rick 26 180 69 26.58 29:06 High Martin 21 160 67 25.06 23:55 High Sample M (±SD) 21.10 (±2.20) 174.15 (±30.96) 69.20 (±2.97) 25.53 (±4.01) 21:26 (±05:46) 3.14 (±0.96) Note. DMS ranges from 1 to 6; High = DMS ≥ 3.00, Low = DMS < 2.99. BMI = body mass index; length of interview = minutes:seconds; DMS = Drive for Muscularity Scale. on the meaning of a group of texts that help to describe a Procedures concept in similar manner. Challenging the first-level themes University ethics clearance was first obtained. Participant and subthemes was completed by asking whether the data recruitment was done through poster advertisements on the related to one of the research questions. The process was university campus and classroom announcements. Men were kept flexible so that the themes or subthemes could be invited to participate in a one-on-one interview to describe refined. The end result of this process would be the thematic their negative and positive body experiences. Interested par- structure that has reconstructed the data most reasonably. ticipants contacted the first author to schedule an interview. At Finally, transcripts were reread to ensure that all transcripts the interview, informed consent as well as demographic infor- applied to the final thematic map, with a focus on exploring mation was completed. Participants then took part in a one-on- potential differences in experiences between men catego- one interview. All interviews were audiotaped and took place rized as having high versus low drive for muscularity. in the same private office on campus. Upon completing the Quotations that illustrate themes are included. Data analysis interview, participants completed the GLTPAQ and the DMS. followed Lamarche et al. (2012). Participants received C$10.00 or research participation course To foster credibility of the findings as recommended by credit as compensation. Fake names (pseudonyms) were Lincoln and Guba (1985), two coders were using during the assigned to participants to maintain confidentiality. data analysis process as well as member checking. Specifically, the first author coded 100% of the transcripts and the third author (as second coder) coded 50% of the tran- Data Analysis scripts. This acted as a process of peer debriefing (Lincoln & The first author transcribed verbatim the audio recordings. A Guba, 1985) such that the reconstruction of the data done by frequency count determined the most commonly identified the first author could be challenged by the second author. No positive and negative body-related situations. Following disagreements in coding or interpretation were found as a Braun and Clarke (2006), themes were identified within the result of this peer debriefing process. Member checking data through a thematic analysis. For this, the transcripts (Creswell, 2007) was also used 1 week following the inter- were read several times, followed by a categorization of view. Participants reviewed a summary report sent by lead first-level themes. The first-level categorization was done by author via email and articulated any part that did not repre- identifying recurring ideas relevant to the study’s purpose. sent their interview by clarifying any misrepresentations. Subthemes were identified next, which involved reflecting This process allowed for verification on the accuracy of the Lamarche et al. 5 Table 2. Thematic Map Outlining Themes for Comfortable and Uncomfortable Situations. Question Comfortable situations Uncomfortable situations Context Opportunity Physique-salient clothing Ideal target Gender makeup for social “Being shirtless” [Zac] “When there is a guy who Girls around; girls giving comparison Sleeveless short to show arms [Lucas] is better in shape. . .the attention to fitter guys [Rick] “the gym is a place Wearing tank tops [Matt] comparison is so obvious; you you can show Exposed, shirtless [Chris] see it side-by-side” [Dylan] off your work” [Chris] Responses General Comparison Achievement Physiological Body Self-related Comparison related Happy [Martin] related related Runner’s high “I need to get Feel “low on the Not the buffest, not the best Healthy, satisfied Being the “Feel like I’m [Larry] this muscle man scale” looking [Peter] [Matt] fittest, most progressing Endorphins bigger” [Dylan] Confidence boost, in shape toward a [Matt] [Mike] Feel inferior “if I can do this [Mark] goal” [Matt] [Martin] [go to the gym] “ask yourself I can push for why ‘is there other things something [grades in wrong with school]” [Peter] me?’” [Tyson] Coping Not applicable Avoidance Self-talk Behaviors Social support strategies “find an escape “Tell say ‘I’m Do push-up Talk to route” doing what to look girlfriend [Henry) I can’ ‘I feel bigger, use [Martin] Change the good about supplements Hang out subject my body’ ‘it [Lucas] with friends [Alex] doesn’t really Workout you’re Joke about it, matter what [Chris] comfortable laugh it off other people with [Chris] [Nick] think’” [Alex] Note. Themes are underlined; information under themes relates to specific examples that emerged from participants’ responses. interviewer’s interpretations. All member checks indicated or pool (n = 5), having sex (n = 3), and being with friends or that the summaries were representative of what participants girlfriends (n = 3). It should be noted that the situations par- intended to convey during the interview. These steps have ticipants thought other men at university found comfortable also been recommended to advance positive body image were the same as their self-identified situations. Furthermore, research using qualitative designs (Webb et al., 2015). it was stated by several participants that “lots of guys don’t care” (Matt) and guys are confident everywhere and are com- fortable all the time. These statements were made by men Results with high and with low drive for muscularity. This section is divided into the results pertaining to those body situations characterized by comfort or confidence and Context of comfortable situations. Situations in which partici- those which were identified as uncomfortable body situa- pants felt comfortable or confident involved two key ele- tions. Each section includes the identification of specific sit- ments—the opportunity for social comparison and wearing uations, the contextual factors, and/or responses to these physique-salient clothing. The gym or working out and play- situations (see Table 2 for the thematic map). Results regard- ing sports were described as situations that offer opportuni- ing the frequency with which these situations occur and the ties to compare one’s appearance and skill with others. Chris coping mechanisms to deal with uncomfortable situations stated, “the gym is a place you can show off your work.” are also described. It should be noted that no meaningful dif- Dylan described the gym as a setting in which he could com- ferences were found between men with high and low drive pare himself with others and see physical results, “you see for muscularity. you have more muscle, more in shape, and look better than others.” Larry summarizes the gym setting as “a place guys can show off their bodies, show off their goods.” Traits of Body Situations of Comfort and Confidence comparison involved the body’s appearance in addition to The most commonly identified comfortable body-related sit- the body’s function (i.e., strength, skill). The gym and play- uation was the gym (n = 20), as determined by a frequency ing sports allowed participants to show how they can lift count, followed by playing sports (n = 16). Other situations weights or that they were skilled at a specific sport. In identified included going to the bar (n = 5), being at the beach describing the context of playing hockey, Derek stated that 6 SAGE Open he felt comfortable and confident because he was making image or what other people thought about him physically; it moves no one else could make and that the commentator for was more about “hitting [lifting] a certain weight.” In fact the event remarked in his ability to skate. It should be noted some participants stated that the feelings and thoughts were that all the described comparisons were downward, that is, not body-specific or about making impressions on other peo- participants perceived themselves to be stronger, fitter, more ple, but about feeling as though their body is capable of in shape, or more skilled than their comparison target. Martin achievement of their goals. Nick stated feeling as though his stated that being able to keep up with the pack skill-wise body was not a barrier [to performance]. Steve stated, “I (playing intramural sports) meant that he was not being wasn’t thinking about what I was looking like, I was thinking judged by others or negatively evaluated. about what I was doing.” Matt said he was feeling “a sense of The second contextual element of situations of body com- hope that the goal is achievable” and “a sense of pride with fort or confidence was wearing clothing that emphasized their appearance.” Similar to the general confidence-related bodies. This contextual element was particularly noted in the remarks, Peter stated that achievement in these settings can gym and beach situations. Being shirtless, wearing tight-fit- transfer to other contexts in life; he explained, “if I can do ted muscle shirts, sleeveless shirts, or specifically “wearing this [lift a certain weight], I can push for other things like Underarmour” (Josh) were all noted. This type of clothing better marks [in school].” allowed participants to show off their bodies. Wearing cloth- Participants also described physiological sensations in ing that allowed men to show off their bodies was related to situations of body comfort or confidence. Such responses the above theme in that it allowed for body comparisons. included “a body buzz” (Peter), “the pump” (Steve) or “a One noteworthy finding regarding comfortable situations half hour inflated feeling” (Alex), “feeling the endorphins” was that the gym was described as a place of body confi- (Matt), and “a runner’s high” (Larry). All participants who dence because of its perceived culture of body achievement. described physiological sensations appeared to describe Peter described the gym as, “almost like a clique” and there these sensations in a positive sense as they indicated achieve- is a sense that everyone is striving for a shared goal, to ment of a goal. It should be noted that such descriptions also achieve a good body. In participants’ description of the gym, appear in response to performing exercise itself as well as in there was a sense of the shared pursuit of body achievement response to the body-related situation per se. toward the ideal or self-improvement toward a body goal that makes this situation comfortable. Matt said that “guys aren’t Uncomfortable Body Situations concerned about what other people are thinking at the gym because everyone else is working toward the same goal.” There was a greater range of situations identified that made men feel uncomfortable or not confident about their bod- Responses to comfortable situations. The responses identified ies. The most commonly identified uncomfortable body and described by participants with respect to comfortable situation was the gym (n = 10) followed by the beach or situations can be grouped into four categories: general, com- pool (n = 9). Other situations identified included any situ- parison related, achievement related, and physiological. ation that