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Racial Representation in Physical Education Textbooks for Secondary Schools: Image Content and Perceptions Held by Students

Racial Representation in Physical Education Textbooks for Secondary Schools: Image Content and... The purpose of this article is to examine the representation of race through images that are published in Spanish physical education textbooks for secondary schools and to offer an insight into students’ beliefs related to racial stereotypes in physical education. The sample was composed of 2,583 images and 87 secondary school pupils. The analysis was carried out through the elaboration of an ad hoc coding scheme. The results showed that people whose appearance is similar to the in-group predominate. The kind of physical activity, the field, space, and level of competence vary according to race. The textbooks analyzed in this study engender a stigmatized vision of racial diversity, and the images reproduce and reinforce racial prejudice. Keywords race, stereotype, image, textbook, physical education School textbooks play a central role in the homogenizing Introduction process; they reproduce social images and settings that The demographic composition of modern Spain reveals a reduce the complexity of social reality and offer a differential multiracial context. The country has the second largest num- schematic that orders and explains that which is configured ber of immigrants in the European Union. In the last decade, as reality (Jorquera, 2010). A substantial amount of informa- the number of non-Spanish residents increased threefold and tion that is shown to the student is done so through images now stands at 5.7 million, more than 12% of the population. that filter into the collective consciousness, with no prior The biggest European immigrant groups are from Romania reflection, and this makes iconic language a very powerful and the United Kingdom. The greatest numbers of non-Euro- medium for the reproduction of stereotypes (Acaso & Nuere, pean immigrants are from Morocco, followed by those from 2005). Ecuador and Columbia. In the last few years, Spain has also With regard to race, the imagery presented in textbooks is seen a significant increase in people arriving from Pakistan simplistic and, rather than facilitating the construction of and China (Spanish Statistical Office, 2012). With regard to shared identities, it endorses and perpetuates the hegemony the education system, a report on the school year 2013/2014 of the (White and Western) in-group (Morales & Lischinsky, (Spanish Ministry of Education, 2013) indicated that num- 2008; Torres, 2008). The concept of race is still built on erro- bers of foreign school students had increased in the last neous biological considerations that are used to transmit decade: In the 2012/2013 school year, there were 726,781 expectations on the performance of individuals that are based immigrants in full-time education (9.1% of the school popu- on a supposedly collective potential, a message that responds lation). The biggest group are of South American origin to racist biopolitics and corporal differentiation (McDonald, (34.8%), followed by students from the European Union 2013). (26.1%) and Africa (27.5%). Students from Asia and Oceania make up 7.5% of the total, with 4% coming from the rest of Europe. 1 Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, Spain Nevertheless, current educational practices in Spain gen- Universidad de Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain erally respond to a homogenized scholastic model that fails Corresponding Author: to successfully educate specific groups made up of racial María Inés Táboas-Pais, Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, diverse subjects (Rodríguez, 2010). It is clear that racial ste- Campus de Los Jerónimos, s/n. 30107 Guadalupe, Murcia, Spain. reotypes continue to be rooted in Spanish classrooms. Email: mtaboas@ucam.edu or inestaboas@uvigo.es This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Creative Commons CC BY: (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (http://www.uk.sagepub.com/aboutus/openaccess.htm). 2 SAGE Open This research project aims to identify the level of racial obsession of explaining the phenomenon of human physical diversity with regard to the people represented in the images performance has tended to treat people in a technological and contained in Spanish physical education textbooks. It is clear mechanical manner, and this has led to the legitimization of that the iconic messages presented are perceived as an objec- reductionist and determinist interpretations of racial distinc- tive reflection of reality, and, in particular, for those students tion that support arguments on differences in motor perfor- between 12 and 15 years of age, there is a tendency to legiti- mance (McDonald, 2013). Hill and Azzarito (2012) explored mize identity with images that are considered an “undeniable a number of the ways that young women visualized valued reality” (Revuelta, 2008). The referential function of the bodies and found that more than half of the posters that the photograph is of primary interest for this project so the anal- girls created portrayed White men. Only one portrayed ysis tools use observable “indicators” that provoke the per- women of color, and no Asian women were represented in ception of difference. As authors, we are conscious of the the posters. As such, legitimate sporting bodies promoted in limitations of this type of phenotypical analysis (the analysis the school site were embedded in Whiteness. of representations of race in images in physical education In Spain, the mass media minimize the role of specific textbooks was confined to observable phenotypic indica- racial groups in sport and promote the formation of stereo- tors), not least, because it relies on the concept of race that, types and prejudicial attitudes (Igartua & Muñiz, 2004; in both its biologistic and cultural construction, represents a López, 2005; Muñiz, Igartua, & Otero, 2006). The majority regulatory fiction through which certain differences are of advertising images show White people, as do most TV transformed into meaningful concepts that legitimize oppres- programs related to sport. This is consistent with research sion, exclusion, privilege, and dominance (McDonald, 2013; undertaken in other countries: In the United States, Latin Romero, 2003). Nevertheless, the coding scheme used in this American and Asian people hardly feature in sports pro- work is utilized as a tool for identifying observable indica- grams (Billings & Tyler, 2002), and Black people are almost tors in the photographs considered that act as “semiotic- always seen playing baseball, basketball, American football, material” references in the consciousness of the people who and doing athletics (Lumpkin, 2009; Thomas, 2004). view them, and this leads to a process of the development of McCarthy, Jones, and Potrac (2003) argue that the existence “ethno-racial” subjectivities: of racial stereotypes in U.K. sports coverage not only makes some groups invisible but also reflects the structures of . . . these are not a reflection of a biological reality or the effect power. of social ordering and interpretation; they are a product of the Studies on racial stereotypes reveal that perceptions of profoundly unequal, multiple relationships between elements competence and future aspirations for sporting participation such as: bodies; legislative apparatus; media images; specific vary among adolescents of different origins (Azzarito & locations; celebrations; meals; accents; ways of looking; police Solomon, 2006; Harrison, Harrison, & Moore, 2002; controls; dress; fears; scientific activities; the globalised Harrison, Lee, & Belcher, 1999; Harrison, Sailes, Rotich, & economy; descriptions of the human genome; legalisation Bimper, 2011), and that students’ construction of the ideal papers; position in the labour market; racisms etc. (Romero, body is racialized (Azzarito, 2009). In accordance with mass 2003, p. 125) media images, young people attribute certain physical activi- ties to different racial characteristics (Contreras, Pastor, & Homogenization of Corporal Culture Through González, 2008; Gil, 2006) and believe that Black people are Physical Education and Sport physically superior, whereas White people have greater cog- nitive capacities (Sheldon, Jayaratne, & Petty, 2007). These Corporal culture can be conceptualized as a group of values, stereotyped perceptions are also present in the discourses of uses, knowledge, beliefs, norms, and behavior patterns that coaches, teachers, and parents; for example, Black people delimit corporal appreciation and practices in a given social are more closely identified with athletics, American football, context. The biopolitical concept provides a framework for and basketball (Harrison, Azzarito, & Burden, 2004; Hayes the interpretation of physical education and sport as prac- & Sugden, 1999). tices inserted in mechanisms for the control and regulation of The most recent National Survey on Spanish population the population (Foucault, 2009) and the homogenizing and sport behavior (García & Llopis, 2011) found that 45% of globalizing (Mella, 2005). In this way, the universalizing of immigrants above the age of 15 participate in sport. sport has contributed to the reduction of the variety and Immigrants of African origin are the most active (46%), fol- diversity of corporal and motor expressions, which have lowed by South Americans (45%) and Europeans (42.1%). become limited to a dominant cultural model (Barbero, 2006; In terms of the type of activity, results of another study by Vicente, 2007). Due to its close relationship with sport, physical education Llopis (2005) indicate that Africans prefer running, Latin is particularly susceptible to discourses relating to corporal Americans enjoy team sports (especially football), and differentiation. The culture of “performativity” has domi- Europeans are more interested in mountaineering, tennis, nated educational discourse, affecting the way in which pupils swimming, walking, skating, gymnastics, tennis, and team think and act toward physical education (Evans, 2013). The sports. Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 3 This data demonstrate that race must be considered a whereas White people are more commonly shown partici- powerful influence on patterns of participation and perfor- pating in non-competitive activities. mance (Harrison et al., 2011). Hypothesis 4: Black people, Asians, and people from other racial groups are more frequently shown participat- ing in elite sports than White people. Racial Stereotypes, Textbooks, and Physical Hypothesis 5: Images of people from the out-group Education shown in textbooks generate greater prejudice among the students than images of the in-group (White and Western). Although many studies have examined racial stereotyping in school textbooks used in a variety of courses and subjects, physical education textbooks have received little attention. Method This might be explained by the fact that the use of textbooks The study was based on two methods: (a) a content analysis in physical education is relatively recent. In Spain, the first of images in Spanish physical education textbooks using empirical analysis of physical education textbooks did not synchronic, empirical, descriptive, and non-experimental appear until the 1990s, and research has focused on gender techniques, and (b) a test of secondary school students’ per- stereotypes. Only a few contemporary works have specifi- ceptions of a set of images. cally examined the representation of race. Internationally, there is agreement that physical education textbooks offer a rather unbalanced vision of society that Sample perpetuates the use of race as a variable that legitimizes the Method 1. The content analysis considered 2,583 photo- existence of differences and expectations based on racial graphs from 36 textbooks from 10 Spanish publishing groups (McDonald, 2013). The images shown in textbooks houses. Of the original total (N = 3,316), 733 (22.10%) were are almost exclusively of White or Caucasian people discounted as it was not possible to identify the racial origin (Botelho, Silva, Queirós, & Caetano, 2008), Black people of the people shown, for example, due to the wide-angle are closely linked to specific athletic activities (McDonald, focus that was used. 2013), and other social realities are silenced by the dominant culture (Hsu & Chepyator-Thomson, 2010). Method 2. The sample comprised 87 students (45 males and All these studies revealed racial stereotyping presented in 42 females), aged between 12 and 17. Selection criteria were the educational materials. This study attempted to seek an accessibility (the collaboration of the school authorities) and answer to the following question: What are the patterns of the inclusion of students from each year of compulsory sec- race that are being conveyed by Spanish physical education ondary education. textbooks? This analysis contributes to research initiated by these and other authors within the literature related to physical educa- Variables tion and sport pedagogy because, specifically, studied how The analyzed variables were race, type of physical activity, the physical education is “encoded” with particular concep- field of practice, and level of activity. Operational definitions tions of race, and how these may impact students’ are given in Table 1. perceptions. Procedure Objectives Method 1. The codification system for the content analysis This work aims to characterize the patterns of race that are utilized a number of sources and strategies. The starting transmitted by physical education textbooks in compulsory point was López’s (2005) “publicity image analysis system.” secondary education in Spain. The following hypotheses In addition to the categories that were theoretically or deduc- were advanced: tively derived, the codification process was amplified through an inductive or empirical procedure that was the Hypothesis 1: People from the in-group (White and result of a first “superficial viewing” of the images. The cat- Western) are represented in textbooks with greater fre- egories that were identified in this first viewing were defined quency than other racial groups. in conjunction with specific literature; there were five phases: Hypothesis 2: Black people, Asians, and people from other racial groups are mainly shown participating in tra- 1. Initial trial test. The compilation of categories used ditional sports, and to a much lesser extent, in artistic by López (2005) was applied to a set of images taken activities in the natural environment or playing other from physical education textbooks. Issues that types of games. emerged during the initial viewings of the images Hypothesis 3: Black people, Asians, and people from other also determined several other categories used in the racial groups are usually shown in competitive activities, 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Coding Scheme. Categories/indicators Operational definitions Race White People characterized by white skin; appearance corresponding to a European origin. Black People characterized by black skin; appearance corresponding to an African origin. Asian People characterized by a yellow or clear skin tone, dark eyes, and an epicanthic fold; appearance corresponding to an Asian origin. Latin American People characterized by brown skin, dark eyes, prominent cheeks, dark hair, nose and lips larger than Europeans; appearance corresponding to a Latin American origin. Others Those people not included in the above categories. Various People belonging to other racial groups. Kind of physical activity Team sports Sports played in teams, in collaboration/opposition. For example, basketball, handball, football, hockey, rugby, baseball, water polo, polo, and volleyball. Individual sports Sports where participation is individual, without team mates and/or which can be played against an opponent(s). For example, swimming, track and field, gymnastics, rowing, cycling, tennis, boxing, judo, golf, motorcycling, and weightlifting. Artistic Activities that use the body as the means for artistic expression. For example, activities related to mime, theater, drama, and dance. Fitness and physical conditioning Activities directed toward improving strength, speed, flexibility, and/or resistance. For example, running, bodybuilding, stretching, aerobics, step, spinning, and aquafit. Physical activities in natural environments Activities such as paragliding, bungee jumping, cycling, trekking, hiking, rock climbing, surfing, and rafting. Games Leisure activities whose basic characteristic is the acceptance of simple rules that can be modified and adapted according to the group. For example, floorball, spongee polo, and korfball. Other The image shows an activity that is not included in one of the previous subcategories. Field of practice Competitive Activities that belong to the field of institutionalized competition. The presence of referees, a playing field with the regulatory dimensions or numbers on shirts that can indicate a competitive context. Formal educational Activities in the context of formal education; there are clear signs that the image belongs to a school. The school gym, the playground, the school cafeteria, and the classroom are typical locations. Other (non-competitive) Fields of practice that are clearly different from institutionalized competition. They include tilitarian contexts (workplaces, Shops, the home, and hospitals, etc.) and recreational contexts (parks, the street, etc.). Level Elite People famous for the activity they carry out appear (elite sportsmen, famous dancers, actors, etc.), as well as indicators such as the public or sponsors who make it possible to place the action at the Olympic Games, a league, a professional championship, or any other type of spectacle of general interest. Non-elite People who are not famous for the activity they carry out appear, and there are no indicators that make it possible to place the action at the Olympic Games, a league, a professional championship, or any other spectacle of general interest. study. In addition to the categories that a priori orga- 3. Consultation with experts. Three content analysis nized and systemized the test, the procedure was also experts participated in the study; two of them hold exploratory: It allowed the researcher to identify new doctorates in physical education and habitually use categories and indicators and eliminate others that content analysis as their main research technique. were shown to be irrelevant to the objectives of the The third expert is a doctor of philosophy and litera- analysis. ture and has a BA in library science and documenta- 2. Second trial test. A code and an operational definition tion; she is the author of a number of studies based on were assigned to each of the dimensions and catego- the content analysis of images and has published a ries. A second trial test was carried out to corroborate number of articles on content and image analysis of the validity of the categories. One hundred sixty- documents. The objective of the consultation with eight images were coded. experts was the validation of the coding categories. Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 5 The experts were asked to complete a questionnaire compulsory secondary education (n = 94), and (d) the design giving their opinions on five items: suitability of the of the definitive perception test. coding scheme, precision of categories, mutual During the implementation of the definitive test, 15 exclusion of categories, clarity of definitions, and images taken from physical education textbooks were pro- minimization of the subjectivity of the observer. Data jected in the classroom. The images were selected in accor- were collected by means of the Likert-type scale, dance with the results of Method 1, with the aim that they ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly would be representative. The protocol was as follows: agree), and complementary, qualitative information. 4. Second consultation with experts. After making the 1. The students were given the “Description and necessary modifications, the new coding scheme, the Opinion” form. corrected definitions, and the questionnaire used in 2. The students read the instructions for the test, and the first consultation were returned to the experts. All any questions or doubts were dealt with. The instruc- items were given a rating of 4 or 5. tion was to describe what they saw in the images. 5. Triangulation with observers. Three observers were 3. Each of the 15 images was shown for 1 min. The stu- given training on the coding system and codebook, dents gave a written description of the image with using images from textbooks that were not in the their opinions. final sample. The objective was to familiarize the 4. The students handed in the completed “Description researchers with the pictures, the coding system, the and Opinion” form. codebook, and registration. The three observers were then randomly assigned 74 images from textbooks. Analysis and Data Processing Thirty of them were selected by simple random sam- pling through a table of random numbers; 44 were Method 1. All images were digitized to facilitate coding. The selected by non-random sampling. The selection cri- registration process was carried out manually, using a chart terion was that all the indicators in the coding scheme for each textbook. had to be codified. Intercoder reliability statistics The statistical analysis used SPSS software 15.0 for were calculated to assess agreement. The kappa reli- Windows. The processing of the information involved ability (>.80) was therefore satisfactory for all cate- descriptive univariate analysis and associative measures gories: type of physical activity (M κ = .90), field of between the different variables or categories (bivariate anal- practice (M κ = .86), and level (M κ = .84). The inter- ysis). Contingency tables were used to compare the observed coder reliability served as content for a pilot reliabil- frequencies and percentages. The Pearson chi-square statis- ity test before full coding commenced; the pilot gave tic significance level (testing independence) was set at 5% the researchers a final opportunity to alter the coding (α = .05) and used to identify associations between the scheme to maximize reliability. variables. The corrected normalized residuals were utilized to com- When reliability levels were considered adequate (based pare results; the marginal values, sample size, and the num- on the results of the reliability pilot test), another representa- ber of cases in which each remainder was based would tive sample was used to assess reliability for the full sample otherwise have made it impossible. For the confidence level to be coded. Cohen’s kappa was also calculated for the cod- set for this study (95%), the corrected normalized residuals ing of the final sample of photographs. For the second inter- indicated that the difference between observed frequency coder reliability analyses, 273 images (more than 10% of the and expected frequency was high when its absolute value full sample) were selected by simple random sampling using was above 1.96. Therefore, a corrected normalized residual a table of random numbers. According to Lacy and Riffe with an absolute value greater than 1.96 indicates that there (1996), the appropriate size of the sample should not be less are more cases (if it is positive) or less cases (if it is negative) than 50 units, or 10% of the full sample, and it will rarely than could be expected if the variables were independent. need to be greater than 300 units. Cohen’s kappa revealed a However, a value between ±1.96 indicates that the difference high degree of reliability: type of physical activity (M κ = between observed frequency and expected frequency is small .86), field of practice (M κ = .92); level (M κ = .88). and the variables are independent. Method 2. The test of perception of images was oriented at Method 2. The descriptions of the students were subjected to gaining an understanding of the variables that attracted the a content analysis, using the N-VIVO 8 program for the cat- attention of the young people who saw them in physical edu- egorization of the comments. The software allowed the orga- cation textbooks. The test was developed in four phases: (a) nization and reduction of the data into content analysis design of the first draft of the test, (b) consultation with four categories. The initial categories were the same as the con- experts, (c) a pilot test with students from 4 years of tent analysis of the images, and these were added to by 6 SAGE Open Table 2. Percentages of Pictures in Textbooks by Publishing White people were shown as participating in a wide variety House and Race. of physical activities. Individuals from Black, Asian, Latin American, and other groups were shown playing sports in Latin 74.8% of the pictures (54.8% individual sports and 20% White Black Asian American Other Various team sports); depiction of their participation in non-sporting Publisher 1 80.9 8.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 9.6 activities was very limited: 9.6% fitness and physical condi- Publisher 2 86.6 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.2 tioning, 5.9% games, 2.2% artistic activities, 0.7% activities Publisher 3 89.6 5.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 3.9 in the natural environment, and 6.7% other activities. Publisher 4 90.5 2.4 0.4 0.0 0.5 6.3 Furthermore, Black people were especially shown as partici- Publisher 5 89.6 4.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 5.0 pating in sport (82.6%) and specifically in individual sports Publisher 6 93.9 2.2 0.0 0.6 0.0 3.3 such as track and field (63%). Publisher 7 59.7 3.9 5.2 0.0 3.9 27.3 There was a similar pattern in interracial images: 78.6% Publisher 8 77.4 7.3 3.2 0.8 0.0 11.3 of photographs that featured individuals from different racial Publisher 9 96.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.4 2.4 backgrounds were of sport (43.2% team sports, 35.4% indi- Publisher 10 74.8 7.3 2.6 0.0 0.6 14.7 vidual sports) with only 5% involving other physical Total 87.3 3.6 1.1 0.2 0.4 7.4 activities. The last line in each cell of Table 3 shows high corrected normalized residuals: There is a strong relationship between categories that were inductively derived from the first read- the variables. The probability that Black people and interracial ing of the students’ descriptions. groups did sport and no other types of physical activities was significantly higher than would be expected if the variables Results were independent (remainders of 5.2 and 6.6, respectively). Hypothesis 1: Prevalence of White People Hypothesis 3: Field of Practice and Race The most numerous group featured in physical education textbooks for secondary schools in Spain is White people The contexts that were linked to the people represented in the (the in-group); they appeared in 2,256 photos (87.34% of the textbooks also varied according to the race to which the indi- total). This was followed by images that showed individuals vidual belongs. A .000 significance was obtained with from different races at the same time (192 photos, 7.43% of Pearson’s chi-square test, which allowed the rejection of the the total); Black people (92 photos, 3.56% of the total), null hypothesis with a confidence level of 95%. As Table 4 Asians (28 photos, 1.08% of the total), Latin Americans (4 shows, individuals from Black, Asian, and other groups were photos, 0.15% of the total), and other racial groups (11 pho- almost exclusively depicted in competition (75%, 56.5%, and tos, 0.43% of the total). 