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Teaching Experience, Teachers’ Beliefs, and Self-Reported Classroom Management Practices: A Coherent Network:

Teaching Experience, Teachers’ Beliefs, and Self-Reported Classroom Management Practices: A... Classroom management is an important topic in teacher education, as it has a strong impact on students’ engagement. However, untangling the concepts influencing teachers’ classroom management practices is a question that needs further investigation. Using data from a survey of 154 vocational teachers participating in teacher education, this study examined associations between classroom management practices, teaching experience, and teachers’ beliefs (general pedagogical beliefs, beliefs about student motivation, and self-efficacy beliefs). Results highlighted associations between the different types of beliefs, and between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Teaching experience was positively related to self-efficacy and beliefs in constructivism but did not impact practices. Keywords teacher education, classroom management practices, teaching experience, general pedagogical beliefs, beliefs about student motivation, self-efficacy beliefs Co-Operation and Development [OECD], 2009, 2014) Introduction revealed that 20% of the teachers reported needing teacher Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein (2006) describe “classroom professional development regarding student discipline and management” as an umbrella term covering topics such as behavior problems, whereas nearly 15% reported needing “actions taken to create a productive, orderly learning envi- professional development in classroom management (OECD, ronment ( . . . ) to elicit changes in students’ behavior ( . . . ) 2014). Concordantly, motivating students is among the diffi- [and] to help students fulfill their responsibilities more culties teachers face during their career, as revealed by effectively” (p. 181). Research on developmental stages Huberman’s (1989/1993) study on 160 in-service teachers. (Huberman, 1989/1993) in teaching consistently indicates These studies all agree that classroom management is central that classroom management is one of the most important, if for novice and experienced teachers. not the most important, focuses of novice teachers. Research shows that the way teachers manage their class- Accordingly, they report poorer classroom climates than room has a strong influence on students’ cognitive and experienced teachers (Jensen, Sandoval-Hernández, Knoll, & behavioral engagement, thus going beyond the scope of sim- Gonzalez, 2012). Furthermore, many novice teachers believe ply keeping students quiet and maintaining silence in the that managing their classroom is a prerequisite to teaching classroom (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Reeve, 2009; Weinert content (Cochran-Smith & Villegas, 2016; Condon, Clyde, Kyle, & Hovda, 1993; Kilgore & Ross, 1993; McCormack, Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, Lausanne, 2001; Pigge & Marso, 1997), a position Dewey (1904) Switzerland defended nearly a century ago. Finally, Weinstein’s (1989) Research Unit for Monitoring Educational Systems (Unité de recherche study on preservice teachers’ beliefs revealed that being able pour le pilotage des systèmes pédagogiques), Renens, Switzerland to motivate students, which is one of the aims of classroom University of Geneva, Switzerland management, is part of the preservice teachers’ image of what Corresponding Author: a good teacher is. For experienced teachers, classroom man- Jean-Louis Berger, Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and agement is also a key competence: The Teaching and Learning Training, Avenue de Longemalle 1, 1000 Lausanne Malley 16, Switzerland. Email: jean-louis.berger@sfivet.swiss International Survey (TALIS; Organisation for Economic and Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open & Helmke, 1995). Kunter, Baumert, and Köller (2007) found The present study aims to uncover, in a sample of Swiss that the degree to which students perceive the clarity of rules vocational teachers, the associations between teachers’ and teachers’ monitoring of classroom activities explains the beliefs, self-reported classroom management practices, and extent to which students develop an interest in the subject. their prior teaching experience. Investigating the impact of Accordingly, a learning environment that states the limits in years of teaching experience and of beliefs on classroom an informative way creates a context that helps promote stu- management practices is particularly relevant in the context dents’ intrinsic motivation, feeling of autonomy, and compe- of this study. In Switzerland, vocational teacher education tence beliefs, all major educational goals. usually takes place after several years of teaching in voca- Adopting a dynamic and comprehensive perspective, this tional schools. Thus, vocational teachers already have teach- study investigates sources of teaching practices and provides ing experience (though it is largely variable) and established bases for improving teacher education programs. Except for a instructional practices and beliefs when they enter teacher few studies (e.g., Lopes & Santos, 2013; Pelletier, Séguin- education. Beyond detailing the dynamic relationship Lévesque, & Legault, 2002; Stipek, Givvin, Salmon, & between years of teaching experience, beliefs, and practices, MacGyvers, 2001), the analysis of the relationship between this study will provide important information about the teachers’ beliefs and classroom management practices has beliefs that might be fostered or discouraged in teacher edu- been neglected (Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Most cation programs depending on what type of practice is to be studies looked at the outcomes rather than the sources of class- promoted. room management practices. As a result, little is known about what drives teachers to adopt one practice or another. However, Various Perspectives on Classroom Management there is a growing body of research on teachers’ beliefs, in which the relationship between beliefs and teaching practices As a broad topic, classroom management has been investi- is viewed as significant (Fives & Gregoire Gill, 2015). gated using very diverse lenses (Evertson & Weinstein, Researchers seem to agree on some key aspects characterizing 2006). Among these lines of research, some focused on beliefs. Notably, as beliefs are built on prior life experiences, issues of discipline and management of misbehavior with the agreed-upon definition of beliefs includes a dimension of theoretical foundations in behaviorist psychology (Landrum stability. This characteristic of beliefs often leads researchers & Kauffman, 2006), others on issues of management of cul- to view beliefs as precursors of teaching practice (Chen, tural heterogeneity in the classroom (van Tartwijk, den Brok, Brown, Hattie, & Millward, 2012; Fang, 1996; Kennedy, Veldman, & Wubbels, 2009), and still others investigated 2005; Pajares, 1992; Richardson & Placier, 2001; Tatto & what they named “teachers’ interpersonal motivating style” Coupland, 2003), and to focus on direct belief impact. (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman, & Ryan, Researchers have indicated that teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs 1981; Reeve, 2009; Reeve, Bolt, & Cai, 1999) rooted in the (Woolfolk Hoy & Davis, 2006), beliefs about student motiva- self-determination theory (SDT) sociocognitive framework tion (Turner, Bogner Warzo, & Christensen, 2011), and gen- (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This latter perspective was adopted in eral conceptions about teaching and learning—such as the present article to investigate classroom management constructivism or direct transmission (Prawat, 1992)—have practices or style. been identified as factors that affect how teachers concretely Recent studies and theoretical advances describe class- manage their classrooms. This expectation of direct relation- room management using two oppositions or continuums: ship has been challenged by suggesting that beliefs and prac- autonomy support versus control, and structure versus chaos tices are related in a more dynamic way. This assumption has (Jang et al., 2010; Reeve, 2009; Reeve, Deci, & Ryan, 2004; not been often investigated, as most studies consider only one Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009). or a limited number of beliefs when studying their relation to Autonomy support is defined as “the interpersonal sentiment classroom management practices. Therefore, it is still not clear and behavior teachers provide to identify, nurture, and how these multiple beliefs are articulated with each other and develop students’ inner motivational resources” (Reeve, with practices. This study follows the common expectation 2009, p. 159), whereas control refers to “interpersonal senti- that beliefs might predict practices. However, this assumption ment and behavior teachers provide during instruction to is moderated by adopting a dynamic and comprehensive per- pressure students to think, feel, or behave in a specific way” spective on the impact of beliefs on practices. Indeed, it (Reeve, 2009, p. 160). Structure refers to “the amount of acknowledges that beliefs can serve different functions: Some information in the context about how to effectively achieve may directly impact teaching practices, whereas some others desired outcomes” (Skinner & Belmont, 1993, p. 572). may influence other types of beliefs. Furthermore, this study Structure is also defined as “the provision of clear instruction allows individual characteristics to play a role in this dynamic, in the classroom and the communication of realistic goals assuming that years of teaching experience may affect teach- and expectations for behavior and learning” (Soenens, ers’ beliefs—such as the more experienced in teaching, the Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Dochy, & Goossens, 2012, p. 109). higher the self-efficacy beliefs (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk The opposite of structure is chaos, in which teachers com- Hoy, 2007)—and practices (OECD, 2009). municate confusing or contradictory messages, and does not Berger et al. 3 provide clear directions and expectations to students (Jang projects, or finding challenging tasks to engage students in et al., 2010). Autonomy support and structure are supposed learning) and beliefs in using extrinsic forms such as rewards, to positively affect students’ cognitive engagement; in addi- punishments, threats, or grades. In terms of classroom man- tion, their conjunction or interaction could affect self-regula- agement, the more teachers believe in the utility of fostering tion and cognitive strategy use in addition to the main effects intrinsic motivation, the more they support students’ auton- of the two types of practices (Sierens et al., 2009). omy (Reeve, 2009). In contrast, the more teachers believe in Under the label “Psychologically Controlling Teaching” the relevance of extrinsic forms of motivation, the more they (PCT), Soenens et al. (2012) describe a teaching style that try to control students. In a study of mathematic teachers, aims at exercising strong control over students’ feelings, Turner (2010) found that teachers considered extrinsic forms behavior, and engagement. This style has multiple sources of motivation more effective than intrinsic ones. In addition, such as pressure from parents, colleagues, or principals on according to Reeve’s (2009) review, teachers would adopt a the teacher; the teacher’s perception of students’ low motiva- controlling style if they believe in the maximal-operant prin- tion; and the teacher’s low intrinsic motivation to teach. PCT ciple, stating that “the likelihood of producing long-term has a negative effect on students’ relative autonomy, which interest in academic tasks is assumed to vary positively with in turn leads to the use of metacognitive strategies (self-reg- the size of a reward” (Boggiano, Barrett, Weiher, McClel- ulation) that influence academic performance. land, & Lusk, 1987, p. 866). Therefore, classroom manage- ment is also based on teachers’ beliefs about student motivation such as what helps students engage in learning. Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Management They also had only weak beliefs in the benefit of autonomy- Practices supportive strategies. To our knowledge, no theoretical or Teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices should be related in empirical basis assumes associations with structure or chaos. a meaningful way, as is the case for other teaching tasks, such as student assessment, in which conceptions of assess- Teacher self-efficacy. Several studies have shown that class- ment and assessment practices are significantly associated room management beliefs and practices are related to the (Brown, 2009). The reasons teachers adopt classroom man- level of teacher self-efficacy beliefs, that is, the “teacher’s agement practices such as the use of rewards and punishment belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses have been analyzed by Landau (2009) and Landrum and of action required to successfully accomplish a specific Kauffman (2006). Teachers’ main argument for using such teaching task in a particular context” (Tschannen-Moran, practices is their efficiency: They offer a readily and easy-to- Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998, p. 233). The threefold concep- use applicable solution to react to misbehavior. Furthermore, tualization of teacher self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & this gives the teacher a feeling of keeping students under Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) includes two dimensions that relate to control. At the opposite end of the spectrum, practices such classroom management practices: self-efficacy for class- as complimenting and private verbal encouragement are room management (e.g., maintaining order, discipline, keep- believed to be not very useful as teachers say that such prac- ing students quiet) and self-efficacy for student engagement tice cannot work with the teachers’ own students. (e.g., motivating uninterested students, helping students understand the value of learning). Studies converge toward Beliefs about student motivation. According to Patrick and the conclusion that less self-efficacious teachers have a pes- Pintrich’s synthesis on teachers’ beliefs and conceptual simistic view of students, tend to adopt controlling practices change (2001), teachers generally see student motivation as (such as punishment), and strive to maintain strong disci- a stable trait that can be influenced mainly by factors exter- pline (Martin & Sass, 2010; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). At the nal to the school such as parents. Teachers believe that their opposite, teachers who feel highly confident in their abilities own influence is limited, except in trying to create interest- tend to sustain their students’ autonomy and to respond ing activities. These beliefs discourage teachers from trying quickly to misbehavior without feeling threatened (Woolfolk motivational strategies (Turner, 2010). However, research Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Note that other studies did not find shows that teachers are aware of the importance of student any significant association between teacher self-efficacy motivation and its implications for student engagement, and beliefs (for classroom management and for student engage- recognize that it can lead to classroom management issues ment) and the quality of student–teacher interactions (de (Mansfield & Volet, 2010). Thus, teachers’ beliefs about stu- Jong et al., 2014). dent motivation constitute a possible source of instructional practices. These beliefs could take multiple forms (Nolen & General conceptions about teaching and learning. The general Nicholls, 1994; Turner, 2010) and differ depending on stu- beliefs teachers hold about teaching and learning could dents’ characteristics such as their achievement levels. How- explain why they adopt certain teaching practices. For ever, these beliefs fall into two broad categories: beliefs in instance, constructivist beliefs about teaching, defined as using intrinsic forms of motivation (such as taking into viewing students as active participants in the process of account students’ individual interests, asking for personal acquiring knowledge and stressing the development of 4 SAGE Open thinking processes more than the acquisition of specific Klassen and Chiu (2010) who showed that self-efficacy in knowledge, were significantly related to student-oriented classroom management increased from the onset of the practices and enhanced activities (OECD, 2009). In contrast, career (though a decline was found after 23 years of experi- direct transmission beliefs—defined as viewing the student ence). Concerning general conceptions about teaching and as a passive recipient and the role of a teacher as communi- learning, some studies have shown a tendency for novice cating knowledge in a clear and simple way, explaining right teachers to hold simplistic views on teaching and learning solutions and making sure that the classroom is clam and (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Calderhead, 1996); in other words, students concentrated—were related to structuring practices novice teachers hold traditional theories of learning, compa- (OECD, 2009). However, these general beliefs are abstract, rable with direct transmission beliefs. As teachers move to and thus, they have low relevance for teaching practices. constructivist conceptions (Black & Ammon, 1992), both These general beliefs likely constitute the basis for more spe- types of beliefs often coexist (Patrick & Pintrich, 2001). To cific beliefs such as beliefs about student motivation and conclude, years of teaching experience seems to be an impor- indirectly affect teaching practices. TALIS (OECD, 2009) tant variable to take into account, as it is linked to teaching showed that teachers internationally tend to favor construc- practices, self-efficacy, and general conceptions about teach- tivist over direct transmission beliefs. ing and learning. Years of Teaching Experience Aim, Research Questions, and Hypotheses The classroom management practices teachers adopt have This study aimed to describe the association between teach- been shown to relate to their years of teaching experience. ers’ beliefs (self-efficacy, general conceptions about teaching Comparing novice (i.e., student teachers having less than 40 and learning, beliefs about student motivation), classroom hr of classroom teaching experience) and expert (i.e., teach- management practices, and teaching experience. The follow- ers with at least 10 years of teaching experience and whose ing three research questions and related hypotheses (based classroom management expertise was recognized by peers on the literature reviewed above) drive the analyses and dis- and/or school administrators) teachers’ representations of cussion of the results: classroom management issues, Wolff, van den Bogert, Jarodzka, and Boshuizen (2014) showed that expert teachers Research Question 1: What are teachers’ general con- were significantly more effective at predicting classroom ceptions about teaching and learning, beliefs about stu- management events than novice teachers. This suggests that dent motivation, and self-reported practices in classroom with years of experience, teachers develop a better under- management? standing of classroom management, which enables them to anticipate issues and to adapt their classroom management Given that the sample is constituted of teachers with up to practices accordingly. Along the same line, Morris-Rotschild several years of experience, we expect teachers to hold stron- and Brassard (2006) reported that years of teaching experi- ger constructivist beliefs, and, in the opposite, lower direct ence were positively associated with compromising and inte- transmission beliefs. Furthermore, beliefs about student grating—two positive conflict strategies within classrooms motivation might be higher for promoting extrinsic than for that are conceptually close to autonomy support—and nega- intrinsic motivation. Finally, teachers might report lower tively associated with obliging, which is conceptually close chaos than autonomy support, control, and structure. to control. Regarding the relation between teaching self-efficacy and Research Question 2: How are teachers’ beliefs and experience, research showed a positive correlation indicating reported practices of classroom management associated? that teachers tend to become more confident over their career (OECD, 2009). Huberman (1992) calculated what he called Classroom management practices should be directly a “Coefficient of Mastery” including 18 facets of teaching explained by teachers’ beliefs about student motivation confidence, such as “dealing effectively with discipline (Boggiano et al., 1987; Landau, 2009; Reeve, 2009). In turn, problems” and “motivating uninterested students.” It appears these beliefs should be explained by general conceptions of that there is a considerable mastery progression between the teaching and learning, and self-efficacy beliefs (Chen et al., first phase in a teaching career (5-10 years of experience) 2012; OECD, 2009; Pajares, 1992; Prawat, 1992). Specifically, and the last phase (30-39 years of experience). Moreover, we assume that teacher self-efficacy beliefs will be positively with increasing years of experience, the facets rated as “mas- related to autonomy support and structure, and negatively tered to a large degree” tend to slip into the category of “fully related to control and chaos. Regarding general pedagogical mastered.” Such conclusions have been corroborated by beliefs (or general conceptions about teaching and learning), Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2007) who found that constructivist beliefs will be indirectly related to autonomy more experienced teachers have a greater sense of efficacy support, whereas direct transmission beliefs will be indirectly for classroom management than the novice teachers and by related to structure and control; these relationships will be Berger et al. 5 mediated by beliefs about student motivation. Finally, beliefs Teacher Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, in promoting extrinsic motivation will be related to control 2001). Four items assessed self-efficacy beliefs for classroom and beliefs for promoting intrinsic motivation to autonomy management, and four items assessed self-efficacy beliefs for support. student engagement. Participants rated each item on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely disagree; 6 = completely Research Question 3: How is teaching experience related agree). After removing one item, which loaded poorly on the to beliefs and practices? factor self-efficacy beliefs for student engagement, a two-fac- tor CFA model showed acceptable fit: χ (13) = 19.84, p = .10, Teaching experience relates to general pedagogical CFI = .98, RMSEA = .06. beliefs, self-efficacy belief, and, indirectly, to practices (Black & Ammon, 1992; Huberman, 1992; OECD, 2009; Beliefs about student motivation. Twelve items were translated Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). We assume that and adapted from scales developed by Nolen and Nicholls the higher the teaching experience, the stronger the beliefs in (1994), Shalter Bruening (2010), and Stipek et al. (2001). Six constructivism and sense of efficacy; to the opposite, the items assessed beliefs in the value of promoting intrinsic moti- higher the experience and the lower the beliefs in direct vation (e.g., “To motivate students, it is useful to make them transmission beliefs. work on a project about a topic of their choice”), and six items assessed beliefs in the value of promoting extrinsic motivation (e.g., “To motivate students, it is useful to remind them that Method they risk a bad grade if they do not study enough”). Participants rated each item on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely Participants disagree; 6 = completely agree). A two-factor CFA model One hundred fifty-four vocational teachers undergoing in- showed acceptable fit: χ (53) = 98.1, p = .0002, CFI = .88, service teacher education at the Swiss Federal Institute for RMSEA = .07. A one-factor solution did provide a worse fit: Vocational Education and Training (Lausanne, Switzerland) χ (54) = 254.129, p < .0001, CFI = .47, RMSEA = .16. participated in the study. There were 58 women and 94 men (two participants did not report their sex); all taught as their Classroom management practices. Five vignettes inspired by main activity. One hundred seven taught vocational subjects, the Problem in School Questionnaire (Deci et al., 1981; Pel- 21 general knowledge (courses including French, law, civic letier et al., 2002) were developed (see Figure 1 for an exam- education, and other topics), and 21 are higher education ple). Each vignette describes a problematic situation in terms teachers (professional education and training). Their age of classroom management and four ways to react to this situa- ranged from 25 to 57 years (M = 40.18 years, SD = 6.9 years). tion (20 items total). The four reactions correspond to the theo- Teaching experience before beginning teacher education retical dimensions of interpersonal motivating style: autonomy ranged from 1 year to 29 years, with a median of 3 years support, control, structure, and chaos (Reeve et al., 2004). In (M = 4.63 years, SD = 4.48 years). contrast to the Problem in School Questionnaire, the vignettes describe situations with adolescent students, not typical situa- tions for primary education teachers. The participant had to Instruments rate—in each vignette—each alternative reaction on a 7-point General conceptions about teaching and learning. Twelve items scale (1 = does not apply at all; 7 = applies completely). CFA were adapted from Chan and Elliott (2004) and from the French specifying four factors showed that, after two items that were translation (Berger & D’Ascoli, 2012) of items from TALIS supposed to assess chaos but did not load significantly on the (Jensen et al., 2012). Six items assessed constructivist beliefs factor were removed, the model fit the data adequately: χ (128) about teaching and learning (e.g., “Students learn best by find- = 164.44, p = .02, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .04. In comparison, a ing solutions to problems on their own”), and six items assessed two-factor model (Factor 1: autonomy support and control, direct transmission beliefs (e.g., “Instruction should be built Factor 2: structure and chaos) fitted the data inadequately: 2 3 around problems with clear, correct answers, and around ideas χ (133) = 306.65, p < .001, CFI = .58, RMSEA = .09. To that most students can grasp easily”). Participants rated each investigate convergent validity, correlations were observed item on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely disagree; between the vignettes and two other scales, namely, the Psy- 6 = completely agree). A two-factor confirmatory factor chologically Controlling Teaching Scale–Teacher Self-Report analysis (CFA) demonstrated acceptable fit: χ (43) = 70.67, (PCT Scale; Soenens et al., 2012) and the Behavior and p = .0049, comparative fit index (CFI) = .90, root mean square Instructional Management Scale (BIMS; Martin & Sass, error approximation (RMSEA) = .07. A one-factor solution did 2010). As expected, control correlated positively, r(153) = .52, not converge. p < .001, with the PCT Scale, whereas autonomy support cor- related negatively, r(153) = –.19, p = .02. Furthermore, struc- Self-efficacy beliefs. Eight items were taken from the French ture correlated positively with the two dimensions of the translation (Dumay & Galand, 2012) of the Ohio State BIMS: behavior management, r(153) = .33, p < .001, and 6 SAGE Open Vignette 5: In your classroom, the students are very passive. They do not show any interest and seldom answer your questions during class. Your reaction would be to: 1 = Does not apply at all; 7 = Applies completely Impose unexpected tests: During each class, a student will be randomly chosen and interrogated. Therefore, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 students will study. Tell students that they won’t achieve anything if they remain passive and that they have to react. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tell them your expectations for class participation and remind them of the importance of being active in learning. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Remind students of the relevance of your class and ask them about the reasons for their passivity. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 1. Example of a vignette. Table 1. Correlations and Descriptive Statistics for Scores Regarding Classroom Management (N = 154). Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Constructivist beliefs 1 2 Direct transmission beliefs −.33 1 3 Promoting intrinsic motivation .61 −.24 1 4 Promoting extrinsic motivation −.12 .47 .03 1 5 Autonomy support .37 −.17 .43 −.06 1 6 Control −.16 .26 −.04 .48 .02 1 7 Structure .36 −.05 .41 .10 .62 .18 1 8 Chaos −.12 .20 −.16 .30 −.33 .44 −.20 1 9 Self-efficacy for classroom management .06 .05 .12 .13 .22 .10 .24 .02 1 10 Self-efficacy for student engagement .15 −.07 .24 .06 .31 .07 .30 .03 .53 1 11 Teaching experience .08 .03 .09 .04 .05 −.00 .01 .00 .13 .13 1 No. of items 6 5 6 6 5 5 5 3 4 3 — M 5.01 3.31 5.05 3.05 5.47 2.61 5.23 4.49 4.57 4.47 4.63 SD 0.57 0.73 0.52 0.87 0.90 1.09 0.92 1.07 0.74 0.72 4.48 Minimum 3.50 1.25 3.50 1.00 2.60 1.00 2.20 1.00 1.25 2.67 1.00 Maximum 6.00 5.40 6.00 5.33 7.00 7.00 7.00 5.67 6.00 6.00 29.00 .75 .60 .70 .76 .67 .67 .68 .50 .86 .68 — Note. α = internal consistency estimated with Cronbach’s alpha. Correlations = |.16| are significant at the level of p = .05; correlations ≥|.21| are significant at the level of p = .01; correlations ≥|.27| are significant at the level of p = .001 (two-tailed). instructional management, r(153) = .24, p < .001. Chaos cor- Data Analysis related significantly neither with behavior management nor Two steps were followed to answer the research questions. with instructional management. First, mean differences were tested (using paired-samples t tests) to find the beliefs and practices favored by teachers Procedure (Research Question 1). Specifically, differences were tested among general pedagogical beliefs, among beliefs about stu- As part of a larger anonymous survey administered during a dent motivation, and among classroom self-reported prac- 45-min class period, participants were asked to provide tices. Then, based on the research questions and hypotheses information about their demographic characteristics and to stated above, a structural equation model (path analysis) was complete the instrument. All participants were provided with developed to investigate the relations between the multiple written information about the nature and purpose of the beliefs and the practices investigated (Research Question 2). research project. They were made aware that they could withdraw from the project at any time. Participation was nei- ther mandatory nor remunerated. With less than five excep- Results tions, all participants agreed to complete the survey. The descriptive statistics and correlations are shown in Table 1. Participation was a function of attendance on the testing day Internal consistency was acceptable for all scales (α ≥ .6) and unlikely to reflect unintended sample selectivity. Berger et al. 7 Figure 2. Final path model. Note. All paths are significant at the level p < .01 (N = 154). except for chaos. Therefore, this lack of reliability was taken measurement errors in the path model (Bollen, 1989), to take into account in additional analyses. into consideration the reliability of the scores, resulting in parameters that are more precise. After nonsignificant paths at the level of p < .01 were removed and relevant paths were Mean Differences Within Beliefs and Within added based on the examination of modification indices, the Practices data had a good fit to the model: χ (25) = 29.22, p = .25. The final model is shown in Figure 2. From a statistical Comparing the two types of general conceptions about teach- point of view, the two types of beliefs about student motiva- ing and learning revealed that constructivist beliefs were rated tion are independent, as self-efficacy beliefs are independent much higher than direct transmission beliefs, t(153) = 19.89, of general conceptions about teaching and learning. In terms p < .001, d = 2.60. Regarding beliefs about student motivation, of explained variance in the endogenous variables, the model promoting intrinsic motivation was preferred over promoting results indicate that teaching experience explains a small por- extrinsic motivation, t(153) = 24.75, p < .001, d = 2.80. In the tion of the variance in self-efficacy beliefs and general con- vignettes, teachers reported they would use significantly more autonomy-supportive than structuring practices, t(153) = 3.83, ceptions about teaching and learning. Beliefs about students’ p < .001, d = 0.27. Then, structuring was used significantly motivation are largely explained (R = .43-.47) by the set of more than controlling, t(153) = 24.91, p < .001, d = 2.60, and predictors. Finally, self-reported classroom management prac- finally, the latter was not significantly different from chaos, tices are explained to very different extents (R = .18 for chaos t(153) = 1.08, p = .28. to .63 for control). In sum, substantial portions of variance are explained, which support the validity of the model. The mean- ing of the model is discussed in the following section. Relationships Between Experience, Beliefs, and Practices Discussion The maximum likelihood robust estimator available in Mplus 5.0 was used to take into account deviations from multivari- This study aimed at uncovering the associations between teach- ate normality. Measurement error in the scores was corrected ers’ beliefs (self-efficacy, general conceptions about teaching using the formula “(1 – reliability) × variance” to specify and learning, beliefs about student motivation), classroom 8 SAGE Open management practices, and teaching experience. Six issues will enact constructivist beliefs. In contrast, lack of teacher reac- be discussed: favorite beliefs and practices, associations tion (i.e., chaos) relates to conceiving teaching and learning between beliefs, associations of beliefs and practices, the effect as being under the authority of the teacher (i.e., direct trans- of teaching experience on beliefs and practices, the vignette mission); this might also explain the strong correlation instrument, and the limitations of the study. between chaos and control. Favorite Beliefs and Practices Associations Between Beliefs and Practices Results indicate that teachers tend to agree more with con- Self-efficacy beliefs are, as hypothesized, positively linked to structivist beliefs than with direct transmission beliefs, which autonomy support and structuring practices; however, no is consistent with previous survey research (OECD, 2009). relationships with control and chaos were found. We con- Contrasting the findings of Turner’s (2010) study, in which clude from this observation that the confidence teachers have teachers considered extrinsic forms of motivation to be more in their ability to produce effective results (keeping students effective than intrinsic forms, teachers in our study thought quiet or having them engaged in learning) strongly matters in that promoting their students’ intrinsic motivation is more classroom management. Therefore, this study adds to the relevant than promoting extrinsic motivation. Finally, we large body of literature about the importance of teachers’ self- found that teachers reported to adopt practices encouraged efficacy (Martin & Sass, 2010; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk by teacher education (autonomy support and structure) more Hoy, 2001) in understanding instructional practices. than practices considered unfavorable (control and chaos). Each of the four forms of practices was explained by spe- This means that teachers already know what practices are cific predictors. Autonomy support was directly explained more prone to student engagement, an observation that was by self-efficacy for student engagement and promotion of already made in another study with a similar population of intrinsic motivation. Structure was also explained by the lat- teachers (Girardet & Berger, in press). ter, in addition to self-efficacy for classroom management. Thus, the two components of teacher self-efficacy described by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) have differ- Associations Between Beliefs ent effects, and thus, both are important for an optimal class- As hypothesized, teachers’ beliefs about student motivation room management practice. In contrast, control and chaos are rooted in teachers’ general conceptions about teaching were explained by beliefs in the use of extrinsic forms of and learning: The more teachers adhere to constructivist motivation, the latter dependent on direct transmission beliefs, the more they think that it is worth promoting their beliefs. This latter pathway has theoretical coherence: It students’ intrinsic motivation. At the opposite, direct trans- characterizes teachers who tend to see teaching as an interac- mission beliefs relate to stronger beliefs in the use of meth- tion between an adult who possesses the knowledge and stu- ods that promote students’ extrinsic motivation. As teachers dents who learn it by listening to his or her words (Good & who participated in the present study rated constructivist Brophy, 2008). According to this perspective, strong author- beliefs significantly higher than direct transmission beliefs, ity is necessary to maintain good learning conditions and stu- this difference is reflected in the teachers’ preference for dents’ behavior. Chaos makes sense in that students are methods that target intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation. responsible for behaving according to the expectations, and The effects of pedagogical beliefs on teaching practices are thus, the teacher is not supposed to trigger students’ interest. fully mediated by beliefs about student motivation. Thus, the latter play a relevant role in translating pedagogical beliefs The Relevance of Teaching Experience into teaching practices. The assumed associations between constructivist beliefs and autonomy support, and direct trans- Consistent with previous studies (Huberman, 1992; Klassen mission beliefs and control, were confirmed by the results. & Chiu, 2010), results indicate that teaching experience is To the contrary, no significant association between direct related to specific beliefs. In fact, self-efficacy for classroom transmission beliefs and structure (OECD, 2009) was found management and student engagement was positively related and indirect paths were uncovered: Constructivist beliefs to years of experience. This suggests that, on average, teach- indirectly explain structure via beliefs in promoting intrinsic ers increase their confidence in their abilities, which helps the motivation, and direct transmission beliefs indirectly explain teachers adopt autonomy-supportive and structuring prac- chaos via beliefs in promoting extrinsic motivation. tices. The second type of effect of teaching experience was Accordingly, theoretically opposed practices, namely, struc- observed on general conceptions about teaching and learning. ture and chaos, rely on theoretically opposed beliefs about The more experience teachers had, the more they believed in teaching and learning, namely, constructivist and direct constructivism and the less they believed in direct transmis- transmission beliefs. Not only supporting autonomy but also sion. This corroborates what was observed internationally in providing a strong structure seems necessary to facilitate the TALIS (OECD, 2009, 2014), and is very close to what other construction of meaning by the students, in other words to researchers found about novice teachers who hold direct Berger et al. 9 transmission beliefs (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Calderhead, experience. Finally, due to the cross-sectional design, we 1996) versus more experienced teachers holding constructiv- relied on theoretical arguments and relevant literature to ist beliefs (Black & Ammon, 