involved being shirtless (n = 6) or involved a General responses included “feeling good,” “getting a confi- comparison (n = 5). Being in the change room or shower (n dence boost,” and “feeling healthy.” It was noted by a few = 5), playing sports (n = 4), going to the bar (n = 3), and participants that the feeling of confidence went beyond the sexual encounters (n = 2) were also mentioned. gym or sporting setting. Dylan stated that “you feel confi- There was a range of responses when asked how often dence about other things. Being in shape gives you confi- these types of situations occur for men. For some, there are dence toward communicating with people and everyday weekly occurrences of uncomfortable situations and for other situations.” He went on to say that it is “confidence to the participants these situations occur daily or multiple times per point of cocky sometimes.” Alex described the confident day. Matt stressed that uncomfortable situations occur more feeling as “being high on yourself.” frequently than comfortable situations because “there is Comparison-related thoughts were also described by the always someone better than you.” Chris said that even for majority of participants. Lucas described comparing himself attractive guys, uncomfortable situations occur. John stated with others and feeling good about that comparison. Tyson that unlike what some people believe, “most guys are gener- simply stated his feeling in his comfortable situation (the ally not confident all the time and have a low level of being gym), “well, I’m fitter than them, I’m taller.” He noted that uncomfortable.” Tyson stressed that it occurs more often at he was clearly in better shape than others and could lift more university because it is a place you are trying to establish weight at the gym and noted feeling a bit cocky. yourself and meet a life partner. Interestingly, Mike stated, “3 Achievement-related thoughts included focus on the pro- out of 10 guys experience [uncomfortable] situations fre- gression toward a goal, a sense of satisfaction with achieving quently, but if guys could talk about it, then 6 or 7 out of 10 goals, and feeling motivated to keeping working and improv- guys would experience them frequently.” There were no ing on one’s appearance and function (i.e., skill or strength). meaningful differences in the situations identified by men Henry noted that he did not care about the ideal appearance with high versus low drive for muscularity. Lamarche et al. 7 Context of uncomfortable situations. Two themes emerged if a guy has a bad body image then they think “I guess I won’t be able to hook up with girls” but if a guy has a better body image with regard to the context of uncomfortable situations. First, then they think “oh yeah come to university and try to hook up the majority of participants mentioned that uncomfortable with a lot of girls.” situations were characterized by those that highlighted they were not the best looking or “buffest” of the group, that is, an Dylan went on to describe his thoughts and feelings in his “ideal” male target was present, or at least someone who most recent uncomfortable body-related situation, being in was closer to the ideal than they were. Dylan highlighted that a hot tub with a mixed-gender group of friends. He said, it essentially “depends on being in shape or not being in “Ok I’ll keep me head just out of the water so they can only shape.” Larry said that everything is compared, “comparing see my head . . . I wouldn’t want to be the last one out of the muscles, comparing haircuts.” Both Lucas and Mike men- hot tub, I would feel low on the man scale.” Other general tioned that even “comparing penis sizes is possible” and feelings, such as feeling ashamed of oneself, disappointed occurs. When describing this contextual factor, it was obvi- with oneself, or embarrassed were also described. Nick ous that the true comparison was against the male ideal—a described being unhappy with himself and ability in his V-shaped torso, tall, muscular, and sculpted representing most uncomfortable situation (being around girls). John masculinity. Words such as bigger, taller, stronger, more described his body as a uniform and if his uniform was not attractive, and fitter were used to articulate this contextual up to his standards, this would lead him to evaluate other factor of uncomfortable situations. Situations in which par- aspects of himself negatively. One important aspect of his ticipants did not measure up to this standard, or fell short of “uniform” was his hair; it was “the only part of [his] appear- it, were described as uncomfortable. ance [he was] nitpicky about” and required daily grooming. The second contextual factor was the gender makeup of He explained that if his uniform, particularly his hair, was the group, that is, if women were present, then situation not up to his standards, he would feel not only unappealing, was deemed uncomfortable. This factor was oftentimes but also a below standard person. mentioned in combination with the above contextual factor, The last category of responses to uncomfortable body that is, the presence of a more ideal man. Derek said that situations were those associated with a comparison target. “being surrounded by girls made the comparison worse.” Several participants were aware of comparison-related Matt said his body image was worse “even if women are thoughts and feelings. In reference to being in the gym sur- talking about hot guys [around him].” Nick said that “men rounded by fitter males, Zac said that he thought, “Oh that are always trying to impress women whether they know it could be me if I worked harder or done things differently” or not.” Larry explained that the presence of women was and specifically said he was aware of these comparisons with particularly salient at the bar, which he also described as a other guys. Rick also described such comparison-related competition setting. Rejection by women was an added thoughts and noted that his comparisons were “unreason- layer of this contextual factor; not only was the presence of able” and would compare himself with “huge guys” to the women described as characterizing uncomfortable situa- point of “being curious about how they got that big.” Martin tions, but also being rejected by women was particularly felt that he was being judged by other people and felt a sense detrimental. Tyson did not want to describe the context of of inferiority. Nick noted “intimidation” to some of these his last uncomfortable body-related situation—being turned comparison targets. down by a woman at a bar. Responses to uncomfortable situations. The responses identi- Coping with uncomfortable situations. In describing how men fied and described by participants with respect to uncom- deal with uncomfortable situations, four categories emerged: fortable situations can be grouped into three categories: avoidance, positive self-talk, behaviors, and social support. body-related, self-related, and comparison-related thoughts A few different types of avoidance coping responses were and feelings. Body-related responses included feeling dis- described, including ignoring the situation, trying to not pay satisfied with body and muscle size, wanting to be attrac- attention to it, leaving the situation, blending into the back- tive, feeling fat, and having dissatisfaction with specific ground, avoiding the situation altogether, or changing the body aspects such as abdominals or height. Lucas said, conversation or putting one’s mind elsewhere. Using humor “Well, I know I don’t have height, I don’t have definition, was noted as a common coping mechanism including mak- and I don’t have mass.” Some participants described a desire ing fun of oneself or others to deflect attention from one’s to change those aspects and wishing they would change body. Nick went to the extreme of quitting hockey when faster. describing how he dealt with his uncomfortable body-related Described thoughts and feelings about the body were situation of not being as skilled and strong as other male linked to thoughts and feelings about oneself as a person. For hockey players. Drinking alcohol was also a described cop- example, Tyson said that when encountering his last uncom- ing mechanism, particularly in situations at the bar or sur- fortable situation, he thought to himself, “Is there something rounded by girls to gain confidence. Mike said, “if you’re wrong with me? Is it how I look?” Dylan explained that drinking alcohol you’re not thinking about your body.” 8 SAGE Open Positive self-talk was also described by the majority of men feel comfortable about their body as well as uncomfort- participants. For example, in uncomfortable body-related able about their body were identified and contextual factors situations, Alex said he tells himself, “I’m doing what I can, of those situations were described. Coping responses to I feel good about my body, it doesn’t really matter what other uncomfortable situations were also articulated by partici- people think.” Martin explained about turning his “bad inter- pants. The findings related to uncomfortable body image nal feelings into motivation to change.” Steve also described situations are consistent with those of Adams et al. (2005) using negative feelings as motivation to change one’s appear- who explored men’s experience with body dissatisfaction ance. Statements reflecting body acceptance were also specifically. Themes and subthemes of sexual affirmation/ expressed. For example, Dylan specifically stated “body rejection and comparison within the interpersonal domain acceptance” as a way of dealing with uncomfortable body- (Adams et al., 2005) are closely related to contextual factors related situations and “realiz[ing] that’s the way you look, of uncomfortable situations of the present study (e.g., gender everyone is unique and different.” makeup and ideal comparison target, respectively). Findings Behaviors were also described as coping responses. are also consistent with quantitative research in men show- Behaviors such as exercise and diet were described by the ing body image is negatively affected by seeing media majority of participants as coping responses that were images of the Western male ideal (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, deemed healthy ways to change one’s appearance. 