42.9%, respectively) and were excluded from educational There were some differences among the publishing contexts. In the case of Asians and Latin Americans, the per- houses: the percentage of photographs featuring non-White centage of pictures in formal educational contexts was 0. people ranged from 1.22 to 12.99. The highest percentage of Interracial groups were also more frequent in competitive interracial images from one publishing house was 28, and the fields of practice (78.6%). In formal educational contexts or lowest was below 3 (see Table 2). other fields, the figure was much lower (8.2%). In contrast, White people were mainly linked to non-competitive contexts. In the images of competitive activities, there was a sig- Hypothesis 2: Type of Physical Activity According nificantly higher proportion of individuals from “other” to Racial Group racial groups in comparison with White people (typified residuals of 9.1 and 14.7 compared with −17.8). In the The analysis of the relationship between the variables of remaining fields of practice (educational and non-competi- racial group and type of physical activity was undertaken by tive), there was a significantly higher proportion of White means of contingency tables and the Pearson χ test. When people than people from other racial groups. the two variables were interrelated, a critical value was obtained, which was associated to the χ statistic, lower than 0.05 (p value = .000). This means that the type of physical Hypothesis 4: Level of Activity and Race activity in which the textbooks showed the participants par- The Pearson chi-square test results also indicated (signifi- ticipating varied according to race (α = .05). cance level of .05) that there was a relationship between racial Of the images that featured White people, 19.2% involved group and participation in elite level sports (p value = .000). team sports, 22.4% individual sports, 10% artistic activities, There was a much higher proportion of pictures of White 15.8% fitness and physical conditioning, 9% physical activi- people in non-elite sports contexts than there were in elite ties in a natural environment, 9.7% games, and 13.9% sports (86.3%, compared with 13.7%). This statistic was showed individuals involved in other types of activities: Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 7 Table 3. Contingency Table for the Variables Race and Type of Table 4. Contingency Table for the Variables Race and Field of Physical Activity. Practice. Field of practice Type of physical activity Formal Race Sport Other (non-sport) Competitive education Utilitarian Others White White Count 939 1,317 Count 458 316 39 1,130 % of race 41.6 58.4 % of race 23.6 16.3 2.0 58.2 Corrected normalized residual −3.1 2.9 Corrected −17.8 3.9 2.1 13.0 Black normalized residual Count 76 16 Black Count 66 6 1 15 % of race 82.6 17.4 % of race 75.0 6.8 1.1 17.0 Corrected normalized residual 5.2 −4.8 Corrected 9.3 −2.2 −0.5 −6.8 Asian normalized residual Count 18 10 Asian % of race 64.3 35.7 Count 13 0 0 10 Corrected normalized residual 1.4 −1.3 % of race 56.5 0.0 0.0 43.5 Latin American Corrected 2.7 −2.0 −0.6 −0.9 Count 0 4 normalized residual % of race 0.0 100.0 Latin American Count 0 0 0 4 Corrected normalized residual −1.4 1.3 % of race 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 Others Corrected −1.3 −0.8 −0.3 1.9 Count 7 4 normalized residual % of race 63.3 36.4 Others Corrected normalized residual 0.9 −0.8 Count 3 2 0 2 Various % of race 42.9 28.6 0.0 28.6 Count 151 41 Corrected 0.7 1 −0.4 −1.3 % of race 78.6 21.4 normalized residual Corrected normalized residual 6.6 −6.1 Various Count 143 15 0 24 Total % of race 78.6 8.2 0.0 13.2 Count 1,191 1,392 Corrected 14.7 −2.7 −1.9 −11.1 % of race 46.1 53.9 normalized residual Total Count 683 339 40 1,185 corroborated by the corrected normalized residuals (−19.8 % of race 30.4 15.1 1.8 52.7 and 19.8). The proportion of pictures depicting Black people involved in elite-level competitive sports was much higher than the images of activities not related to elite sports (67.4% the images. A common discourse included reference to compared with 32.6%). The corrected normalized residuals “those others,” especially Black people, as “those people were 11.6 and −11.6. from over there,” “not from here.” A Black person is often The percentage of interracial group pictures depicting seen as belonging to “a different team and a different coun- people engaging in elite sports was also higher than that of try” (Student 76). In some cases, their presence was consid- interracial pictures referring to non-elite sports activities ered a problem, both in sporting terms, “the black guy is (63.6 compared with 36.4). The corrected typified remain- cheating, he’s pushing the white guy to get the ball off him” ders showed that these differences were statistically signifi- (Student 73), and in terms of the wider society, “the Chinese cant: 15.1 and −15.1 (see Table 5). are invading us” (Student 27). Activities such as football and athletics are seen as most adequate for Black people; the arguments are generalized Hypothesis 5: Images of People From the Out- stereotypes: “black people are usually stronger” (Student 6), Group in Physical Education Textbooks Engender “black people run a lot” (Student 46). Students appear to Greater Prejudices Than the Images of the In- attribute a certain physical superiority to Black people and Group place them exclusively in competitive environments: “they Sixty-one of the 87 participants (70.11%) wrote some type of are the best athletes and help to raise the level of the competi- comment relating to the racial group of the people featured in tion” (Student 87). 8 SAGE Open Table 5. Contingency Table for the Variables Race and Level of racial appearance. No previously published works on the Activity. relationships between racial variables and physical activities in school textbook images have been found. Nevertheless, a Level study by McDonald (2013) on the configuration of the con- Elite Non-elite cept of race in the textual content of physical education text- books concurred with the results of this current article and White argued that textbook discourses emphasize the superiority of Count 299 1,876 the “black race” in the sprint and running disciplines of ath- % of race 13.7 86.3 letics. Similar conclusions have been drawn with regard to Corrected normalized residual −19.8 19.8 the representation of Black people in the mass media in the Black United States—representation is almost exclusively oriented Count 60 29 toward baseball, basketball, and American football (Thomas, % of race 67.4 32.6 2004). We were unable to corroborate the association of Corrected normalized residual 11.6 −11.6 Black people with baseball; as it is not a sport that features in Asian Count 10 10 Spanish physical education textbooks, we could, however, % of race 50.0 50.0 consider athletics, basketball, and American football. The Corrected normalized residual 3.4 −3.4 results coincided with the opinions of the students (who Latin American linked these sports with Black people) and the results of a Count 0 4 number of other studies (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006). % of race 0.0 100.0 Hypotheses 3 and 4 were confirmed. Black people were Corrected normalized residual −1.0 1.0 frequently depicted in competitive, high-level sporting activ- Others ities. Images in Spanish physical education textbooks trans- Count 5 6 mit the message that racial diversity neither exists in the % of race 45.5 54.5 school nor in recreational contexts. People who are different Corrected normalized residual 2.2 −2.2 from the White and Western model are only shown in institu- Various tionalized competitive, high-performance sporting contexts, Count 110 63 and this might be the reason for beliefs concerning physical- Race % 63.6 36.4 conditioning superiority (Contreras et al., 2008; Harrison et Corrected normalized residual 15.1 −15.1 al., 2004; McDonald, 2013; Sheldon et al., 2007) and homog- Total enized sporting activities (Barbero, 2006; Mella, 2005). Count 484 1,988 Hypothesis 5 was confirmed through the opinions of the % of race 19.6 80.4 students that evidenced racial stereotypes and prejudices. The students commonly referred to the “others” as “foreign- ers” and problematized their presence in both sporting and Discussion non-sporting contexts. The students perceived the existence of different sports and physical activities in terms of race and