1992). These results suggest that infer causal relationships. Our next research will study the teachers’ general conceptions about teaching and learning same variables within a longitudinal design, which will pro- might be shaped by their classroom experience even before vide further information about the causality of the data. they begin teacher education; in other words, teachers are learning from experience. Again, this result is important as Implications these general conceptions are indirectly related to self- reported teaching practices. A direct effect of teaching experi- According to Sierens et al. (2009), it is reasonable to suppose ence was not observed on beliefs about student motivation or that a classroom management style oriented toward auton- self-reported teaching practices. This suggests that beliefs omy support and structure positively affects students’ cogni- about student motivation do not depend on experience and tive engagement. Moreover, this style of classroom that teaching practices depend only indirectly on experience. management is likely to affect self-regulation. Therefore, Furthermore, this raises the question of how change in class- teacher education has to foster this way to manage the class- room management practices during the career is related to room. The present findings indicate a way to reach this change in self-efficacy and in general conceptions about objective: influence teachers’ general conceptions about teaching and learning. Given that no causal relationship can teaching and learning and teachers’ beliefs about student be stated based on the present correlational study, these rela- motivation. Both sets of beliefs are logically and psychologi- tionships are only suggested by the results and another study cally connected together, and as demonstrated by our analy- design would be needed to answer this question. ses and illustrated by the model shown in Figure 2, general conceptions about teaching and learning relate to classroom management style oriented toward autonomy support and Limitations structure with beliefs about student motivation acting as a Several limitations of this study must be emphasized. First, mediator. interpretation of the present study results is limited by the However, the efficacy of the teacher education program self-reported nature of the data, in particular classroom man- aiming to influence teachers’ beliefs in favor of constructiv- agement teaching practices. Teachers may have reported the ism and intrinsic motivation has to be questioned. Indeed, it ideal behavior they would adopt in virtual situations, which may be that a program of this kind will be effective mainly may differ from the real behavior the teachers would have with experienced teachers. In fact, according to Borko and adopted in such situations. One advantage of self-report, Putnam (1996) and Calderhead (1996), it seems that novice however, is that this measure is nonintrusive, whereas obser- teachers tended to hold more simplistic views on teaching vation of behavior during teaching is intrusive. Note that this and learning than their more experienced peers; in other study is the first to include a vignette measure of the four words, novice teachers believe more in direct transmission dimensions of interpersonal style according to the SDT the- beliefs and less in constructivism than their more experi- ory (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Deci et al., 1981; Reeve et al., 1999; enced peers. Our results confirm this observation. Therefore, Reeve et al., 2004). However, there is room for improvement the problem of changing teachers’ beliefs appears to be a as the chaos dimension was measured with only three items, developmental issue. Indeed, we can interpret the important and relatively high correlations were observed between influence of years of teaching experience on teaching prac- autonomy support and structure, and between control and tices, self-efficacy, and general conceptions about teaching chaos. Although structure and chaos, theoretically opposite and learning as the sign of a developmental sequence dimensions of a continuum, were negatively correlated, (Huberman, 1989/1993): Beginning teachers would adhere autonomy support and control were not correlated as to direct transmission beliefs and use classroom management expected. According to the present study, the opposite of practices oriented toward control, believing in the relevance autonomy support is not control but chaos. More studies that of extrinsic motivation. The fact that novice teachers adhere include the four dimensions of interpersonal style and use to a coherent pattern of beliefs and practice (direct transmis- various methods (observation, qualitative account, and ques- sion, extrinsic motivation, and classroom management ori- tionnaire) are necessary to further investigate the theoretical ented toward control) can be considered as an argument in framework with empirical evidence. Second, regarding the favor of this way to raise the problem. In other words, the path analysis, different structural models could fit the data as issue would not be to persuade teachers of the value of the adequately as the one we presented. However, this model is constructivist approach, but to foster the developmental based on theoretical and empirical work, which sustains the move from one stage to another in the process of becoming a model’s validity. Furthermore, all significant relationships teacher. Conceivably, accelerating this move implies actions uncovered can be explained theoretically. Third, teaching in favor of strengthening teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. experience was simply assessed by the years of experience, Indeed, experienced teachers adhere not only to constructive which does not provide information about the quality of this beliefs but also are confident in their capacity to manage the 10 SAGE Open classroom and to foster student engagement. This position Boggiano, A. K., Barrett, M., Weiher, A. W., McClelland, G. H., & Lusk, C. M. (1987). Use of maximal-operant principle to moti- regarding the implication of our study concerning teacher vate children’s intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social education is coherent with our findings. The latter being cor- Psychology, 53, 866-879. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.53.5.866 relational in nature, we can only make hypotheses. Quasi- Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. experimental research, including a pre–post design, is needed New York, NY: John Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118619179 to rigorously measure the effects of different ways to try to Borko, H., & Putnam, R. T. (1996). Learning to teach. In D. L. influence teachers’ beliefs and practice in regard of class- Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psy- room management. chology (pp. 673-708). New York, NY: MacMillan. Brown, G. T. L. (2009). Teachers’ self-reported assessment prac- Declaration of Conflicting Interests tices and conceptions: Using structural equation modeling to examine measurement and structural models. In T. Teo & M. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect S. Khine (Eds.), Structural equation modeling in educational to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. research: Concepts and applications (pp. 243-266). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Funding Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In D. L. The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psy- for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The chology (pp. 673-708). New York, NY: MacMillan. data were drawn from the research project “The Evolution of Chan, K.-W., & Elliott, R. G. (2004). Relational analysis of personal Teachers’ Conceptions During Teacher Education,” founded by the epistemology and conceptions about teaching and learning. Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant N°100019_146351; pri- Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 817-831. doi:10.1016/j. mary investigator: Jean-Louis Berger, Swiss Federal Institute for tate.2004.09.002 Vocational Education and Training; co-investigators: Marcel Chen, J., Brown, G. T. L., Hattie, J. A. C., & Millward, P. (2012). Crahay, University of Geneva, and Carmela Aprea, Friedrich- Teachers’ conceptions of excellent teaching and its relation- Schiller-Universität Jena). ships to self-reported teaching practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 936-947. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.04.006 Notes Cochran-Smith, M., & Villegas, A. M. (2016). Research on teacher preparation: Charting the landscape of a sprawling field. In 1. In Switzerland, vocational teachers typically teach for several D. H. Gitomer & C. A. Bell (Eds.), Handbook of research years before entering teacher education. In the present sample, on teaching (pp. 439-547). Washington, DC: American teachers had varying years of experience with half of them Educational Research Association. having 3 or less than 3 years of experience. Condon, M. W. G., Clyde, J. A., Kyle, D. W., & Hovda, R. A. 2. In a major study on teachers’ interpersonal teaching style, (1993). A constructivist basis for teaching and teacher educa- Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman, and Ryan (1981) developed a tion: A framework for program development and research on vignette instrument (The Problem in School Questionnaire) to graduates. Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 273-278. gauge whether teachers were more autonomy-supportive or, at Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self- the opposite, more controlling with their students. The recent determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum addition of structure versus chaos to this dichotomy leads to a Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 four-dimension framework: autonomy support, control, struc- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and ture, and chaos. Although Jang, Reeve, and Deci (2010) used the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social an observation grid to code teachers’ behavior reflecting these Psychology, 53, 1024-1037. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.53.6.1024 four dimensions, there is no self-report instrument for moder- Deci, E. L., Schwartz, A. J., Sheinman, L., & Ryan, R. M. (1981). ate to large samples. An instrument to assess adults’ orientations toward control 3. To gauge the sensibility of this instrument to socially desirable versus autonomy with children: Reflections on intrinsic moti- responses, two scales based on Paulhus’s (1984) conceptualiza- vation and perceived competence. Journal of Educational tion of socially desirable responses were administered. A signifi- Psychology, 73, 642-650. cant but small correlation between the autonomy support score de Jong, R., Mainhard, T., van Tartwijk, J., Veldman, I., Verloop, and impression management was found: r(153) = .22, p < .01. No N., & Wubbels, T. (2014). 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Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management enced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23. 944-956. (pp. 181-219). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003 Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2007). The differen- Author Biographies tial antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experi- Jean-Louis Berger is professor at the Swiss Federal Institute for enced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 944-956. Vocational Education and Training. His research interests include doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003 teacher motivation, teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, self-regulated Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. learning, and motivational beliefs in vocational students. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review Céline Girardet has a PhD in Educational Sciences. Her research of Educational Research, 68, 202-248. doi:10.3102/ interests are teacher beliefs and practices and teacher change. Turner, J. C., Bogner Warzo, K., & Christensen, A. (2011). Cynthia Vaudroz is head researcher at the Research Unit for mon- Motivating mathematics learning: Changes in teachers’ prac- itoring Educational Systems (Unité de Recherche pour le pilotage tices and beliefs during a nine-month collaboration. American des Systèmes Pédagogiques), Switzerland. Her research interests Educational Research Journal, 48, 718-762. include teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, factors influencing aca- Turner, J. C. (2010). Unfinished business: Putting motivation the- demic achievement among high school students, and assessment in ory to the “classroom test.” In T. C. Urdan & S. A. Karabenick education. (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement—The decade ahead: Applications and contexts of motivation and achieve- Marcel Crahay is retired professor of educational psychology at ment (Vol. 16B, pp. 109-138). Bingley, UK: Emerald. the Universities of Geneva and Liège. His research interests include van Tartwijk, J., den Brok, P., Veldman, I., & Wubbels, T. (2009). teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, especially in relation to grade Teachers’ practical knowledge about classroom management retention, student assessment, learning and intelligence. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

Teaching Experience, Teachers’ Beliefs, and Self-Reported Classroom Management Practices: A Coherent Network:

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Abstract

Classroom management is an important topic in teacher education, as it has a strong impact on students’ engagement. However, untangling the concepts influencing teachers’ classroom management practices is a question that needs further investigation. Using data from a survey of 154 vocational teachers participating in teacher education, this study examined associations between classroom management practices, teaching experience, and teachers’ beliefs (general pedagogical beliefs, beliefs about student motivation, and self-efficacy beliefs). Results highlighted associations between the different types of beliefs, and between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Teaching experience was positively related to self-efficacy and beliefs in constructivism but did not impact practices. Keywords teacher education, classroom management practices, teaching experience, general pedagogical beliefs, beliefs about student motivation, self-efficacy beliefs Co-Operation and Development [OECD], 2009, 2014) Introduction revealed that 20% of the teachers reported needing teacher Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein (2006) describe “classroom professional development regarding student discipline and management” as an umbrella term covering topics such as behavior problems, whereas nearly 15% reported needing “actions taken to create a productive, orderly learning envi- professional development in classroom management (OECD, ronment ( . . . ) to elicit changes in students’ behavior ( . . . ) 2014). Concordantly, motivating students is among the diffi- [and] to help students fulfill their responsibilities more culties teachers face during their career, as revealed by effectively” (p. 181). Research on developmental stages Huberman’s (1989/1993) study on 160 in-service teachers. (Huberman, 1989/1993) in teaching consistently indicates These studies all agree that classroom management is central that classroom management is one of the most important, if for novice and experienced teachers. not the most important, focuses of novice teachers. Research shows that the way teachers manage their class- Accordingly, they report poorer classroom climates than room has a strong influence on students’ cognitive and experienced teachers (Jensen, Sandoval-Hernández, Knoll, & behavioral engagement, thus going beyond the scope of sim- Gonzalez, 2012). Furthermore, many novice teachers believe ply keeping students quiet and maintaining silence in the that managing their classroom is a prerequisite to teaching classroom (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Reeve, 2009; Weinert content (Cochran-Smith & Villegas, 2016; Condon, Clyde, Kyle, & Hovda, 1993; Kilgore & Ross, 1993; McCormack, Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, Lausanne, 2001; Pigge & Marso, 1997), a position Dewey (1904) Switzerland defended nearly a century ago. Finally, Weinstein’s (1989) Research Unit for Monitoring Educational Systems (Unité de recherche study on preservice teachers’ beliefs revealed that being able pour le pilotage des systèmes pédagogiques), Renens, Switzerland to motivate students, which is one of the aims of classroom University of Geneva, Switzerland management, is part of the preservice teachers’ image of what Corresponding Author: a good teacher is. For experienced teachers, classroom man- Jean-Louis Berger, Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and agement is also a key competence: The Teaching and Learning Training, Avenue de Longemalle 1, 1000 Lausanne Malley 16, Switzerland. Email: jean-louis.berger@sfivet.swiss International Survey (TALIS; Organisation for Economic and Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open & Helmke, 1995). Kunter, Baumert, and Köller (2007) found The present study aims to uncover, in a sample of Swiss that the degree to which students perceive the clarity of rules vocational teachers, the associations between teachers’ and teachers’ monitoring of classroom activities explains the beliefs, self-reported classroom management practices, and extent to which students develop an interest in the subject. their prior teaching experience. Investigating the impact of Accordingly, a learning environment that states the limits in years of teaching experience and of beliefs on classroom an informative way creates a context that helps promote stu- management practices is particularly relevant in the context dents’ intrinsic motivation, feeling of autonomy, and compe- of this study. In Switzerland, vocational teacher education tence beliefs, all major educational goals. usually takes place after several years of teaching in voca- Adopting a dynamic and comprehensive perspective, this tional schools. Thus, vocational teachers already have teach- study investigates sources of teaching practices and provides ing experience (though it is largely variable) and established bases for improving teacher education programs. Except for a instructional practices and beliefs when they enter teacher few studies (e.g., Lopes & Santos, 2013; Pelletier, Séguin- education. Beyond detailing the dynamic relationship Lévesque, & Legault, 2002; Stipek, Givvin, Salmon, & between years of teaching experience, beliefs, and practices, MacGyvers, 2001), the analysis of the relationship between this study will provide important information about the teachers’ beliefs and classroom management practices has beliefs that might be fostered or discouraged in teacher edu- been neglected (Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Most cation programs depending on what type of practice is to be studies looked at the outcomes rather than the sources of class- promoted. room management practices. As a result, little is known about what drives teachers to adopt one practice or another. However, Various Perspectives on Classroom Management there is a growing body of research on teachers’ beliefs, in which the relationship between beliefs and teaching practices As a broad topic, classroom management has been investi- is viewed as significant (Fives & Gregoire Gill, 2015). gated using very diverse lenses (Evertson & Weinstein, Researchers seem to agree on some key aspects characterizing 2006). Among these lines of research, some focused on beliefs. Notably, as beliefs are built on prior life experiences, issues of discipline and management of misbehavior with the agreed-upon definition of beliefs includes a dimension of theoretical foundations in behaviorist psychology (Landrum stability. This characteristic of beliefs often leads researchers & Kauffman, 2006), others on issues of management of cul- to view beliefs as precursors of teaching practice (Chen, tural heterogeneity in the classroom (van Tartwijk, den Brok, Brown, Hattie, & Millward, 2012; Fang, 1996; Kennedy, Veldman, & Wubbels, 2009), and still others investigated 2005; Pajares, 1992; Richardson & Placier, 2001; Tatto & what they named “teachers’ interpersonal motivating style” Coupland, 2003), and to focus on direct belief impact. (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman, & Ryan, Researchers have indicated that teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs 1981; Reeve, 2009; Reeve, Bolt, & Cai, 1999) rooted in the (Woolfolk Hoy & Davis, 2006), beliefs about student motiva- self-determination theory (SDT) sociocognitive framework tion (Turner, Bogner Warzo, & Christensen, 2011), and gen- (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This latter perspective was adopted in eral conceptions about teaching and learning—such as the present article to investigate classroom management constructivism or direct transmission (Prawat, 1992)—have practices or style. been identified as factors that affect how teachers concretely Recent studies and theoretical advances describe class- manage their classrooms. This expectation of direct relation- room management using two oppositions or continuums: ship has been challenged by suggesting that beliefs and prac- autonomy support versus control, and structure versus chaos tices are related in a more dynamic way. This assumption has (Jang et al., 2010; Reeve, 2009; Reeve, Deci, & Ryan, 2004; not been often investigated, as most studies consider only one Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009). or a limited number of beliefs when studying their relation to Autonomy support is defined as “the interpersonal sentiment classroom management practices. Therefore, it is still not clear and behavior teachers provide to identify, nurture, and how these multiple beliefs are articulated with each other and develop students’ inner motivational resources” (Reeve, with practices. This study follows the common expectation 2009, p. 159), whereas control refers to “interpersonal senti- that beliefs might predict practices. However, this assumption ment and behavior teachers provide during instruction to is moderated by adopting a dynamic and comprehensive per- pressure students to think, feel, or behave in a specific way” spective on the impact of beliefs on practices. Indeed, it (Reeve, 2009, p. 160). Structure refers to “the amount of acknowledges that beliefs can serve different functions: Some information in the context about how to effectively achieve may directly impact teaching practices, whereas some others desired outcomes” (Skinner & Belmont, 1993, p. 572). may influence other types of beliefs. Furthermore, this study Structure is also defined as “the provision of clear instruction allows individual characteristics to play a role in this dynamic, in the classroom and the communication of realistic goals assuming that years of teaching experience may affect teach- and expectations for behavior and learning” (Soenens, ers’ beliefs—such as the more experienced in teaching, the Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Dochy, & Goossens, 2012, p. 109). higher the self-efficacy beliefs (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk The opposite of structure is chaos, in which teachers com- Hoy, 2007)—and practices (OECD, 2009). municate confusing or contradictory messages, and does not Berger et al. 3 provide clear directions and expectations to students (Jang projects, or finding challenging tasks to engage students in et al., 2010). Autonomy support and structure are supposed learning) and beliefs in using extrinsic forms such as rewards, to positively affect students’ cognitive engagement; in addi- punishments, threats, or grades. In terms of classroom man- tion, their conjunction or interaction could affect self-regula- agement, the more teachers believe in the utility of fostering tion and cognitive strategy use in addition to the main effects intrinsic motivation, the more they support students’ auton- of the two types of practices (Sierens et al., 2009). omy (Reeve, 2009). In contrast, the more teachers believe in Under the label “Psychologically Controlling Teaching” the relevance of extrinsic forms of motivation, the more they (PCT), Soenens et al. (2012) describe a teaching style that try to control students. In a study of mathematic teachers, aims at exercising strong control over students’ feelings, Turner (2010) found that teachers considered extrinsic forms behavior, and engagement. This style has multiple sources of motivation more effective than intrinsic ones. In addition, such as pressure from parents, colleagues, or principals on according to Reeve’s (2009) review, teachers would adopt a the teacher; the teacher’s perception of students’ low motiva- controlling style if they believe in the maximal-operant prin- tion; and the teacher’s low intrinsic motivation to teach. PCT ciple, stating that “the likelihood of producing long-term has a negative effect on students’ relative autonomy, which interest in academic tasks is assumed to vary positively with in turn leads to the use of metacognitive strategies (self-reg- the size of a reward” (Boggiano, Barrett, Weiher, McClel- ulation) that influence academic performance. land, & Lusk, 1987, p. 866). Therefore, classroom manage- ment is also based on teachers’ beliefs about student motivation such as what helps students engage in learning. Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Management They also had only weak beliefs in the benefit of autonomy- Practices supportive strategies. To our knowledge, no theoretical or Teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices should be related in empirical basis assumes associations with structure or chaos. a meaningful way, as is the case for other teaching tasks, such as student assessment, in which conceptions of assess- Teacher self-efficacy. Several studies have shown that class- ment and assessment practices are significantly associated room management beliefs and practices are related to the (Brown, 2009). The reasons teachers adopt classroom man- level of teacher self-efficacy beliefs, that is, the “teacher’s agement practices such as the use of rewards and punishment belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses have been analyzed by Landau (2009) and Landrum and of action required to successfully accomplish a specific Kauffman (2006). Teachers’ main argument for using such teaching task in a particular context” (Tschannen-Moran, practices is their efficiency: They offer a readily and easy-to- Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998, p. 233). The threefold concep- use applicable solution to react to misbehavior. Furthermore, tualization of teacher self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & this gives the teacher a feeling of keeping students under Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) includes two dimensions that relate to control. At the opposite end of the spectrum, practices such classroom management practices: self-efficacy for class- as complimenting and private verbal encouragement are room management (e.g., maintaining order, discipline, keep- believed to be not very useful as teachers say that such prac- ing students quiet) and self-efficacy for student engagement tice cannot work with the teachers’ own students. (e.g., motivating uninterested students, helping students understand the value of learning). Studies converge toward Beliefs about student motivation. According to Patrick and the conclusion that less self-efficacious teachers have a pes- Pintrich’s synthesis on teachers’ beliefs and conceptual simistic view of students, tend to adopt controlling practices change (2001), teachers generally see student motivation as (such as punishment), and strive to maintain strong disci- a stable trait that can be influenced mainly by factors exter- pline (Martin & Sass, 2010; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). At the nal to the school such as parents. Teachers believe that their opposite, teachers who feel highly confident in their abilities own influence is limited, except in trying to create interest- tend to sustain their students’ autonomy and to respond ing activities. These beliefs discourage teachers from trying quickly to misbehavior without feeling threatened (Woolfolk motivational strategies (Turner, 2010). However, research Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Note that other studies did not find shows that teachers are aware of the importance of student any significant association between teacher self-efficacy motivation and its implications for student engagement, and beliefs (for classroom management and for student engage- recognize that it can lead to classroom management issues ment) and the quality of student–teacher interactions (de (Mansfield & Volet, 2010). Thus, teachers’ beliefs about stu- Jong et al., 2014). dent motivation constitute a possible source of instructional practices. These beliefs could take multiple forms (Nolen & General conceptions about teaching and learning. The general Nicholls, 1994; Turner, 2010) and differ depending on stu- beliefs teachers hold about teaching and learning could dents’ characteristics such as their achievement levels. How- explain why they adopt certain teaching practices. For ever, these beliefs fall into two broad categories: beliefs in instance, constructivist beliefs about teaching, defined as using intrinsic forms of motivation (such as taking into viewing students as active participants in the process of account students’ individual interests, asking for personal acquiring knowledge and stressing the development of 4 SAGE Open thinking processes more than the acquisition of specific Klassen and Chiu (2010) who showed that self-efficacy in knowledge, were significantly related to student-oriented classroom management increased from the onset of the practices and enhanced activities (OECD, 2009). In contrast, career (though a decline was found after 23 years of experi- direct transmission beliefs—defined as viewing the student ence). Concerning general conceptions about teaching and as a passive recipient and the role of a teacher as communi- learning, some studies have shown a tendency for novice cating knowledge in a clear and simple way, explaining right teachers to hold simplistic views on teaching and learning solutions and making sure that the classroom is clam and (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Calderhead, 1996); in other words, students concentrated—were related to structuring practices novice teachers hold traditional theories of learning, compa- (OECD, 2009). However, these general beliefs are abstract, rable with direct transmission beliefs. As teachers move to and thus, they have low relevance for teaching practices. constructivist conceptions (Black & Ammon, 1992), both These general beliefs likely constitute the basis for more spe- types of beliefs often coexist (Patrick & Pintrich, 2001). To cific beliefs such as beliefs about student motivation and conclude, years of teaching experience seems to be an impor- indirectly affect teaching practices. TALIS (OECD, 2009) tant variable to take into account, as it is linked to teaching showed that teachers internationally tend to favor construc- practices, self-efficacy, and general conceptions about teach- tivist over direct transmission beliefs. ing and learning. Years of Teaching Experience Aim, Research Questions, and Hypotheses The classroom management practices teachers adopt have This study aimed to describe the association between teach- been shown to relate to their years of teaching experience. ers’ beliefs (self-efficacy, general conceptions about teaching Comparing novice (i.e., student teachers having less than 40 and learning, beliefs about student motivation), classroom hr of classroom teaching experience) and expert (i.e., teach- management practices, and teaching experience. The follow- ers with at least 10 years of teaching experience and whose ing three research questions and related hypotheses (based classroom management expertise was recognized by peers on the literature reviewed above) drive the analyses and dis- and/or school administrators) teachers’ representations of cussion of the results: classroom management issues, Wolff, van den Bogert, Jarodzka, and Boshuizen (2014) showed that expert teachers Research Question 1: What are teachers’ general con- were significantly more effective at predicting classroom ceptions about teaching and learning, beliefs about stu- management events than novice teachers. This suggests that dent motivation, and self-reported practices in classroom with years of experience, teachers develop a better under- management? standing of classroom management, which enables them to anticipate issues and to adapt their classroom management Given that the sample is constituted of teachers with up to practices accordingly. Along the same line, Morris-Rotschild several years of experience, we expect teachers to hold stron- and Brassard (2006) reported that years of teaching experi- ger constructivist beliefs, and, in the opposite, lower direct ence were positively associated with compromising and inte- transmission beliefs. Furthermore, beliefs about student grating—two positive conflict strategies within classrooms motivation might be higher for promoting extrinsic than for that are conceptually close to autonomy support—and nega- intrinsic motivation. Finally, teachers might report lower tively associated with obliging, which is conceptually close chaos than autonomy support, control, and structure. to control. Regarding the relation between teaching self-efficacy and Research Question 2: How are teachers’ beliefs and experience, research showed a positive correlation indicating reported practices of classroom management associated? that teachers tend to become more confident over their career (OECD, 2009). Huberman (1992) calculated what he called Classroom management practices should be directly a “Coefficient of Mastery” including 18 facets of teaching explained by teachers’ beliefs about student motivation confidence, such as “dealing effectively with discipline (Boggiano et al., 1987; Landau, 2009; Reeve, 2009). In turn, problems” and “motivating uninterested students.” It appears these beliefs should be explained by general conceptions of that there is a considerable mastery progression between the teaching and learning, and self-efficacy beliefs (Chen et al., first phase in a teaching career (5-10 years of experience) 2012; OECD, 2009; Pajares, 1992; Prawat, 1992). Specifically, and the last phase (30-39 years of experience). Moreover, we assume that teacher self-efficacy beliefs will be positively with increasing years of experience, the facets rated as “mas- related to autonomy support and structure, and negatively tered to a large degree” tend to slip into the category of “fully related to control and chaos. Regarding general pedagogical mastered.” Such conclusions have been corroborated by beliefs (or general conceptions about teaching and learning), Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2007) who found that constructivist beliefs will be indirectly related to autonomy more experienced teachers have a greater sense of efficacy support, whereas direct transmission beliefs will be indirectly for classroom management than the novice teachers and by related to structure and control; these relationships will be Berger et al. 5 mediated by beliefs about student motivation. Finally, beliefs Teacher Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, in promoting extrinsic motivation will be related to control 2001). Four items assessed self-efficacy beliefs for classroom and beliefs for promoting intrinsic motivation to autonomy management, and four items assessed self-efficacy beliefs for support. student engagement. Participants rated each item on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely disagree; 6 = completely Research Question 3: How is teaching experience related agree). After removing one item, which loaded poorly on the to beliefs and practices? factor self-efficacy beliefs for student engagement, a two-fac- tor CFA model showed acceptable fit: χ (13) = 19.84, p = .10, Teaching experience relates to general pedagogical CFI = .98, RMSEA = .06. beliefs, self-efficacy belief, and, indirectly, to practices (Black & Ammon, 1992; Huberman, 1992; OECD, 2009; Beliefs about student motivation. Twelve items were translated Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). We assume that and adapted from scales developed by Nolen and Nicholls the higher the teaching experience, the stronger the beliefs in (1994), Shalter Bruening (2010), and Stipek et al. (2001). Six constructivism and sense of efficacy; to the opposite, the items assessed beliefs in the value of promoting intrinsic moti- higher the experience and the lower the beliefs in direct vation (e.g., “To motivate students, it is useful to make them transmission beliefs. work on a project about a topic of their choice”), and six items assessed beliefs in the value of promoting extrinsic motivation (e.g., “To motivate students, it is useful to remind them that Method they risk a bad grade if they do not study enough”). Participants rated each item on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely Participants disagree; 6 = completely agree). A two-factor CFA model One hundred fifty-four vocational teachers undergoing in- showed acceptable fit: χ (53) = 98.1, p = .0002, CFI = .88, service teacher education at the Swiss Federal Institute for RMSEA = .07. A one-factor solution did provide a worse fit: Vocational Education and Training (Lausanne, Switzerland) χ (54) = 254.129, p < .0001, CFI = .47, RMSEA = .16. participated in the study. There were 58 women and 94 men (two participants did not report their sex); all taught as their Classroom management practices. Five vignettes inspired by main activity. One hundred seven taught vocational subjects, the Problem in School Questionnaire (Deci et al., 1981; Pel- 21 general knowledge (courses including French, law, civic letier et al., 2002) were developed (see Figure 1 for an exam- education, and other topics), and 21 are higher education ple). Each vignette describes a problematic situation in terms teachers (professional education and training). Their age of classroom management and four ways to react to this situa- ranged from 25 to 57 years (M = 40.18 years, SD = 6.9 years). tion (20 items total). The four reactions correspond to the theo- Teaching experience before beginning teacher education retical dimensions of interpersonal motivating style: autonomy ranged from 1 year to 29 years, with a median of 3 years support, control, structure, and chaos (Reeve et al., 2004). In (M = 4.63 years, SD = 4.48 years). contrast to the Problem in School Questionnaire, the vignettes describe situations with adolescent students, not typical situa- tions for primary education teachers. The participant had to Instruments rate—in each vignette—each alternative reaction on a 7-point General conceptions about teaching and learning. Twelve items scale (1 = does not apply at all; 7 = applies completely). CFA were adapted from Chan and Elliott (2004) and from the French specifying four factors showed that, after two items that were translation (Berger & D’Ascoli, 2012) of items from TALIS supposed to assess chaos but did not load significantly on the (Jensen et al., 2012). Six items assessed constructivist beliefs factor were removed, the model fit the data adequately: χ (128) about teaching and learning (e.g., “Students learn best by find- = 164.44, p = .02, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .04. In comparison, a ing solutions to problems on their own”), and six items assessed two-factor model (Factor 1: autonomy support and control, direct transmission beliefs (e.g., “Instruction should be built Factor 2: structure and chaos) fitted the data inadequately: 2 3 around problems with clear, correct answers, and around ideas χ (133) = 306.65, p < .001, CFI = .58, RMSEA = .09. To that most students can grasp easily”). Participants rated each investigate convergent validity, correlations were observed item on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely disagree; between the vignettes and two other scales, namely, the Psy- 6 = completely agree). A two-factor confirmatory factor chologically Controlling Teaching Scale–Teacher Self-Report analysis (CFA) demonstrated acceptable fit: χ (43) = 70.67, (PCT Scale; Soenens et al., 2012) and the Behavior and p = .0049, comparative fit index (CFI) = .90, root mean square Instructional Management Scale (BIMS; Martin & Sass, error approximation (RMSEA) = .07. A one-factor solution did 2010). As expected, control correlated positively, r(153) = .52, not converge. p < .001, with the PCT Scale, whereas autonomy support cor- related negatively, r(153) = –.19, p = .02. Furthermore, struc- Self-efficacy beliefs. Eight items were taken from the French ture correlated positively with the two dimensions of the translation (Dumay & Galand, 2012) of the Ohio State BIMS: behavior management, r(153) = .33, p < .001, and 6 SAGE Open Vignette 5: In your classroom, the students are very passive. They do not show any interest and seldom answer your questions during class. Your reaction would be to: 1 = Does not apply at all; 7 = Applies completely Impose unexpected tests: During each class, a student will be randomly chosen and interrogated. Therefore, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 students will study. Tell students that they won’t achieve anything if they remain passive and that they have to react. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tell them your expectations for class participation and remind them of the importance of being active in learning. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Remind students of the relevance of your class and ask them about the reasons for their passivity. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 1. Example of a vignette. Table 1. Correlations and Descriptive Statistics for Scores Regarding Classroom Management (N = 154). Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Constructivist beliefs 1 2 Direct transmission beliefs −.33 1 3 Promoting intrinsic motivation .61 −.24 1 4 Promoting extrinsic motivation −.12 .47 .03 1 5 Autonomy support .37 −.17 .43 −.06 1 6 Control −.16 .26 −.04 .48 .02 1 7 Structure .36 −.05 .41 .10 .62 .18 1 8 Chaos −.12 .20 −.16 .30 −.33 .44 −.20 1 9 Self-efficacy for classroom management .06 .05 .12 .13 .22 .10 .24 .02 1 10 Self-efficacy for student engagement .15 −.07 .24 .06 .31 .07 .30 .03 .53 1 11 Teaching experience .08 .03 .09 .04 .05 −.00 .01 .00 .13 .13 1 No. of items 6 5 6 6 5 5 5 3 4 3 — M 5.01 3.31 5.05 3.05 5.47 2.61 5.23 4.49 4.57 4.47 4.63 SD 0.57 0.73 0.52 0.87 0.90 1.09 0.92 1.07 0.74 0.72 4.48 Minimum 3.50 1.25 3.50 1.00 2.60 1.00 2.20 1.00 1.25 2.67 1.00 Maximum 6.00 5.40 6.00 5.33 7.00 7.00 7.00 5.67 6.00 6.00 29.00 .75 .60 .70 .76 .67 .67 .68 .50 .86 .68 — Note. α = internal consistency estimated with Cronbach’s alpha. Correlations = |.16| are significant at the level of p = .05; correlations ≥|.21| are significant at the level of p = .01; correlations ≥|.27| are significant at the level of p = .001 (two-tailed). instructional management, r(153) = .24, p < .001. Chaos cor- Data Analysis related significantly neither with behavior management nor Two steps were followed to answer the research questions. with instructional management. First, mean differences were tested (using paired-samples t tests) to find the beliefs and practices favored by teachers Procedure (Research Question 1). Specifically, differences were tested among general pedagogical beliefs, among beliefs about stu- As part of a larger anonymous survey administered during a dent motivation, and among classroom self-reported prac- 45-min class period, participants were asked to provide tices. Then, based on the research questions and hypotheses information about their demographic characteristics and to stated above, a structural equation model (path analysis) was complete the instrument. All participants were provided with developed to investigate the relations between the multiple written information about the nature and purpose of the beliefs and the practices investigated (Research Question 2). research project. They were made aware that they could withdraw from the project at any time. Participation was nei- ther mandatory nor remunerated. With less than five excep- Results tions, all participants agreed to complete the survey. The descriptive statistics and correlations are shown in Table 1. Participation was a function of attendance on the testing day Internal consistency was acceptable for all scales (α ≥ .6) and unlikely to reflect unintended sample selectivity. Berger et al. 7 Figure 2. Final path model. Note. All paths are significant at the level p < .01 (N = 154). except for chaos. Therefore, this lack of reliability was taken measurement errors in the path model (Bollen, 1989), to take into account in additional analyses. into consideration the reliability of the scores, resulting in parameters that are more precise. After nonsignificant paths at the level of p < .01 were removed and relevant paths were Mean Differences Within Beliefs and Within added based on the examination of modification indices, the Practices data had a good fit to the model: χ (25) = 29.22, p = .25. The final model is shown in Figure 2. From a statistical Comparing the two types of general conceptions about teach- point of view, the two types of beliefs about student motiva- ing and learning revealed that constructivist beliefs were rated tion are independent, as self-efficacy beliefs are independent much higher than direct transmission beliefs, t(153) = 19.89, of general conceptions about teaching and learning. In terms p < .001, d = 2.60. Regarding beliefs about student motivation, of explained variance in the endogenous variables, the model promoting intrinsic motivation was preferred over promoting results indicate that teaching experience explains a small por- extrinsic motivation, t(153) = 24.75, p < .001, d = 2.80. In the tion of the variance in self-efficacy beliefs and general con- vignettes, teachers reported they would use significantly more autonomy-supportive than structuring practices, t(153) = 3.83, ceptions about teaching and learning. Beliefs about students’ p < .001, d = 0.27. Then, structuring was used significantly motivation are largely explained (R = .43-.47) by the set of more than controlling, t(153) = 24.91, p < .001, d = 2.60, and predictors. Finally, self-reported classroom management prac- finally, the latter was not significantly different from chaos, tices are explained to very different extents (R = .18 for chaos t(153) = 1.08, p = .28. to .63 for control). In sum, substantial portions of variance are explained, which support the validity of the model. The mean- ing of the model is discussed in the following section. Relationships Between Experience, Beliefs, and Practices Discussion The maximum likelihood robust estimator available in Mplus 5.0 was used to take into account deviations from multivari- This study aimed at uncovering the associations between teach- ate normality. Measurement error in the scores was corrected ers’ beliefs (self-efficacy, general conceptions about teaching using the formula “(1 – reliability) × variance” to specify and learning, beliefs about student motivation), classroom 8 SAGE Open management practices, and teaching experience. Six issues will enact constructivist beliefs. In contrast, lack of teacher reac- be discussed: favorite beliefs and practices, associations tion (i.e., chaos) relates to conceiving teaching and learning between beliefs, associations of beliefs and practices, the effect as being under the authority of the teacher (i.e., direct trans- of teaching experience on beliefs and practices, the vignette mission); this might also explain the strong correlation instrument, and the limitations of the study. between chaos and control. Favorite Beliefs and Practices Associations Between Beliefs and Practices Results indicate that teachers tend to agree more with con- Self-efficacy beliefs are, as hypothesized, positively linked to structivist beliefs than with direct transmission beliefs, which autonomy support and structuring practices; however, no is consistent with previous survey research (OECD, 2009). relationships with control and chaos were found. We con- Contrasting the findings of Turner’s (2010) study, in which clude from this observation that the confidence teachers have teachers considered extrinsic forms of motivation to be more in their ability to produce effective results (keeping students effective than intrinsic forms, teachers in our study thought quiet or having them engaged in learning) strongly matters in that promoting their students’ intrinsic motivation is more classroom management. Therefore, this study adds to the relevant than promoting extrinsic motivation. Finally, we large body of literature about the importance of teachers’ self- found that teachers reported to adopt practices encouraged efficacy (Martin & Sass, 2010; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk by teacher education (autonomy support and structure) more Hoy, 2001) in understanding instructional practices. than practices considered unfavorable (control and chaos). Each of the four forms of practices was explained by spe- This means that teachers already know what practices are cific predictors. Autonomy support was directly explained more prone to student engagement, an observation that was by self-efficacy for student engagement and promotion of already made in another study with a similar population of intrinsic motivation. Structure was also explained by the lat- teachers (Girardet & Berger, in press). ter, in addition to self-efficacy for classroom management. Thus, the two components of teacher self-efficacy described by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) have differ- Associations Between Beliefs ent effects, and thus, both are important for an optimal class- As hypothesized, teachers’ beliefs about student motivation room management practice. In contrast, control and chaos are rooted in teachers’ general conceptions about teaching were explained by beliefs in the use of extrinsic forms of and learning: The more teachers adhere to constructivist motivation, the latter dependent on direct transmission beliefs, the more they think that it is worth promoting their beliefs. This latter pathway has theoretical coherence: It students’ intrinsic motivation. At the opposite, direct trans- characterizes teachers who tend to see teaching as an interac- mission beliefs relate to stronger beliefs in the use of meth- tion between an adult who possesses the knowledge and stu- ods that promote students’ extrinsic motivation. As teachers dents who learn it by listening to his or her words (Good & who participated in the present study rated constructivist Brophy, 2008). According to this perspective, strong author- beliefs significantly higher than direct transmission beliefs, ity is necessary to maintain good learning conditions and stu- this difference is reflected in the teachers’ preference for dents’ behavior. Chaos makes sense in that students are methods that target intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation. responsible for behaving according to the expectations, and The effects of pedagogical beliefs on teaching practices are thus, the teacher is not supposed to trigger students’ interest. fully mediated by beliefs about student motivation. Thus, the latter play a relevant role in translating pedagogical beliefs The Relevance of Teaching Experience into teaching practices. The assumed associations between constructivist beliefs and autonomy support, and direct trans- Consistent with previous studies (Huberman, 1992; Klassen mission beliefs and control, were confirmed by the results. & Chiu, 2010), results indicate that teaching experience is To the contrary, no significant association between direct related to specific beliefs. In fact, self-efficacy for classroom transmission beliefs and structure (OECD, 2009) was found management and student engagement was positively related and indirect paths were uncovered: Constructivist beliefs to years of experience. This suggests that, on average, teach- indirectly explain structure via beliefs in promoting intrinsic ers increase their confidence in their abilities, which helps the motivation, and direct transmission beliefs indirectly explain teachers adopt autonomy-supportive and structuring prac- chaos via beliefs in promoting extrinsic motivation. tices. The second type of effect of teaching experience was Accordingly, theoretically opposed practices, namely, struc- observed on general conceptions about teaching and learning. ture and chaos, rely on theoretically opposed beliefs about The more experience teachers had, the more they believed in teaching and learning, namely, constructivist and direct constructivism and the less they believed in direct transmis- transmission beliefs. Not only supporting autonomy but also sion. This corroborates what was observed internationally in providing a strong structure seems necessary to facilitate the TALIS (OECD, 2009, 2014), and is very close to what other construction of meaning by the students, in other words to researchers found about novice teachers who hold direct Berger et al. 9 transmission beliefs (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Calderhead, experience. Finally, due to the cross-sectional design, we 1996) versus more experienced teachers holding constructiv- relied on theoretical arguments and relevant literature to ist beliefs (Black & Ammon, 1992). These results suggest that infer causal relationships. Our next research will study the teachers’ general conceptions about teaching and learning same variables within a