2004). Furthermore, some participants described changing one’s Although the present study sought to broaden understand- posture, either slouching to become smaller (to hide) or ing of the experience of negative body image to capture more sucking in one’s stomach or standing up straighter to appear than body dissatisfaction by specifically asking about taller and take up more space. Taking supplements to gain “uncomfortable situations,” findings were still similar to the muscle was mentioned by several participants. Matt even experience of body dissatisfaction specifically (Adams et al., admitted being open to having plastic surgery on his face as 2005) and there is little evidence within this study of experi- a way to deal with uncomfortable body situations. ences outside body dissatisfaction. Perhaps when asked Using social support was noted as a coping strategy. This about uncomfortable body situations, participants automati- category was characterized by surrounding oneself with sup- cally thought of situations characterized by body dissatisfac- portive others who are nonjudgmental. Social support was tion as this is a common experience, especially in university, also characterized by surrounding oneself with people who and is consistent with normative discontent within North will help goal achievement. For example, Matt said, “I’m a America (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985). It big fan of observational learning. I want to learn from a role could also be related to the finding that the majority of men model and befriend people who I see a quality I want because in the current study mentioned that it is difficult for men to obviously they’re doing something right.” This may be the talk about their body concerns. This was particularly evident reason why Matt said “[he] surrounds [him]self with guys in (hesitantly) describing the use of social support as a means who are fit.” Interestingly, social support was described as an of coping with uncomfortable body image situations. It is effective coping strategy but one that was lacking or not possible that by talking about less extreme feelings of nega- appropriate for men to use. Peter stated, “females assume tive body image versus extreme situations characterized by they have it worse, but men also feel uncomfortable in their intense shame, which participants may have experienced, own body.” He explained, “people think ‘oh we’re men and they were able to fit the stereotype that men do not talk about we have to leave it to ourselves’ but it’s important to talk to “this stuff” seriously as Mike puts it. Placing parameters someone. We need someone to talk to.” Matt alluded to the within the questions to target certain types, and perhaps more pressure of being masculine and that talking about body extreme feelings, of negative body image experiences may image issues goes against that image; he said, “no guy wants be necessary (i.e., body shame, embarrassment, guilt, weight to talk about how their appearance compares to others, that’s stigma, body-related teasing). Using the relived emotion task considered gay, that’s why there is so much emphasis on how (Ekman, Levenson, & Freiesen, 1983) in a similar manner as much you can lift.” He continued and said that men worry just Castonguay et al. (2013) to understand body-related pride as much as women, but that men need to hide those issues and situations may be useful. not talk about it. Mike said, “I don’t really see guys talking Findings with respect to comfortable body image situa- about this stuff [body image issues], just in a joking sense.” tions closely resemble situations that have the potential to He said that “guys don’t want to show people they have emo- lead to downward comparisons as outlined by social com- tions and if they get emotional, other than angry, then he’s a parison theory (Festinger, 1954). That is, comfortable situa- baby or being a girl.” Larry simply stated that “guys won’t tions are those characterized by comparisons with a target talk about body problems because that’s not what guys do.” whereby the individual perceives himself to be better off than the comparison target and, in the context of body image, the attribute of interest was the body’s appearance or func- Discussion tion. It would appear too that the second contextual factor of The present study qualitatively explored body image experi- comfortable body image situations, physique-salient cloth- ences in men at university. Specifically, situations where ing, somehow allows for a more direct comparison or Lamarche et al. 9 emphasizes the downward direction of the comparison. to dissatisfaction whereby a perceived discrepancy between Contextual factors found in the present study do not neces- the individual and a nearby male ideal target existed. sarily always reflect theoretical or empirical underpinnings Together, these findings highlight the need to go beyond of positive body image as we had hoped with our broad ques- simply identifying situations and instead stress the impor- tion to understand situations in which men feel comfortable tance of examining the contextual factors of situations as or confident about their bodies (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, well as psychological responses one may have within vary- 2015). Concepts such as body appreciation, body accep- ing situations. It also highlights the need to distinguish tance, and love, a broad conceptualization of beauty, adap- between the types of pride empirically and theoretically in tive investment in appearance, and inner positivity (Tylka & research to understand the varying triggers, contexts, and Wood-Barcalow, 2015) were rarely explicitly mentioned. responses of authentic and hubristic pride (Castonguay In fact, contrasting comparison-related and achieve- et al., 2013). ment-related themes with respect to responses to comfort- able body-related situations that were described, there was Limitations and Future Directions a clear link to the different types of body pride—authentic and hubristic (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007). Castonguay Despite its contributions to the literature, limitations to the et al. (2013) found differences in triggers and contexts of present study should be noted. It should be noted that this hubristic versus authentic pride experiences described by was a convenience sample of men attending a southwest- men and women. Specifically, authentic pride experiences ern Ontario, Canada university with limited variability in were most commonly those of personal achievement or terms of age and education; however, it does allow for maintenance of appearance or meeting/exceeding a physi- comparison of the present findings with past research con- cal performance/fitness goal with associated feelings of ducted in similar samples of men (i.e., Castonguay et al., accomplishment, motivation, and confidence. By contrast, 2013). Furthermore, although not specifically documented, hubristic pride experiences were most commonly those it is likely that responses may vary among men of different rooted in social comparison on appearance or physical per- ethnic and racial backgrounds as well as sexual orienta- formance/fitness with associated feelings of superiority tions. Second, although we attempted to find meaningful (Castonguay et al., 2013). The present findings comple- differences between men with high versus low drive for ment those of Castonguay et al. (2013), highlighting that muscularity, other constructs may be better able to group body-related situations in which men feel comfortable or men based on certain attributes (i.e., self-esteem, internal- confident may represent those of authentic as well as ization of the masculine ideal, gender role stereotypes). hubristic pride. This may be particularly true for positive body image vari- Coping strategies described in the present study are con- ables such as body appreciation. The use of a truly mixed- sistent with Adams et al.’s (2005) themes centered on reduc- methods approach to gain deeper understanding of positive ing the discrepancy between the individual and the ideal or body image has been recommended (Webb et al., 2015). tolerating this discrepancy. Coping strategies were also con- Although gaining a deeper understanding of positive body sistent with items within all three broad categories of coping image specifically was not necessarily the purpose of the (positive rational acceptance, avoidance, and appearance fix- present study, we did want to understand situations of posi- ing) of the Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory (Cash tive body image broadly. Perhaps meaningful differences et al., 2005). would have emerged if we purposely sampled men with One interesting observation in the findings was that “the high compared with low body appreciation. We have no gym” was identified as the most commonly identified doubt that given the exponential rise in positive body uncomfortable body image situation as well as the most image research over the past decade, future studies will commonly identified situation of body comfort or confi- attempt to further understand the context of body image dence. This finding is consistent with Marquez and situations that are associated with body appreciation and McAuley (2001) who found that working out or playing a other positive body image indicators in men. It may also be sport was reported by 21% of men to be a situation high in important to test the hypotheses regarding the differences physical evaluation/threat, and by 54% of men to be low in between authentic and hubristic pride that have emerged. physical evaluation/threat. Furthermore, in our study, the The present study as well as others (Castonguay et al., contextual factor related to social comparison that made 2013) may offer a methodological insight for designing comfortable situations comfortable was the same contex- such situations for experimental research in men—design- tual factor that made uncomfortable situations, uncomfort- ing a positive situation that can be used to empirically able; that is, the gym may offer opportunities for a social measure responses as well as assess potential moderators comparison, and if that comparison led the person to believe that may influence the direction or magnitude of such he was “fitter,” “stronger,” or “better” than someone, it was responses may be possible in a laboratory setting. Findings described as a positive situation; however, the gym also from this study and others support the complexity of body meant those same opportunities for comparisons could lead image, both negative and positive. 10 SAGE Open d. What are you feeling, what are you thinking? Appendix Physical/Psychological. It should be noted that this interview guide was adapted 8. How do you think college-aged men cope when faced from Lamarche, Kerr, Faulkner, Gammage, and Klentrou with uncomfortable situations? (2012). Prompts Key Questions a. Consider both positive and negative ways to 1. What specific situations can you identify in which cope immediately with those types of situations college-aged men may feel confident or comfortable (social factors, physical factors, behaviors). with their bodies? b. What, if anything, do college-aged men do 2. What specific situations can you identify in which frequently or consistently to prepare to face you feel confident or comfortable with your body? such situations? What long term coping 3. Think about the last time you felt comfortable about mechanisms do college-aged men use to your body. Describe the context (or the details) of cope with uncomfortable situations? that situation. 9. Think about the last situation in which you felt uncomfortable about your body. How did you cope Prompts with that situation? a. What makes this situation comfortable? b. Describe where you are (physical context). Prompts c. Describe who (if anyone) you are with (social context). a. What, if any , other ways you considered cop- d. What are you feeling, what are you thinking? ing with it? Why didn’t you use these other Physical/Psychological. coping mechanisms? 