The Absence of Diversity considered competition and high-performance sports to be Hypothesis 1 was confirmed. Individuals with a different the most adequate for Black people. Following the argument appearance to the in-group (White and Western) are very of Harrison et al. (2004), the stereotyped messages implicit much excluded from images shown in Spanish schools’ in physical education and sport often promote stereotypes physical education textbooks. This finding coincides with based on physical superiority. Nevertheless, the real differ- results of research on TV programs and advertising related to ences are based on social forces that construct the reality, not physical activity and sport (Billings & Tyler, 2002; López, on genetic or biological aspects. There is no scientific evi- 2005) and the few published studies on physical education dence that substantiates theories that aim to explain the phys- textbooks to date (Botelho et al., 2008): There is almost ical superiority of Black people or their supposed intellectual exclusive representation of Caucasian people and an absence failures in comparison with White people (Hayes & Sugden, of other racial groups. Black people are the second most rep- 1999). resented group, with a much lower percentage. This lack of racial diversity is not exclusive to physical education; previ- Conclusion ously published works have found similar disparities in other subject areas (Morales & Lischinsky, 2008; Torres, 2008). School textbooks are not coherent with educational policies that favor interracial education and learning. The images in secondary school physical education textbooks portray a Racial Stereotypes and Physical Activity racial homogeneity with majority representation of the in- Hypothesis 2 was confirmed. The analysis revealed the group (White and Western), compared with the minority rep- assignation of a specific type of physical activity based on resentation of people from different races (the out-groups). Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 9 The messages transmitted by the images shown in Spanish curriculum: Learn to obey through images]. Arte, Individuo y Sociedad, 17, 205-218. Retrieved from http://revistas.ucm.es/ physical education textbooks do not facilitate the construc- index.php/ARIS/article/view/6657 tion of racial diverse and shared identities: People with a dif- Azzarito, L. (2009). The Panopticon of physical education: Pretty, ferent appearance from the in-group (mainly Black people) active, and ideally white. Physical Education and Sport are only represented in a limited number of contexts that are Pedagogy, 14, 19-39. doi:10.1080/17408980701712106 stereotyped in accordance with conceptions of “race.” They Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M. A. (2005). A reconceptualiza- only appear in sports and activities such as football, basket- tion of physical education: The intersection of gender/ ball, and athletics and are excluded from artistic physical race/social class. Sport, Education and Society, 10, 25-47. activities or games that take place in the natural environ- doi:10.1080/135733205200028794 ment. In general, Black people, Asians, and other people who Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M. A. (2006). A poststructural analy- are not from the in-group are always linked to competition sis of high school students’ gendered and racialized bodily and elite sport, and are excluded from recreational or utilitar- meanings. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 25, 75-98. Retrieved from http://journals.humankinetics.com/ ian contexts in the educational environment. AcuCustom/Sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/5391.pdf These sporting contexts, mainly basketball and football in Barbero, J. I. (2006). Deporte y cultura: De la modernidad a los high-performance competition, offer a biased vision of cor- discursos posmodernos del cuerpo [Sport and culture: From poral culture and reinforce racial prejudice and stereotypes. modernity to postmodern discourses of the body]. Educación This analysis makes a contribution to the body of research física y deporte, 25(1), 69-93. Retrieved from http://aprendeen- that was initiated by other authors from many countries (e.g., linea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/educacionfisicaydeporte/ Azzarito & Solomon, 2005; Flintoff, 2015; Grahn, 2014; article/viewArticle/221 Harrison et al., 2002). Grahn (2014) studied textbooks used Billings, A. C., & Tyler, S. (2002). Selective representa- in coaching education programs in Sweden and demonstrated tion of gender, ethnicity, and nationality in American that textbooks construct gender differences. Recently, Anne television coverage of the 2000 Summer Olympics. Flintoff (2015) concluded by arguing for a critical analysis of International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37, 351-370. doi:10.1177/101269020203700302 the construction of Whiteness through physical education Botelho, P., Silva, P., Queirós, T., & Caetano, S. (2008). Manuais teacher education. This study demonstrates the need to raise de educação física: Em rota de colisão com género, diversi- awareness with regard to the content of physical education dade e cidadania? [Physical education manuals: On collision textbooks and the importance of working to overcome racial course with gender, diversity and citizenship?]. In F. Henriques stereotypes associated with sport and physical education. (Ed.), Género, diversidade e cidadania (pp. 89-101). Lisboa, Publishing houses and education authorities must become Portugal: Colibri. fully aware of the contents of physical education textbooks Contreras, O. R., Pastor, J. C., & González, S. (2008). La influencia to become involved in their improvement. Teachers must de los deportistas de élite en las actitudes y estereotipos racis- analyze the books from a critical point of view to be able to tas de los escolares [The influence of top-class sportspeople use them in a coherently didactic way. In this respect, the on schoolchildren’s attitudes and racist stereotypes]. Tándem: teachers’ initial training should enable them to reflect and Didáctica de la Educación Física, 28, 27-38. Elias, N., & Dunning, E. (1992). Deporte y ocio en el proceso de become aware of the implications that school materials can la civilización [Sport and leisure in the civilizing process]. have in racial differences. México City, México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Evans, J. (2013). Physical education as porn! 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Estudios sobre educación, españolas [News approaches and migration. A content analy- 19, 97-118. Retrieved from http://dspace.unav.es/dspace/ sis in Spanish press and television]. Revista de Estudios de bitstream/10171/18327/2/ESE19_Articulo5.pdf Comunicación, 16, 87-104. Retrieved from http://www.ehu.es/ Romero, C. (2003). Los desplazamientos de la «raza»: De una ojs/index.php/Zer/article/view/5311/5167 invención política y la materialidad de sus efectos. Política y Jorquera, P. (2010). Vejez y envejecimiento: Imaginarios sociales sociedad, 40(1), 111-128. Retrieved from http://www.hartza. presentes en los textos escolares oficiales del Ministerio de com/carmen2.pdf educación chileno [Aging: Social Imaginaries present in offi- Sheldon, J. P., Jayaratne, T. E., & Petty, E. M. (2007). White cial textbooks of the Chilean Ministry of Education]. Revista Americans’ genetic explanations for a perceived race differ- Mad, 22, 132-165. doi:10.5354/0718-0527.2010.13642 ence in athleticism: The relation to prejudice toward and ste- Lacy, S., & Riffe, D. (1996). Sampling error and selecting inter- reotyping of Blacks. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of coder reliability samples for nominal content categories: Sins Sport Psychology, 9(3), 31-56. Retrieved from http://www. de omission and commission in mass communication quantita- athleticinsight.com/Vol9Iss3/RaceDifference.htm tive research. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, Spanish Ministry of Education. (2013). Datos y cifras. Curso 73, 963-973. doi:10.1177/107769909607300414 escolar 2013/2014 [Facts and figures. 2013/2014 school Llopis, R. (2005). Inmigración, Ocio y Tiempo Libre. Vida social, year] (Secretaría General Técnica, de Subdirección General actividades deportivas y actividades culturales de la población de Documentación y Publicaciones). 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Retrieved from http://www.ine.es/ss/ 57-90. Retrieved from http://www5.uva.es/agora/revista/4/ Satellite?L=es_ES&c=INECifrasINE_C&cid=125993802212 agora4-5_.pedraz_4.pdf 2&p=1254735116567&pagename=ProductosYServicios%2F PYSLayout Author Biographies Thomas, B. (2004). On the sidelines: Sex and racial segregation in María Inés Táboas-Pais (PhD, University of Vigo, Spain) is pro- television sports broadcasting. Sociology of Sport Journal, 21, fessor of the Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at 322-341. Retrieved from http://journals.humankinetics.com/ Faculty of Sport, Universidad Católica San Antonio, Murcia, Spain. AcuCustom/Sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/4072.pdf His current themes of research include stereotypes in physical edu- Torres, J. (2008). Diversidad cultural y contenidos escolares cation, curriculum development, didactic material, body culture, [Cultural diversity and scholastic content]. Revista de and sport. Educación, 345, 83-110. Retrieved from http://www.revista- educacion.mec.es/re345/re345_04.pdf Ana Rey-Cao (PhD, University of Coruña, Spain) is the principal Vicente, M. (2007). El cuerpo sin escuela: proyecto de supresión de investigator of DE-4 Research Group and professor of physical la educación fisica escolar y qué hacer con su detritus [Body education didactics of the Department of Special Didactics at without school: Draft abolition of physical education and what Faculty of Educational Sciences and Sports, University of Vigo, to do with their detritus]. Ágora para la EF y el Deporte, 4-5, Spain. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