longitudinal design, which will pro- might be shaped by their classroom experience even before vide further information about the causality of the data. they begin teacher education; in other words, teachers are learning from experience. Again, this result is important as Implications these general conceptions are indirectly related to self- reported teaching practices. A direct effect of teaching experi- According to Sierens et al. (2009), it is reasonable to suppose ence was not observed on beliefs about student motivation or that a classroom management style oriented toward auton- self-reported teaching practices. This suggests that beliefs omy support and structure positively affects students’ cogni- about student motivation do not depend on experience and tive engagement. Moreover, this style of classroom that teaching practices depend only indirectly on experience. management is likely to affect self-regulation. Therefore, Furthermore, this raises the question of how change in class- teacher education has to foster this way to manage the class- room management practices during the career is related to room. The present findings indicate a way to reach this change in self-efficacy and in general conceptions about objective: influence teachers’ general conceptions about teaching and learning. Given that no causal relationship can teaching and learning and teachers’ beliefs about student be stated based on the present correlational study, these rela- motivation. Both sets of beliefs are logically and psychologi- tionships are only suggested by the results and another study cally connected together, and as demonstrated by our analy- design would be needed to answer this question. ses and illustrated by the model shown in Figure 2, general conceptions about teaching and learning relate to classroom management style oriented toward autonomy support and Limitations structure with beliefs about student motivation acting as a Several limitations of this study must be emphasized. First, mediator. interpretation of the present study results is limited by the However, the efficacy of the teacher education program self-reported nature of the data, in particular classroom man- aiming to influence teachers’ beliefs in favor of constructiv- agement teaching practices. Teachers may have reported the ism and intrinsic motivation has to be questioned. Indeed, it ideal behavior they would adopt in virtual situations, which may be that a program of this kind will be effective mainly may differ from the real behavior the teachers would have with experienced teachers. In fact, according to Borko and adopted in such situations. One advantage of self-report, Putnam (1996) and Calderhead (1996), it seems that novice however, is that this measure is nonintrusive, whereas obser- teachers tended to hold more simplistic views on teaching vation of behavior during teaching is intrusive. Note that this and learning than their more experienced peers; in other study is the first to include a vignette measure of the four words, novice teachers believe more in direct transmission dimensions of interpersonal style according to the SDT the- beliefs and less in constructivism than their more experi- ory (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Deci et al., 1981; Reeve et al., 1999; enced peers. Our results confirm this observation. Therefore, Reeve et al., 2004). However, there is room for improvement the problem of changing teachers’ beliefs appears to be a as the chaos dimension was measured with only three items, developmental issue. Indeed, we can interpret the important and relatively high correlations were observed between influence of years of teaching experience on teaching prac- autonomy support and structure, and between control and tices, self-efficacy, and general conceptions about teaching chaos. Although structure and chaos, theoretically opposite and learning as the sign of a developmental sequence dimensions of a continuum, were negatively correlated, (Huberman, 1989/1993): Beginning teachers would adhere autonomy support and control were not correlated as to direct transmission beliefs and use classroom management expected. According to the present study, the opposite of practices oriented toward control, believing in the relevance autonomy support is not control but chaos. More studies that of extrinsic motivation. The fact that novice teachers adhere include the four dimensions of interpersonal style and use to a coherent pattern of beliefs and practice (direct transmis- various methods (observation, qualitative account, and ques- sion, extrinsic motivation, and classroom management ori- tionnaire) are necessary to further investigate the theoretical ented toward control) can be considered as an argument in framework with empirical evidence. Second, regarding the favor of this way to raise the problem. In other words, the path analysis, different structural models could fit the data as issue would not be to persuade teachers of the value of the adequately as the one we presented. However, this model is constructivist approach, but to foster the developmental based on theoretical and empirical work, which sustains the move from one stage to another in the process of becoming a model’s validity. Furthermore, all significant relationships teacher. Conceivably, accelerating this move implies actions uncovered can be explained theoretically. Third, teaching in favor of strengthening teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. experience was simply assessed by the years of experience, Indeed, experienced teachers adhere not only to constructive which does not provide information about the quality of this beliefs but also are confident in their capacity to manage the 10 SAGE Open classroom and to foster student engagement. This position Boggiano, A. K., Barrett, M., Weiher, A. W., McClelland, G. H., & Lusk, C. M. (1987). Use of maximal-operant principle to moti- regarding the implication of our study concerning teacher vate children’s intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social education is coherent with our findings. The latter being cor- Psychology, 53, 866-879. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.53.5.866 relational in nature, we can only make hypotheses. Quasi- Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. experimental research, including a pre–post design, is needed New York, NY: John Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118619179 to rigorously measure the effects of different ways to try to Borko, H., & Putnam, R. T. (1996). Learning to teach. In D. L. influence teachers’ beliefs and practice in regard of class- Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psy- room management. chology (pp. 673-708). New York, NY: MacMillan. Brown, G. T. L. (2009). Teachers’ self-reported assessment prac- Declaration of Conflicting Interests tices and conceptions: Using structural equation modeling to examine measurement and structural models. In T. Teo & M. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect S. Khine (Eds.), Structural equation modeling in educational to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. research: Concepts and applications (pp. 243-266). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Funding Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In D. L. The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psy- for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The chology (pp. 673-708). New York, NY: MacMillan. data were drawn from the research project “The Evolution of Chan, K.-W., & Elliott, R. G. (2004). Relational analysis of personal Teachers’ Conceptions During Teacher Education,” founded by the epistemology and conceptions about teaching and learning. Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant N°100019_146351; pri- Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 817-831. doi:10.1016/j. mary investigator: Jean-Louis Berger, Swiss Federal Institute for tate.2004.09.002 Vocational Education and Training; co-investigators: Marcel Chen, J., Brown, G. T. L., Hattie, J. A. C., & Millward, P. (2012). Crahay, University of Geneva, and Carmela Aprea, Friedrich- Teachers’ conceptions of excellent teaching and its relation- Schiller-Universität Jena). ships to self-reported teaching practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 936-947. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.04.006 Notes Cochran-Smith, M., & Villegas, A. M. (2016). Research on teacher preparation: Charting the landscape of a sprawling field. In 1. In Switzerland, vocational teachers typically teach for several D. H. Gitomer & C. A. Bell (Eds.), Handbook of research years before entering teacher education. In the present sample, on teaching (pp. 439-547). Washington, DC: American teachers had varying years of experience with half of them Educational Research Association. having 3 or less than 3 years of experience. Condon, M. W. G., Clyde, J. A., Kyle, D. W., & Hovda, R. A. 2. In a major study on teachers’ interpersonal teaching style, (1993). A constructivist basis for teaching and teacher educa- Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman, and Ryan (1981) developed a tion: A framework for program development and research on vignette instrument (The Problem in School Questionnaire) to graduates. Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 273-278. gauge whether teachers were more autonomy-supportive or, at Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self- the opposite, more controlling with their students. The recent determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum addition of structure versus chaos to this dichotomy leads to a Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 four-dimension framework: autonomy support, control, struc- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and ture, and chaos. Although Jang, Reeve, and Deci (2010) used the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social an observation grid to code teachers’ behavior reflecting these Psychology, 53, 1024-1037. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.53.6.1024 four dimensions, there is no self-report instrument for moder- Deci, E. L., Schwartz, A. J., Sheinman, L., & Ryan, R. M. (1981). ate to large samples. An instrument to assess adults’ orientations toward control 3. To gauge the sensibility of this instrument to socially desirable versus autonomy with children: Reflections on intrinsic moti- responses, two scales based on Paulhus’s (1984) conceptualiza- vation and perceived competence. Journal of Educational tion of socially desirable responses were administered. A signifi- Psychology, 73, 642-650. cant but small correlation between the autonomy support score de Jong, R., Mainhard, T., van Tartwijk, J., Veldman, I., Verloop, and impression management was found: r(153) = .22, p < .01. No N., & Wubbels, T. (2014). 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Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management enced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23. 944-956. (pp. 181-219). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003 Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2007). The differen- Author Biographies tial antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experi- Jean-Louis Berger is professor at the Swiss Federal Institute for enced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 944-956. Vocational Education and Training. His research interests include doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003 teacher motivation, teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, self-regulated Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. learning, and motivational beliefs in vocational students. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review Céline Girardet has a PhD in Educational Sciences. Her research of Educational Research, 68, 202-248. doi:10.3102/ interests are teacher beliefs and practices and teacher change. Turner, J. C., Bogner Warzo, K., & Christensen, A. (2011). Cynthia Vaudroz is head researcher at the Research Unit for mon- Motivating mathematics learning: Changes in teachers’ prac- itoring Educational Systems (Unité de Recherche pour le pilotage tices and beliefs during a nine-month collaboration. American des Systèmes Pédagogiques), Switzerland. Her research interests Educational Research Journal, 48, 718-762. include teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, factors influencing aca- Turner, J. C. (2010). Unfinished business: Putting motivation the- demic achievement among high school students, and assessment in ory to the “classroom test.” In T. C. Urdan & S. A. Karabenick education. (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement—The decade ahead: Applications and contexts of motivation and achieve- Marcel Crahay is retired professor of educational psychology at ment (Vol. 16B, pp. 109-138). Bingley, UK: Emerald. the Universities of Geneva and Liège. His research interests include van Tartwijk, J., den Brok, P., Veldman, I., & Wubbels, T. (2009). teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, especially in relation to grade Teachers’ practical knowledge about classroom management retention, student assessment, learning and intelligence.

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SAGE OpenSAGE

Published: Jan 20, 2018

Keywords: teacher education; classroom management practices; teaching experience; general pedagogical beliefs; beliefs about student motivation; self-efficacy beliefs

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