4. What specific situations can you identify in which b. If this situation was to happen again, would college-aged men feel uncomfortable about their you use the same coping strategy or a differ- bodies? ent one? Why or why not? 5. In what specific situations do you feel uncomfortable 10. Think about the time when you felt most uncomfort- about your body? able about your body. How did you cope? a. How often does this occur? b. Which of these situations make you most Prompts uncomfortable? least uncomfortable? a. What, if any, other ways you considered cop- 6. Think about the last time you felt uncomfortable ing with it? Why didn’t you use these other about your body and describe the context of that coping mechanisms? situation b. If this situation was to happen again, would you use the same coping strategy or a differ- Prompts ent one? Why or why not? a. What makes this situation uncomfortable. Concluding questions b. Describe where you are (physical context). c. Describe who (if anyone) you are with 1. Is there anything you would like to add or any infor- (social context). mation you feel I missed? d. What are you feeling, what are you thinking? 2. Is there any other questions you would like to ask Physical/Psychological. me? 7. Think about the time when you have felt most uncomfortable about your body. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Prompts to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. a. What makes this situation uncomfortable. Funding b. Describe where you are (physical context). The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support c. Describe who (if anyone) you are with for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: (social context). Lamarche et al. 11 Funding for this research was provided by the Social Sciences and exercise context. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, Humanities Research Council of Canada. 179-190. Glaser, B. 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Lincoln, Assessing positive body image: Contemporary approaches and NB: University of Nebraska Press. future directions. Body Image, 14, 130-145. Smith-Jackson, T., Reel, J. J., & Thackeray, R. (2011). Coping with Wood-Barcalow, N. L., Tylka, T. L., & Augustus-Horvath, C. L. “bad body image days”: Strategies from first-year young adult (2010). “But I like my body”: Positive body image characteris- college women. Body Image, 8, 335-342. tics and a holistic model for young-adult women. Body Image, Smolak, L., & Cash, T. F. (2011). Future challenges for body 7, 106-116. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.01.001 image science, practice, and prevention. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, prac- Author Biographies tice, and prevention (2nd ed., pp. 471-478). New York, NY: Larkin Lamarche is an assistant professor (part-time) and research Guilford Press. associate in the Department of Family Medicine at McMaster Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Franko, D. L. (2002). Body image issues University. Their research examines body image experiences, with among girls and women. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), a specific interest in responses to, and coping with, body image Body images: A handbook of theory, research, & clinical prac- stress. tice (pp. 183-191). New York, NY: The Guildford Press. Swami, V., Hadji-Michael, M., & Furnham, A. (2008). Personality Kimberley L. Gammage is an associate professor in the Department and individual difference correlates of positive body image. of Kinesiology at Brock University. Her research examines positive Body Image, 5, 322-325. and negative body image using qualitative and quantitative methods Swami, V., Stieger, S., Haubner, T., & Voracek, M. (2008). across the lifespan and in diverse populations. She has a particular German translation and psychometric evaluation of the Body interest in the role of exercise in changing body image. Appreciation Scale. Body Image, 5, 122-227. doi:10.1016/j. Brianne Ozimok is a registered dietitian working with a Family bodyim.2007.10.002 Health Team. She enjoys working with a variety of individuals Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Show your pride: Evidence helping them to improve their overall health and accomplish their for a discrete emotion expression. Psychological Science, goals. 15(3), 194-197. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

The Gym as a Culture of Body Achievement: Exploring Negative and Positive Body Image Experiences in Men Attending University:

SAGE Open , Volume 8 (2): 1 – May 23, 2018

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Abstract

This study qualitatively explored the body image experiences of men attending university (N = 20). Participants were interviewed about comfortable and uncomfortable body-related situations. Participants also completed a measure of drive for muscularity. A thematic analysis was conducted. The results showed that the most commonly identified comfortable situation was the gym and was characterized by opportunities for positive social comparison and to wear physique-salient clothing to emphasize those positive comparisons and feelings of achievement. The gym and the beach were identified as the most common uncomfortable body-related situations characterized by a negative social comparison and associated negative thoughts and feelings related to the self and body, as well as situations involving the presence of women. Coping strategies included exercise and diet to change one’s appearance, avoidance, self-talk, and social support. Findings add to the growing understanding of the complexity of both negative and positive body image in men. Keywords social evaluation, positive body image, men, university students, qualitative research There has been much research examining how body image theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), using the sweater- concerns change depending on certain contextual factors. swimsuit paradigm to maximize body exposure (and self- This body of research has found that manipulations such as objectification), have resulted in mixed results. Specifically, watching media images representing the “ideal” body, the some research has shown such exposure to exacerbate body presence of a group, the gender make-up of the group, and image concerns (i.e., body shame, appearance anxiety), body exposure (i.e., clothing type) among other manipula- whereas others have shown no change in some body image tions can exacerbate body image concerns (Bailey, Lamarche, outcomes (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, & Gammage, 2014; Cloudt, Lamarche, & Gammage, 2014; 1998). In addition, findings testing the tenets of self-objecti- Gammage, Martin Ginis, & Hall, 2004; Hausenblas, Janelle, fication in women have been both similar and different to Gardner, & Hagan, 2003; Lamarche, Gammage, Kerr, findings in men. Moradi and Huang (2008) highlighted that Faulkner, & Klentrou, 2014, 2016; Martin Ginis, Strong, it cannot be assumed that situations related to body image Arent, & Bray, 2012; Quinn, Kallen, & Cathey, 2006). concerns in women are the same for men. In a study of uni- Traditionally, this area of research comprises of samples of versity students highlighting this point, Morry and Staska White, young adult women. (2001) found that exposing women to magazines featuring There has been an effort to expand this literature to the female ideal (e.g., beauty magazines) was associated include other samples including, but not limited to, adoles- cent boys, young men, older adults, and special populations. McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada For example, Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004) showed that Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada exposing male university students to media images that rep- Corresponding Author: resent the ideal male physique compared with neutral images Larkin Lamarche, Assistant Professor (Part-time), Research Associate, increases muscle dissatisfaction. Other manipulations have Department of Family Medicine, David Braley Health Sciences Centre, also been shown to increase body image concerns among McMaster University, 100 Main Street West, 5th Floor, Hamilton, men although findings have been mixed (Moradi & Huang, Ontario, Canada L8P 1H6. 2008). For example, studies framed in self-objectification Email: lamarche@mcmaster.ca Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open with the internalization of the thin ideal, which in turn was as self-esteem and positive body image outcomes (Swami linked to self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and eat- et al., 2008; Swami, Stieger, Haubner, & Voracek, 2008; ing disorder symptoms (Moradi & Huang, 2008). However, Tylka, 2013; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013), with much for men, exposure to fitness, rather than beauty magazines, focus on psychometric evaluation of surveys. Webb, Wood- was linked to internalization of cultural standards of attrac- Barcalow, and Tylka (2015) stated that qualitative research tiveness, which in turn was associated with body dissatisfac- (see McHugh, Coppola, & Sabiston, 2014) has contributed tion (Moradi & Huang, 2008). greatly to the area of positive body image. Qualitative Although the above findings are informative regarding approaches have also been instrumental in theory and mea- contextual factors that elicit body-related concerns, one key surement development (Tylka, 2011; Tylka & Wood- shortcoming to this area of research is that the majority of Barcalow, 2015; Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, & Augustus- these experimental manipulations have been determined by Horvath, 2010). researchers, thus, findings are not participant-driven. Mixed-methods approaches have also been useful to fur- Allowing participants to freely identify situations of height- ther our understanding of components of positive body ened body-related concerns and describe the contextual fac- image. Castonguay, Gilchrist, Mack, and Sabiston (2013) tors of these situations in their own words can provide unique examined triggers, contexts, cognitive attributions, and information missed through a quantitative research design in affective, cognitive, and behavior outcomes of body pride in which the researchers determine which contextual factors to young adult men and women. The authors used a relived manipulate and how these factors will be manipulated. This emotion task protocol that required participants to write a limitation in the literature was also noted by Smith-Jackson, detailed narrative of an experience of body-related pride. Reel, and Thackeray (2011) and Lamarche, Kerr, Faulkner, Their findings highlighted important theoretical and empiri- Gammage, and Klentrou (2012) who explored body image cal differences between hubristic and authentic body-related experiences of women qualitatively. pride. Hubristic pride situations were sport or exercise con- In a study on young adult men, Adams, Turner, and Bucks texts, involved evaluating one’s appearance as superior com- (2005) used semistructured interviews to explore the phe- pared with others, and feelings of superiority. Authentic nomenon of body dissatisfaction. Findings supported the pride situations were sport or exercise contexts, involved cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of body dis- meeting or exceeding a physical performance or fitness goal, satisfaction (Cash, 2002), with the perception and awareness and associated with feelings of positivity of one’s self and of a discrepancy between themselves and the ideal para- accomplishment. The present study will not only qualita- mount to the experience of body dissatisfaction. Adams et al. tively explore negative body image experiences, beyond (2005) provided support for taking a qualitative approach to body dissatisfaction (Adams et al., 