Racial Representation in Physical Education Textbooks for Secondary Schools: Image Content and Perceptions Held by Students

Táboas-Pais, María Inés; Rey-Cao, Ana
SAGE Open , Volume 5 (1): 1 – Mar 10, 2015
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Abstract

The purpose of this article is to examine the representation of race through images that are published in Spanish physical education textbooks for secondary schools and to offer an insight into students’ beliefs related to racial stereotypes in physical education. The sample was composed of 2,583 images and 87 secondary school pupils. The analysis was carried out through the elaboration of an ad hoc coding scheme. The results showed that people whose appearance is similar to the in-group predominate. The kind of physical activity, the field, space, and level of competence vary according to race. The textbooks analyzed in this study engender a stigmatized vision of racial diversity, and the images reproduce and reinforce racial prejudice. Keywords race, stereotype, image, textbook, physical education School textbooks play a central role in the homogenizing Introduction process; they reproduce social images and settings that The demographic composition of modern Spain reveals a reduce the complexity of social reality and offer a differential multiracial context. The country has the second largest num- schematic that orders and explains that which is configured ber of immigrants in the European Union. In the last decade, as reality (Jorquera, 2010). A substantial amount of informa- the number of non-Spanish residents increased threefold and tion that is shown to the student is done so through images now stands at 5.7 million, more than 12% of the population. that filter into the collective consciousness, with no prior The biggest European immigrant groups are from Romania reflection, and this makes iconic language a very powerful and the United Kingdom. The greatest numbers of non-Euro- medium for the reproduction of stereotypes (Acaso & Nuere, pean immigrants are from Morocco, followed by those from 2005). Ecuador and Columbia. In the last few years, Spain has also With regard to race, the imagery presented in textbooks is seen a significant increase in people arriving from Pakistan simplistic and, rather than facilitating the construction of and China (Spanish Statistical Office, 2012). With regard to shared identities, it endorses and perpetuates the hegemony the education system, a report on the school year 2013/2014 of the (White and Western) in-group (Morales & Lischinsky, (Spanish Ministry of Education, 2013) indicated that num- 2008; Torres, 2008). The concept of race is still built on erro- bers of foreign school students had increased in the last neous biological considerations that are used to transmit decade: In the 2012/2013 school year, there were 726,781 expectations on the performance of individuals that are based immigrants in full-time education (9.1% of the school popu- on a supposedly collective potential, a message that responds lation). The biggest group are of South American origin to racist biopolitics and corporal differentiation (McDonald, (34.8%), followed by students from the European Union 2013). (26.1%) and Africa (27.5%). Students from Asia and Oceania make up 7.5% of the total, with 4% coming from the rest of Europe. 1 Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, Spain Nevertheless, current educational practices in Spain gen- Universidad de Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain erally respond to a homogenized scholastic model that fails Corresponding Author: to successfully educate specific groups made up of racial María Inés Táboas-Pais, Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, diverse subjects (Rodríguez, 2010). It is clear that racial ste- Campus de Los Jerónimos, s/n. 30107 Guadalupe, Murcia, Spain. reotypes continue to be rooted in Spanish classrooms. Email: mtaboas@ucam.edu or inestaboas@uvigo.es This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Creative Commons CC BY: (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (http://www.uk.sagepub.com/aboutus/openaccess.htm). 2 SAGE Open This research project aims to identify the level of racial obsession of explaining the phenomenon of human physical diversity with regard to the people represented in the images performance has tended to treat people in a technological and contained in Spanish physical education textbooks. It is clear mechanical manner, and this has led to the legitimization of that the iconic messages presented are perceived as an objec- reductionist and determinist interpretations of racial distinc- tive reflection of reality, and, in particular, for those students tion that support arguments on differences in motor perfor- between 12 and 15 years of age, there is a tendency to legiti- mance (McDonald, 2013). Hill and Azzarito (2012) explored mize identity with images that are considered an “undeniable a number of the ways that young women visualized valued reality” (Revuelta, 2008). The referential function of the bodies and found that more than half of the posters that the photograph is of primary interest for this project so the anal- girls created portrayed White men. Only one portrayed ysis tools use observable “indicators” that provoke the per- women of color, and no Asian women were represented in ception of difference. As authors, we are conscious of the the posters. As such, legitimate sporting bodies promoted in limitations of this type of phenotypical analysis (the analysis the school site were embedded in Whiteness. of representations of race in images in physical education In Spain, the mass media minimize the role of specific textbooks was confined to observable phenotypic indica- racial groups in sport and promote the formation of stereo- tors), not least, because it relies on the concept of race that, types and prejudicial attitudes (Igartua & Muñiz, 2004; in both its biologistic and cultural construction, represents a López, 2005; Muñiz, Igartua, & Otero, 2006). The majority regulatory fiction through which certain differences are of advertising images show White people, as do most TV transformed into meaningful concepts that legitimize oppres- programs related to sport. This is consistent with research sion, exclusion, privilege, and dominance (McDonald, 2013; undertaken in other countries: In the United States, Latin Romero, 2003). Nevertheless, the coding scheme used in this American and Asian people hardly feature in sports pro- work is utilized as a tool for identifying observable indica- grams (Billings & Tyler, 2002), and Black people are almost tors in the photographs considered that act as “semiotic- always seen playing baseball, basketball, American football, material” references in the consciousness of the people who and doing athletics (Lumpkin, 2009; Thomas, 2004). view them, and this leads to a process of the development of McCarthy, Jones, and Potrac (2003) argue that the existence “ethno-racial” subjectivities: of racial stereotypes in U.K. sports coverage not only makes some groups invisible but also reflects the structures of . . . these are not a reflection of a biological reality or the effect power. of social ordering and interpretation; they are a product of the Studies on racial stereotypes reveal that perceptions of profoundly unequal, multiple relationships between elements competence and future aspirations for sporting participation such as: bodies; legislative apparatus; media images; specific vary among adolescents of different origins (Azzarito & locations; celebrations; meals; accents; ways of looking; police Solomon, 2006; Harrison, Harrison, & Moore, 2002; controls; dress; fears; scientific activities; the globalised Harrison, Lee, & Belcher, 1999; Harrison, Sailes, Rotich, & economy; descriptions of the human genome; legalisation Bimper, 2011), and that students’ construction of the ideal papers; position in the labour market; racisms etc. (Romero, body is racialized (Azzarito, 2009). In accordance with mass 2003, p. 125) media images, young people attribute certain physical activi- ties to different racial characteristics (Contreras, Pastor, & Homogenization of Corporal Culture Through González, 2008; Gil, 2006) and believe that Black people are Physical Education and Sport physically superior, whereas White people have greater cog- nitive capacities (Sheldon, Jayaratne, & Petty, 2007). These Corporal culture can be conceptualized as a group of values, stereotyped perceptions are also present in the discourses of uses, knowledge, beliefs, norms, and behavior patterns that coaches, teachers, and parents; for example, Black people delimit corporal appreciation and practices in a given social are more closely identified with athletics, American football, context. The biopolitical concept provides a framework for and basketball (Harrison, Azzarito, & Burden, 2004; Hayes the interpretation of physical education and sport as prac- & Sugden, 1999). tices inserted in mechanisms for the control and regulation of The most recent National Survey on Spanish population the population (Foucault, 2009) and the homogenizing and sport behavior (García & Llopis, 2011) found that 45% of globalizing (Mella, 2005). In this way, the universalizing of immigrants above the age of 15 participate in sport. sport has contributed to the reduction of the variety and Immigrants of African origin are the most active (46%), fol- diversity of corporal and motor expressions, which have lowed by South Americans (45%) and Europeans (42.1%). become limited to a dominant cultural model (Barbero, 2006; In terms of the type of activity, results of another study by Vicente, 2007). Due to its close relationship with sport, physical education Llopis (2005) indicate that Africans prefer running, Latin is particularly susceptible to discourses relating to corporal Americans enjoy team sports (especially football), and differentiation. The culture of “performativity” has domi- Europeans are more interested in mountaineering, tennis, nated educational discourse, affecting the way in which pupils swimming, walking, skating, gymnastics, tennis, and team think and act toward physical education (Evans, 2013). The sports. Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 3 This data demonstrate that race must be considered a whereas White people are more commonly shown partici- powerful influence on patterns of participation and perfor- pating in non-competitive activities. mance (Harrison et al., 2011). Hypothesis 4: Black people, Asians, and people from other racial groups are more frequently shown participat- ing in elite sports than White people. Racial Stereotypes, Textbooks, and Physical Hypothesis 5: Images of people from the out-group Education shown in textbooks generate greater prejudice among the students than images of the in-group (White and Western). Although many studies have examined racial stereotyping in school textbooks used in a variety of courses and subjects, physical education textbooks have received little attention. Method This might be explained by the fact that the use of textbooks The study was based on two methods: (a) a content analysis in physical education is relatively recent. In Spain, the first of images in Spanish physical education textbooks using empirical analysis of physical education textbooks did not synchronic, empirical, descriptive, and non-experimental appear until the 1990s, and research has focused on gender techniques, and (b) a test of secondary school students’ per- stereotypes. Only a few contemporary works have specifi- ceptions of a set of images. cally examined the representation of race. Internationally, there is agreement that physical education textbooks offer a rather unbalanced vision of society that Sample perpetuates the use of race as a variable that legitimizes the Method 1. The content analysis considered 2,583 photo- existence of differences and expectations based on racial graphs from 36 textbooks from 10 Spanish publishing groups (McDonald, 2013). The images shown in textbooks houses. Of the original total (N = 3,316), 733 (22.10%) were are almost exclusively of White or Caucasian people discounted as it was not possible to identify the racial origin (Botelho, Silva, Queirós, & Caetano, 2008), Black people of the people shown, for example, due to the wide-angle are closely linked to specific athletic activities (McDonald, focus that was used. 2013), and other social realities are silenced by the dominant culture (Hsu & Chepyator-Thomson, 2010). Method 2. The sample comprised 87 students (45 males and All these studies revealed racial stereotyping presented in 42 females), aged between 12 and 17. Selection criteria were the educational materials. This study attempted to seek an accessibility (the collaboration of the school authorities) and answer to the following question: What are the patterns of the inclusion of students from each year of compulsory sec- race that are being conveyed by Spanish physical education ondary education. textbooks? This analysis contributes to research initiated by these and other authors within the literature related to physical educa- Variables tion and sport pedagogy because, specifically, studied how The analyzed variables were race, type of physical activity, the physical education is “encoded” with particular concep- field of practice, and level of activity. Operational definitions tions of race, and how these may impact students’ are given in Table 1. perceptions. Procedure Objectives Method 1. The codification system for the content analysis This work aims to characterize the patterns of race that are utilized a number of sources and strategies. The starting transmitted by physical education textbooks in compulsory point was López’s (2005) “publicity image analysis system.” secondary education in Spain. The following hypotheses In addition to the categories that were theoretically or deduc- were advanced: tively derived, the codification process was amplified through an inductive or empirical procedure that was the Hypothesis 1: People from the in-group (White and result of a first “superficial viewing” of the images. The cat- Western) are represented in textbooks with greater fre- egories that were identified in this first viewing were defined quency than other racial groups. in conjunction with specific literature; there were five phases: Hypothesis 2: Black people, Asians, and people from other racial groups are mainly shown participating in tra- 1. Initial trial test. The compilation of categories used ditional sports, and to a much lesser extent, in artistic by López (2005) was applied to a set of images taken activities in the natural environment or playing other from physical education textbooks. Issues that types of games. emerged during the initial viewings of the images Hypothesis 3: Black people, Asians, and people from other also determined several other categories used in the racial groups are usually shown in competitive activities, 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Coding Scheme. Categories/indicators Operational definitions Race White People characterized by white skin; appearance corresponding to a European origin. Black People characterized by black skin; appearance corresponding to an African origin. Asian People characterized by a yellow or clear skin tone, dark eyes, and an epicanthic fold; appearance corresponding to an Asian origin. Latin American People characterized by brown skin, dark eyes, prominent cheeks, dark hair, nose and lips larger than Europeans; appearance corresponding to a Latin American origin. Others Those people not included in the above categories. Various People belonging to other racial groups. Kind of physical activity Team sports Sports played in teams, in collaboration/opposition. For example, basketball, handball, football, hockey, rugby, baseball, water polo, polo, and volleyball. Individual sports Sports where participation is individual, without team mates and/or which can be played against an opponent(s). For example, swimming, track and field, gymnastics, rowing, cycling, tennis, boxing, judo, golf, motorcycling, and weightlifting. Artistic Activities that use the body as the means for artistic expression. For example, activities related to mime, theater, drama, and dance. Fitness and physical conditioning Activities directed toward improving strength, speed, flexibility, and/or resistance. For example, running, bodybuilding, stretching, aerobics, step, spinning, and aquafit. Physical activities in natural environments Activities such as paragliding, bungee jumping, cycling, trekking, hiking, rock climbing, surfing, and rafting. Games Leisure activities whose basic characteristic is the acceptance of simple rules that can be modified and adapted according to the group. For example, floorball, spongee polo, and korfball. Other The image shows an activity that is not included in one of the previous subcategories. Field of practice Competitive Activities that belong to the field of institutionalized competition. The presence of referees, a playing field with the regulatory dimensions