2005), but, consistent bring out the complexity of body image in men. However, with the positive body image movement, it will also explore Adams et al. focused on one type of negative body image situations of male body comfort or confidence (beyond experience—body dissatisfaction. Broadening the under- body-related pride; Castonguay et al., 2013) and the context standing of negative body image to include other types of of those experiences. This was particularly important, given experiences, beyond body dissatisfaction, can further illus- that in studies with female samples participants report expe- trate the complexity of body image. The present study riencing both positive and negative body image (Smith- allowed men to identify and describe uncomfortable body- Jackson et al., 2011). related situations aimed to capture a comprehensive picture In addition to allowing men to identify and describe spe- of negative body image experiences in the words of men. cific situations of body confidence/comfort and discomfort The primary focus of Adams et al. (2005) was the experi- in their own words, the present study sought to understand ence of body dissatisfaction—a negative body image experi- coping responses to deal with the heightened body image ence, which is consistent with body image research concerns. Past research has provided limited understanding historically. That is, traditionally research has focused on regarding coping with situations that influence body image negative body image (Smolak & Cash, 2011). However, concerns. Although still limited in scope, findings from past within the past 10 years, there has been a shift to explore research have identified both adaptive and maladaptive cop- positive body image (i.e., Menzel & Levine, 2011; Piran & ing responses to situations of heightened body image con- Teall, 2012; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Tylka (2011, cerns. In both men and women, maladaptive coping strategies 2012) noted that studying body image should include an (e.g., avoidant coping) are associated with greater body dis- exploration of both positive and negative aspects to allow satisfaction, body dyphoria, less positive body image quality researchers to gain a full understanding of body image as a of life, and a greater belief that physical appearance influ- construct. The examination of positive body image in men ences personal self-worth (Cash, Santos, & Williams, 2005). has generally taken a quantitative approach, assessing gender Research on coping with body image concerns has primarily differences in body appreciation (Swami, Hadji-Michael, & explored associations between coping strategies as measured Furnham, 2008; Tylka, 2013; Tylka & Kroon van Diest, by the Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory (Cash et al., 2013) or relationships between psychosocial variables, such 2005) and psychological variables in women or adolescents Lamarche et al. 3 (Bailey, Lamarche, Gammage, & Sullivan, 2016; Choma, “breeding grounds” for body image issues (Striegel-Moore Shove, Busseri, Sadava, & Hosker, 2009; Hrabosky et al., & Franko, 2002, p. 189), and university is an important time 2009; Hughes & Gullone, 2011). Two qualitative studies in which physical appearance is critical to the impressions have explored coping strategies to two situations differing in formed by others, therefore providing the potential for many level of body evaluation in women (Bailey et al., 2014) and opportunities of high body image concerns. Exclusion crite- in a participant-identified situation of high social physique ria included self-reported diagnosis of, or treatment for, an anxiety in adolescent girls and boys (Kowalski, Mack, eating disorder. Participant demographic characteristics are Crocker, Niefer, & Fleming, 2006). One key finding across found in Table 1. No new information (positive or negative these qualitative studies is that people use a wider range of situations, responses, coping strategies) was emerging after coping strategies, beyond those identified quantitatively, and the 20th interview, which indicated saturation was achieved that the nature of the situation may lead to different coping and data collection ended (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Guest, strategies. Due to the relatively limited research on body Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). image coping in various situations and specific to young men, a second purpose of this study was to more fully explore Measures and describe body-related coping strategies among men. Demographic information (age, height, weight, university major) was completed. Participants also provided informa- Method tion regarding their strength training history and completed the Godin Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire Study Design (GLTPAQ; Godin & Shephard, 1985). Specifically, partici- A qualitative research design was used to allow for partici- pants indicated the number of times they participated in mild, pant-driven information regarding body image experiences moderate, and vigorous intensity physical activity for at least in which men felt body-related comfort or confidence and in 15 min over a 7-day period. For scoring, mild, moderate, and situations where men felt uncomfortable about their body. vigorous intensity activity is multiplied by known metabolic This approach was used to gain a rich understanding of the equivalents (3, 5, and 9, respectively) and then summed to context of such body image situations and the coping yield a total score. responses of men when faced with uncomfortable body situ- We sought to have a sample of men with different levels ations. As suggested by Lamarche et al. (2012), taking a of drive for muscularity to explore potential differences in qualitative approach provided the opportunity to get more responses based on this construct. Thus, the Drive for in-depth data often missed through the use of quantitative Muscularity Scale (DMS; McCreary & Sasse, 2000) was designs. Similar to Lamarche et al. (2012), an inductive the- used to measure drive for muscularity. Fifteen questions matic analysis approach was used to identify, code, and assess an individual’s perception of one’s musculature and report themes in the data as outlined by Braun and Clarke feeling that bulk should be added to one’s frame in the form (2006). Coding focused on the contextual factors of uncom- of muscle mass. Participants rate how each statement applies fortable body situations, responses to these situations, and to them from 1 to 6 (always to never). Participants were clas- coping strategies used to deal with the situations, as well as sified into high (DMS score ≥ 3.00; n = 12) or low (DMS the contextual factors of situations of body comfort or con- score < 3; n = 8) DMS groups to explore potential differences fidence and responses to these positive body situations. This in their responses to interview questions. specific approach has been suggested to explore positive body image as it can advance theory and as it advocates for Interview. Interviews were used for data collection. Mousta- consensus of multiple coders that enhances credibility and kas’s (1994) recommendations were followed as noted above replicability (Webb et al., 2015). Based on Moustakas’s to gain textual and structural descriptions of participants’ (1994) recommendation for in-depth interviews, two broad, body-related experiences. Using Lamarche et al.’s (2012) general questions were used as a guide: (a) “What have you interview guide questions, participants were asked to list experienced in terms of the phenomenon?” and (b) “What uncomfortable and comfortable body-related situations. situational factors or contexts have influenced the experi- Other open-ended questions were asked to gain information ence of the phenomenon?” Such questions provide the tex- about the contextual factors of these situations and how men tual and structural description necessary for understanding cope with uncomfortable body situations. Participants were experiences. asked about their personal lived experiences, as well as what they thought other men at university experience in terms of uncomfortable and comfortable/confidence body situations. Participants This approach is suggested to allow for greater discussion of The sample consisted of 20 men who were attending a south- potentially sensitive information (Lamarche et al., 2012). western university in Ontario, Canada. We interviewed men See the appendix for the interview guide, which was adapted attending university because colleges have been described as from Lamarche et al. (2012). 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Demographic Characteristics for Each Participant. Pseudonym Age Weight (lb) Height (in.) BMI Length of interview DMS Steve 21 220 68 33.45 16:22 High Josh 18 175 73 23.09 17:38 High Peter 22 200 73 26.38 15:33 High Dylan 19 230 72 31.19 18:07 Low Jake 19 133 67 20.83 17:44 Low Matt 18 168 68 25.54 29:40 High Chris 20 140 68 21.28 19:02 Low Mike 19 150 67 23.49 15:00 High Larry 23 245 72 33.22 23:34 Low Lucas 19 140 66 22.59 26:53 High Mark 23 181 70 25.97 16:55 High Alex 23 170 70 24.39 15:54 High Henry 24 165 70 23.67 33:42 Low John 22 137 70 19.66 27:36 Low Nick 22 155 70 22.24 27:37 Low Zac 21 165 67 25.84 19:33 High Tyson 19 195 75 24.37 15:24 High Derek 23 174 62 31.82 19:37 Low Rick 26 180 69 26.58 29:06 High Martin 21 160 67 25.06 23:55 High Sample M (±SD) 21.10 (±2.20) 174.15 (±30.96) 69.20 (±2.97) 25.53 (±4.01) 21:26 (±05:46) 3.14 (±0.96) Note. DMS ranges from 1 to 6; High = DMS ≥ 3.00, Low = DMS < 2.99. BMI = body mass index; length of interview = minutes:seconds; DMS = Drive for Muscularity Scale. on the meaning of a group of texts that help to describe a Procedures concept in similar manner. Challenging the first-level themes University ethics clearance was first obtained. Participant and subthemes was completed by asking whether the data recruitment was done through poster advertisements on the related to one of the research questions. The process was university campus and classroom announcements. Men were kept flexible so that the themes or subthemes could be invited to participate in a one-on-one interview to describe refined. The end result of this process would be the thematic their negative and positive body experiences. Interested par- structure that has reconstructed the data most reasonably. ticipants contacted the first author to schedule an interview. At Finally, transcripts were reread to ensure that all transcripts the interview, informed consent as well as demographic infor- applied to the final thematic map, with a focus on exploring mation was completed. Participants then took part in a one-on- potential differences in experiences between men catego- one interview. All interviews were audiotaped and took place rized as having high versus low drive for muscularity. in the same private office on campus. Upon completing the Quotations that illustrate themes are included. Data analysis interview, participants completed the GLTPAQ and the DMS. followed Lamarche et al. (2012). Participants received C$10.00 or research participation course To foster credibility of the findings as recommended by credit as compensation. Fake names (pseudonyms) were Lincoln and Guba (1985), two coders were using during the assigned to participants to maintain confidentiality. data analysis process as well as member checking. Specifically, the first author coded 100% of the transcripts and the third author (as second coder) coded 50% of the tran- Data Analysis scripts. This acted as a process of peer debriefing (Lincoln & The first author transcribed verbatim the audio recordings. A Guba, 1985) such that the reconstruction of the data done by frequency count determined the most commonly identified the first author could be challenged by the second author. No positive and negative body-related situations. Following disagreements in coding or interpretation were found as a Braun and Clarke (2006), themes were identified within the result of this peer debriefing process. Member checking data through a thematic analysis. For this, the transcripts (Creswell, 2007) was also used 1 week following the inter- were read several times, followed by a categorization of view. Participants reviewed a summary report sent by lead first-level themes. The first-level categorization was done by author via email and articulated any part that did not repre- identifying recurring ideas relevant to the study’s purpose. sent their interview by clarifying any misrepresentations. Subthemes were identified next, which involved reflecting This process allowed for verification on the accuracy of the Lamarche et al. 5 Table 2. Thematic Map Outlining Themes for Comfortable and Uncomfortable Situations. Question Comfortable situations Uncomfortable situations Context Opportunity Physique-salient clothing Ideal target Gender makeup for social “Being shirtless” [Zac] “When there is a guy who Girls around; girls giving comparison Sleeveless short to show arms [Lucas] is better in shape. . .the attention to fitter guys [Rick] “the gym is a place Wearing tank tops [Matt] comparison is so obvious; you you can show Exposed, shirtless [Chris] see it side-by-side” [Dylan] off your work” [Chris] Responses General Comparison Achievement Physiological Body Self-related Comparison related Happy [Martin] related related Runner’s high “I need to get Feel “low on the Not the buffest, not the best Healthy, satisfied Being the “Feel like I’m [Larry] this muscle man scale” looking [Peter] [Matt] fittest, most progressing Endorphins bigger” [Dylan] Confidence boost, in shape toward a [Matt] [Mike] Feel inferior “if I can do this [Mark] goal” [Matt] [Martin] [go to the gym] “ask yourself I can push for why ‘is there other things something [grades in wrong with school]” [Peter] me?’” [Tyson] Coping Not applicable Avoidance Self-talk Behaviors Social support strategies “find an escape “Tell say ‘I’m Do push-up Talk to route” doing what to look girlfriend [Henry) I can’ ‘I feel bigger, use [Martin] Change the good about supplements Hang out subject my body’ ‘it [Lucas] with friends [Alex] doesn’t really Workout you’re Joke about it, matter what [Chris] comfortable laugh it off other people with [Chris] [Nick] think’” [Alex] Note. Themes are underlined; information under themes relates to specific examples that emerged from participants’ responses. interviewer’s interpretations. All member checks indicated or pool (n = 5), having sex (n = 3), and being with friends or that the summaries were representative of what participants girlfriends (n = 3). It should be noted that the situations par- intended to convey during the interview. These steps have ticipants thought other men at university found comfortable also been recommended to advance positive body image were the same as their self-identified situations. Furthermore, research using qualitative designs (Webb et al., 2015). it was stated by several participants that “lots of guys don’t care” (Matt) and guys are confident everywhere and are com- fortable all the time. These statements were made by men Results with high and with low drive for muscularity. This section is divided into the results pertaining to those body situations characterized by comfort or confidence and Context of comfortable situations. Situations in which partici- those which were identified as uncomfortable body situa- pants felt comfortable or confident involved two key ele- tions. Each section includes the identification of specific sit- ments—the opportunity for social comparison and wearing uations, the contextual factors, and/or responses to these physique-salient clothing. The gym or working out and play- situations (see Table 2 for the thematic map). Results regard- ing sports were described as situations that offer opportuni- ing the frequency with which these situations occur and the ties to compare one’s appearance and skill with others. Chris coping mechanisms to deal with uncomfortable situations stated, “the gym is a place you can show off your work.” are also described. It should be noted that no meaningful dif- Dylan described the gym as a setting in which he could com- ferences were found between men with high and low drive pare himself with others and see physical results, “you see for muscularity. you have more muscle, more in shape, and look better than others.” Larry summarizes the gym setting as “a place guys can show off their bodies, show off their goods.” Traits of Body Situations of Comfort and Confidence comparison involved the body’s appearance in addition to The most commonly identified comfortable body-related sit- the body’s function (i.e., strength, skill). The gym and play- uation was the gym (n = 20), as determined by a frequency ing sports allowed participants to show how they can lift count, followed by playing sports (n = 16). Other situations weights or that they were skilled at a specific sport. In identified included going to the bar (n = 5), being at the beach describing the context of playing hockey, Derek stated that 6 SAGE Open he felt comfortable and confident because he was making image or what other people thought about him physically; it moves no one else could make and that the commentator for was more about “hitting [lifting] a certain weight.” In fact the event remarked in his ability to skate. It should be noted some participants stated that the feelings and thoughts were that all the described comparisons were downward, that is, not body-specific or about making impressions on other peo- participants perceived themselves to be stronger, fitter, more ple, but about feeling as though their body is capable of in shape, or more skilled than their comparison target. Martin achievement of their goals. Nick stated feeling as though his stated that being able to keep up with the pack skill-wise body was not a barrier [to performance]. Steve stated, “I (playing intramural sports) meant that he was not being wasn’t thinking about what I was looking like, I was thinking judged by others or negatively evaluated. about what I was doing.” Matt said he was feeling “a sense of The second contextual element of situations of body com- hope that the goal is achievable” and “a sense of pride with fort or confidence was wearing clothing that emphasized their appearance.” Similar to the general confidence-related bodies. This contextual element was particularly noted in the remarks, Peter stated that achievement in these settings can gym and beach situations. Being shirtless, wearing tight-fit- transfer to other contexts in life; he explained, “if I can do ted muscle shirts, sleeveless shirts, or specifically “wearing this [lift a certain weight], I can push for other things like Underarmour” (Josh) were all noted. This type of clothing better marks [in school].” allowed participants to show off their bodies. Wearing cloth- Participants also described physiological sensations in ing that allowed men to show off their bodies was related to situations of body comfort or confidence. Such responses the above theme in that it allowed for body comparisons. included “a body buzz” (Peter), “the pump” (Steve) or “a One noteworthy finding regarding comfortable situations half hour inflated feeling” (Alex), “feeling the endorphins” was that the gym was described as a place of body confi- (Matt), and “a runner’s high” (Larry). All participants who dence because of its perceived culture of body achievement. described physiological sensations appeared to describe Peter described the gym as, “almost like a clique” and there these sensations in a positive sense as they indicated achieve- is a sense that everyone is striving for a shared goal, to ment of a goal. It should be noted that such descriptions also achieve a good body. In participants’ description of the gym, appear in response to performing exercise itself as well as in there was a sense of the shared pursuit of body achievement response to the body-related situation per se. toward the ideal or self-improvement toward a body goal that makes this situation comfortable. Matt said that “guys aren’t Uncomfortable Body Situations concerned about what other people are thinking at the gym because everyone else is working toward the same goal.” There was a greater range of situations identified that made men feel uncomfortable or not confident about their bod- Responses to comfortable situations. The responses identified ies. The most commonly identified uncomfortable body and described by participants with respect to comfortable situation was the gym (n = 10) followed by the beach or situations can be grouped into four categories: general, com- pool (n = 9). Other situations identified included any situ- parison related, achievement related, and physiological. ation that involved being shirtless (n = 6) or involved a General responses included “feeling good,” “getting a confi- comparison (n = 5). Being in the change room or shower (n dence boost,” and “feeling healthy.” It was noted by a few = 5), playing sports (n = 4), going to the bar (n = 3), and participants that the feeling of confidence went beyond the sexual encounters (n = 2) were also mentioned. gym or sporting setting. Dylan stated that “you feel confi- There was a range of responses when asked how often dence about other things. Being in shape gives you confi- these types of situations occur for men. For some, there are dence toward communicating with people and everyday weekly occurrences of uncomfortable situations and for other situations.” He went on to say that it is “confidence to the participants these situations occur daily or multiple times per point of cocky sometimes.” Alex described the confident day. Matt stressed that uncomfortable situations occur more feeling as “being high on yourself.” frequently than comfortable situations because “there is Comparison-related thoughts were also described by the always someone better than you.” Chris said that even for majority of participants. Lucas described comparing himself attractive guys, uncomfortable situations occur. John stated with others and feeling good about that comparison. Tyson that unlike what some people believe, “most guys are gener- simply stated his feeling in his comfortable situation (the ally not confident all the time and have a low level of being gym), “well, I’m fitter than them, I’m taller.” He noted that uncomfortable.” Tyson stressed that it occurs more often at he was clearly in better shape than others and could lift more university because it is a place you are trying to establish weight at the gym and noted feeling a bit cocky. yourself and meet a life partner. Interestingly, Mike stated, “3 Achievement-related thoughts included focus on the pro- out of 10 guys experience [uncomfortable] situations fre- gression toward a goal, a sense of satisfaction with achieving quently, but if guys could talk about it, then 6 or 7 out of 10 goals, and feeling motivated to keeping working and improv- guys would experience them frequently.” There were no ing on one’s appearance and function (i.e., skill or strength). meaningful differences in the situations identified by men Henry noted that he did not care about the ideal appearance with high versus low drive for muscularity. Lamarche et al. 7 Context of uncomfortable situations. Two themes emerged if a guy has a bad body image then they think “I guess I won’t be able to hook up with girls” but if a guy has a better body image with regard to the context of uncomfortable situations. First, then they think “oh yeah come to university and try to hook up the majority of participants mentioned that uncomfortable with a lot of girls.” situations were characterized by those that highlighted they were not the best looking or “buffest” of the group, that is, an Dylan went on to describe his thoughts and feelings in his “ideal” male target was present, or at least someone who most recent uncomfortable body-related situation, being in was closer to the ideal than they were. Dylan highlighted that a hot tub with a mixed-gender group of friends. He said, it essentially “depends on being in shape or not being in “Ok I’ll keep me head just out of the water so they can only shape.” Larry said that everything is compared, “comparing see my head . . . I wouldn’t want to be the last one out of the muscles, comparing haircuts.” Both Lucas and Mike men- hot tub, I would feel low on the man scale.” Other general tioned that even “comparing penis sizes is possible” and feelings, such as feeling ashamed of oneself, disappointed occurs. When describing this contextual factor, it was obvi- with oneself, or embarrassed were also described. Nick ous that the true comparison was against the male ideal—a described being unhappy with himself and ability in his V-shaped torso, tall, muscular, and sculpted representing most uncomfortable situation (being around girls). John masculinity. Words such as bigger, taller, stronger, more described his body as a uniform and if his uniform was not attractive, and fitter were used to articulate this contextual up to his standards, this would lead him to evaluate other factor of uncomfortable situations. Situations in which par- aspects of himself negatively. One important aspect of his ticipants did not measure up to this standard, or fell short of “uniform” was his hair; it was “the only part of [his] appear- it, were described as uncomfortable. ance [he was] nitpicky about” and required daily grooming. The second contextual factor was the gender makeup of He explained that if his uniform, particularly his hair, was the group, that is, if women were present, then situation not up to his standards, he would feel not only unappealing, was deemed uncomfortable. This factor was oftentimes but also a below standard person. mentioned in combination with the above contextual factor, The last category of responses to uncomfortable body that is, the presence of a more ideal man. Derek said that situations were those associated with a comparison target. “being surrounded by girls made the comparison worse.” Several participants were aware of comparison-related Matt said his body image was worse “even if women are thoughts and feelings. In reference to being in the gym sur- talking about hot guys [around him].” Nick said that “men rounded by fitter males, Zac said that he thought, “Oh that are always trying to impress women whether they know it could be me if I worked harder or done things differently” or not.” Larry explained that the presence of women was and specifically said he was aware of these comparisons with particularly salient at the bar, which he also described as a other guys. Rick also described such comparison-related competition setting. Rejection by women was an added thoughts and noted that his comparisons were “unreason- layer of this contextual factor; not only was the presence of able” and would compare himself with “huge guys” to the women described as characterizing uncomfortable situa- point of “being curious about how they got that big.” Martin tions, but also being rejected by women was particularly felt that he was being judged by other people and felt a sense detrimental. Tyson did not want to describe the context of of inferiority. Nick noted “intimidation” to some of these his last uncomfortable body-related situation—being turned comparison targets. down by a woman at a bar. Responses to uncomfortable situations. The responses identi- Coping with uncomfortable situations. In describing how men fied and described by participants with respect to uncom- deal with uncomfortable situations, four categories emerged: fortable situations can be grouped into three categories: avoidance, positive self-talk, behaviors, and social support. body-related, self-related, and comparison-related thoughts A few different types of avoidance coping responses were and feelings. Body-related responses included feeling dis- described, including ignoring the situation, trying to not pay satisfied with body and muscle size, wanting to be attrac- attention to it, leaving the situation, blending into the back- tive, feeling fat, and having dissatisfaction with specific ground, avoiding the situation altogether, or changing the body aspects such as abdominals or height. Lucas said, conversation or putting one’s mind elsewhere. Using humor “Well, I know I don’t have height, I don’t have definition, was noted as a common coping mechanism including mak- and I don’t have mass.” Some participants described a desire ing fun of oneself or others to deflect attention from one’s to change those aspects and wishing they would change body. Nick went to the extreme of quitting hockey when faster. describing how he dealt with his uncomfortable body-related Described thoughts and feelings about the body were situation of not being as skilled and strong as other male linked to thoughts and feelings about oneself as a person. For hockey players. Drinking alcohol was also a described cop- example, Tyson said that when encountering his last uncom- ing mechanism, particularly in situations at the bar or sur- fortable situation, he thought to himself, “Is there something rounded by girls to gain confidence. Mike said, “if you’re wrong with me? Is it how I look?” Dylan explained that drinking alcohol you’re not thinking about your body.” 8 SAGE Open Positive self-talk was also described by the majority of men feel comfortable about their body as well as uncomfort- participants. For example, in uncomfortable body-related able about their body were identified and contextual factors situations, Alex said he tells himself, “I’m doing what I can, of those situations were described. Coping responses to I feel good about my body, it doesn’t really matter what other uncomfortable situations were also articulated by partici- people think.” Martin explained about turning his “bad inter- pants. The findings related to uncomfortable body image nal feelings into motivation to change.” Steve also described situations are consistent with those of Adams et al. (2005) using negative feelings as motivation to change one’s appear- who explored men’s experience with body dissatisfaction ance. Statements reflecting body acceptance were also specifically. Themes and subthemes of sexual affirmation/ expressed. For example, Dylan specifically stated “body rejection and comparison within the interpersonal domain acceptance” as a way of dealing with uncomfortable body- (Adams et al., 2005) are closely related to contextual factors related situations and “realiz[ing] that’s the way you look, of uncomfortable situations of the present study (e.g., gender everyone is unique and different.” makeup and ideal comparison target, respectively). Findings Behaviors were also described as coping responses. are also consistent with quantitative research in men show- Behaviors such as exercise and diet were described by the ing body image is negatively affected by seeing media majority of participants as coping responses that were images of the Western male ideal (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, deemed healthy ways to change one’s appearance. 2004). Furthermore, some participants described changing one’s Although the present study sought to broaden understand- posture, either slouching to become smaller (to hide) or ing of the experience of negative body image to capture more sucking in one’s stomach or standing up straighter to appear than body dissatisfaction by specifically asking about taller and take up more space. Taking supplements to gain “uncomfortable situations,” findings were still similar to the muscle was mentioned by several participants. Matt even experience of body dissatisfaction specifically (Adams et al., admitted being open to having plastic surgery on his face as 2005) and there is little evidence within this study of experi- a way to deal with uncomfortable body situations. ences outside body dissatisfaction. Perhaps when asked Using social support was noted as a coping strategy. This about uncomfortable body situations, participants automati- category was characterized by surrounding oneself with sup- cally thought of situations characterized by body dissatisfac- portive others who are nonjudgmental. Social support was tion as this is a common experience, especially in university, also characterized by surrounding oneself with people who and is consistent with normative discontent within North will help goal achievement. For example, Matt said, “I’m a America (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985). It big fan of observational learning. I want to learn from a role could also be related to the finding that the majority of men model and befriend people who I see a quality I want because in the current study mentioned that it is difficult for men to obviously they’re doing something right.” This may be the talk about their body concerns. This was particularly evident reason why Matt said “[he] surrounds [him]self with guys in (hesitantly) describing the use of social support as a means who are fit.” Interestingly, social support was described as an of coping with uncomfortable body image situations. It is effective coping strategy but one that was lacking or not possible that by talking about less extreme feelings of nega- appropriate for men to use. Peter stated, “females assume tive body image versus extreme situations characterized by they have it worse, but men also feel uncomfortable in their intense shame, which participants may have experienced, own body.” He explained, “people think ‘oh we’re men and they were able to fit the stereotype that men do not talk about we have to leave it to ourselves’ but it’s important to talk to “this stuff” seriously as Mike puts it. Placing parameters someone. We need someone to talk to.” Matt alluded to the within the questions to target certain types, and perhaps more pressure of being masculine and that talking about body extreme feelings, of negative body image experiences may image issues goes against that image; he said, “no guy wants be necessary (i.e., body shame, embarrassment, guilt, weight to talk about how their appearance compares to others, that’s stigma, body-related teasing). Using the relived emotion task considered gay, that’s why there is so much emphasis on how (Ekman, Levenson, & Freiesen, 1983) in a similar manner as much you can lift.” He continued and said that men worry just Castonguay et al. (2013) to understand body-related pride as much as women, but that men need to hide those issues and situations may be useful. not talk about it. Mike said, “I don’t really see guys talking Findings with respect to comfortable body image situa- about this stuff [body image issues], just in a joking sense.” tions closely resemble situations that have the potential to He said that “guys don’t want to show people they have emo- lead to downward comparisons as outlined by social com- tions and if they get emotional, other than angry, then he’s a parison theory (Festinger, 1954). That is, comfortable situa- baby or being a girl.” Larry simply stated that “guys won’t tions are those characterized by comparisons with a target talk about body problems because that’s not what guys do.” whereby the individual perceives himself to be better off than the comparison target and, in the context of body image, the attribute of interest was the body’s appearance or func- Discussion tion. It would appear too that the second contextual factor of The present study qualitatively explored body image experi- comfortable body image situations, physique-salient cloth- ences in men at university. Specifically, situations where ing, somehow allows for a more direct comparison or Lamarche et al. 9 emphasizes the downward direction of the comparison. to dissatisfaction whereby a perceived discrepancy between Contextual factors found in the present study do not neces- the individual and a nearby male ideal target existed. sarily always reflect theoretical or empirical underpinnings Together, these findings highlight the need to go beyond of positive body image as we had hoped with our broad ques- simply identifying situations and instead stress the impor- tion to understand situations in which men feel comfortable tance of examining the contextual factors of situations as or confident about their bodies (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, well as psychological responses one may have within vary- 2015). Concepts such as body appreciation, body accep- ing situations. It also highlights the need to distinguish tance, and love, a broad conceptualization of beauty, adap- between the types of pride empirically and theoretically in tive investment in appearance, and inner positivity (Tylka & research to understand the varying triggers, contexts, and Wood-Barcalow, 2015) were rarely explicitly mentioned. responses of authentic and hubristic pride (Castonguay In fact, contrasting comparison-related and achieve- et al., 2013). ment-related themes with respect to responses to comfort- able body-related situations that were described, there was Limitations and Future Directions a clear link to the different types of body pride—authentic and hubristic (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007). Castonguay Despite its contributions to the literature, limitations to the et al. (2013) found differences in triggers and contexts of present study should be noted. It should be noted that this hubristic versus authentic pride experiences described by was a convenience sample of men attending a southwest- men and women. Specifically, authentic pride experiences ern Ontario, Canada university with limited variability in were most commonly those of personal achievement or terms of age and education; however, it does allow for maintenance of appearance or meeting/exceeding a physi- comparison of the present findings with past research con- cal performance/fitness goal with associated feelings of ducted in similar samples of men (i.e., Castonguay et al., accomplishment, motivation, and confidence. By contrast, 2013). Furthermore, although not specifically documented, hubristic pride experiences were most commonly those it is likely that responses may vary among men of different rooted in social comparison on appearance or physical per- ethnic and racial backgrounds as well as sexual orienta- formance/fitness with associated feelings of superiority tions. Second, although we attempted to find meaningful (Castonguay et al., 2013). The present findings comple- differences between men with high versus low drive for ment those of Castonguay et al. (2013), highlighting that muscularity, other constructs may be better able to group body-related situations in which men feel comfortable or men based on certain attributes (i.e., self-esteem, internal- confident may represent those of authentic as well as ization of the masculine ideal, gender role stereotypes). hubristic pride. This may be particularly true for positive body image vari- Coping strategies described in the present study are con- ables such as body appreciation. The use of a truly mixed- sistent with Adams et al.’s (2005) themes centered on reduc- methods approach to gain deeper understanding of positive ing the discrepancy between the individual and the ideal or body image has been recommended (Webb et al., 2015). tolerating this discrepancy. Coping strategies were also con- Although gaining a deeper understanding of positive body sistent with items within all three broad categories of coping image specifically was not necessarily the purpose of the (positive rational acceptance, avoidance, and appearance fix- present study, we did want to understand situations of posi- ing) of the Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory (Cash tive body image broadly. Perhaps meaningful differences et al., 2005). would have emerged if we purposely sampled men with One interesting observation in the findings was that “the high compared with low body appreciation. We have no gym” was identified as the most commonly identified doubt that given the exponential rise in positive body uncomfortable body image situation as well as the most image research over the past decade, future studies will commonly identified situation of body comfort or confi- attempt to further understand the context of body image dence. This finding is consistent with Marquez and situations that are associated with body appreciation and McAuley (2001) who found that working out or playing a other positive body image indicators in men. It may also be sport was reported by 21% of men to be a situation high in important to test the hypotheses regarding the differences physical evaluation/threat, and by 54% of men to be low in between authentic and hubristic pride that have emerged. physical evaluation/threat. Furthermore, in our study, the The present study as well as others (Castonguay et al., contextual factor related to social comparison that made 2013) may offer a methodological insight for designing comfortable situations comfortable was the same contex- such situations for experimental research in men—design- tual factor that made uncomfortable situations, uncomfort- ing a positive situation that can be used to empirically able; that is, the gym may offer opportunities for a social measure responses as well as assess potential moderators comparison, and if that comparison led the person to believe that may influence the direction or magnitude of such he was “fitter,” “stronger,” or “better” than someone, it was responses may be possible in a laboratory setting. Findings described as a positive situation; however, the gym also from this study and others support the complexity of body meant those same opportunities for comparisons could lead image, both negative and positive. 10 SAGE Open d. What are you feeling, what are you thinking? Appendix Physical/Psychological. It should be noted that this interview guide was adapted 8. How do you think college-aged men cope when faced from Lamarche, Kerr, Faulkner, Gammage, and Klentrou with uncomfortable situations? (2012). Prompts Key Questions a. Consider both positive and negative ways to 1. What specific situations can you identify in which cope immediately with those types of situations college-aged men may feel confident or comfortable (social factors, physical factors, behaviors). with their bodies? b. What, if anything, do college-aged men do 2. What specific situations can you identify in which frequently or consistently to prepare to face you feel confident or comfortable with your body? such situations? What long term coping 3. Think about the last time you felt comfortable about mechanisms do college-aged men use to your body. Describe the context (or the details) of cope with uncomfortable situations? that situation. 9. Think about the last situation in which you felt uncomfortable about your body. How did you cope Prompts with that situation? a. What makes this situation comfortable? b. Describe where you are (physical context). Prompts c. Describe who (if anyone) you are with (social context). a. What, if any , other ways you considered cop- d. What are you feeling, what are you thinking? ing with it? Why didn’t you use these other Physical/Psychological. coping mechanisms? 4. What specific situations can you identify in which b. If this situation was to happen again, would college-aged men feel uncomfortable about their you use the same coping strategy or a differ- bodies? ent one? Why or why not? 5. In what specific situations do you feel uncomfortable 10. Think about the time when you felt most uncomfort- about your body? able about your body. How did you cope? a. How often does this occur? b. Which of these situations make you most Prompts uncomfortable? least uncomfortable? a. What, if any, other ways you considered cop- 6. Think about the last time you felt uncomfortable ing with it? Why didn’t you use these other about your body and describe the context of that coping mechanisms? situation b. If this situation was to happen again, would you use the same coping strategy or a differ- Prompts ent one? Why or why not? a. What makes this situation uncomfortable. Concluding questions b. Describe where you are (physical context). c. Describe who (if anyone) you are with 1. Is there anything you would like to add or any infor- (social context). mation you feel I missed? d. What are you feeling, what are you thinking? 2. Is there any other questions you would like to ask Physical/Psychological. me? 7. Think about the time when you have felt most uncomfortable about your body. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Prompts to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. a. What makes this situation uncomfortable. Funding b. Describe where you are (physical context). The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support c. Describe who (if anyone) you are with for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: (social context). Lamarche et al. 11 Funding for this research was provided by the Social Sciences and exercise context. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, Humanities Research Council of Canada. 179-190. Glaser, B. 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Brianne Ozimok is a registered dietitian working with a Family bodyim.2007.10.002 Health Team. She enjoys working with a variety of individuals Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Show your pride: Evidence helping them to improve their overall health and accomplish their for a discrete emotion expression. Psychological Science, goals. 15(3), 194-197.

Journal

SAGE OpenSAGE

Published: May 23, 2018

Keywords: social evaluation; positive body image; men; university students; qualitative research

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