or numbers on shirts that can indicate a competitive context. Formal educational Activities in the context of formal education; there are clear signs that the image belongs to a school. The school gym, the playground, the school cafeteria, and the classroom are typical locations. Other (non-competitive) Fields of practice that are clearly different from institutionalized competition. They include tilitarian contexts (workplaces, Shops, the home, and hospitals, etc.) and recreational contexts (parks, the street, etc.). Level Elite People famous for the activity they carry out appear (elite sportsmen, famous dancers, actors, etc.), as well as indicators such as the public or sponsors who make it possible to place the action at the Olympic Games, a league, a professional championship, or any other type of spectacle of general interest. Non-elite People who are not famous for the activity they carry out appear, and there are no indicators that make it possible to place the action at the Olympic Games, a league, a professional championship, or any other spectacle of general interest. study. In addition to the categories that a priori orga- 3. Consultation with experts. Three content analysis nized and systemized the test, the procedure was also experts participated in the study; two of them hold exploratory: It allowed the researcher to identify new doctorates in physical education and habitually use categories and indicators and eliminate others that content analysis as their main research technique. were shown to be irrelevant to the objectives of the The third expert is a doctor of philosophy and litera- analysis. ture and has a BA in library science and documenta- 2. Second trial test. A code and an operational definition tion; she is the author of a number of studies based on were assigned to each of the dimensions and catego- the content analysis of images and has published a ries. A second trial test was carried out to corroborate number of articles on content and image analysis of the validity of the categories. One hundred sixty- documents. The objective of the consultation with eight images were coded. experts was the validation of the coding categories. Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 5 The experts were asked to complete a questionnaire compulsory secondary education (n = 94), and (d) the design giving their opinions on five items: suitability of the of the definitive perception test. coding scheme, precision of categories, mutual During the implementation of the definitive test, 15 exclusion of categories, clarity of definitions, and images taken from physical education textbooks were pro- minimization of the subjectivity of the observer. Data jected in the classroom. The images were selected in accor- were collected by means of the Likert-type scale, dance with the results of Method 1, with the aim that they ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly would be representative. The protocol was as follows: agree), and complementary, qualitative information. 4. Second consultation with experts. After making the 1. The students were given the “Description and necessary modifications, the new coding scheme, the Opinion” form. corrected definitions, and the questionnaire used in 2. The students read the instructions for the test, and the first consultation were returned to the experts. All any questions or doubts were dealt with. The instruc- items were given a rating of 4 or 5. tion was to describe what they saw in the images. 5. Triangulation with observers. Three observers were 3. Each of the 15 images was shown for 1 min. The stu- given training on the coding system and codebook, dents gave a written description of the image with using images from textbooks that were not in the their opinions. final sample. The objective was to familiarize the 4. The students handed in the completed “Description researchers with the pictures, the coding system, the and Opinion” form. codebook, and registration. The three observers were then randomly assigned 74 images from textbooks. Analysis and Data Processing Thirty of them were selected by simple random sam- pling through a table of random numbers; 44 were Method 1. All images were digitized to facilitate coding. The selected by non-random sampling. The selection cri- registration process was carried out manually, using a chart terion was that all the indicators in the coding scheme for each textbook. had to be codified. Intercoder reliability statistics The statistical analysis used SPSS software 15.0 for were calculated to assess agreement. The kappa reli- Windows. The processing of the information involved ability (>.80) was therefore satisfactory for all cate- descriptive univariate analysis and associative measures gories: type of physical activity (M κ = .90), field of between the different variables or categories (bivariate anal- practice (M κ = .86), and level (M κ = .84). The inter- ysis). Contingency tables were used to compare the observed coder reliability served as content for a pilot reliabil- frequencies and percentages. The Pearson chi-square statis- ity test before full coding commenced; the pilot gave tic significance level (testing independence) was set at 5% the researchers a final opportunity to alter the coding (α = .05) and used to identify associations between the scheme to maximize reliability. variables. The corrected normalized residuals were utilized to com- When reliability levels were considered adequate (based pare results; the marginal values, sample size, and the num- on the results of the reliability pilot test), another representa- ber of cases in which each remainder was based would tive sample was used to assess reliability for the full sample otherwise have made it impossible. For the confidence level to be coded. Cohen’s kappa was also calculated for the cod- set for this study (95%), the corrected normalized residuals ing of the final sample of photographs. For the second inter- indicated that the difference between observed frequency coder reliability analyses, 273 images (more than 10% of the and expected frequency was high when its absolute value full sample) were selected by simple random sampling using was above 1.96. Therefore, a corrected normalized residual a table of random numbers. According to Lacy and Riffe with an absolute value greater than 1.96 indicates that there (1996), the appropriate size of the sample should not be less are more cases (if it is positive) or less cases (if it is negative) than 50 units, or 10% of the full sample, and it will rarely than could be expected if the variables were independent. need to be greater than 300 units. Cohen’s kappa revealed a However, a value between ±1.96 indicates that the difference high degree of reliability: type of physical activity (M κ = between observed frequency and expected frequency is small .86), field of practice (M κ = .92); level (M κ = .88). and the variables are independent. Method 2. The test of perception of images was oriented at Method 2. The descriptions of the students were subjected to gaining an understanding of the variables that attracted the a content analysis, using the N-VIVO 8 program for the cat- attention of the young people who saw them in physical edu- egorization of the comments. The software allowed the orga- cation textbooks. The test was developed in four phases: (a) nization and reduction of the data into content analysis design of the first draft of the test, (b) consultation with four categories. The initial categories were the same as the con- experts, (c) a pilot test with students from 4 years of tent analysis of the images, and these were added to by 6 SAGE Open Table 2. Percentages of Pictures in Textbooks by Publishing White people were shown as participating in a wide variety House and Race. of physical activities. Individuals from Black, Asian, Latin American, and other groups were shown playing sports in Latin 74.8% of the pictures (54.8% individual sports and 20% White Black Asian American Other Various team sports); depiction of their participation in non-sporting Publisher 1 80.9 8.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 9.6 activities was very limited: 9.6% fitness and physical condi- Publisher 2 86.6 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.2 tioning, 5.9% games, 2.2% artistic activities, 0.7% activities Publisher 3 89.6 5.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 3.9 in the natural environment, and 6.7% other activities. Publisher 4 90.5 2.4 0.4 0.0 0.5 6.3 Furthermore, Black people were especially shown as partici- Publisher 5 89.6 4.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 5.0 pating in sport (82.6%) and specifically in individual sports Publisher 6 93.9 2.2 0.0 0.6 0.0 3.3 such as track and field (63%). Publisher 7 59.7 3.9 5.2 0.0 3.9 27.3 There was a similar pattern in interracial images: 78.6% Publisher 8 77.4 7.3 3.2 0.8 0.0 11.3 of photographs that featured individuals from different racial Publisher 9 96.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.4 2.4 backgrounds were of sport (43.2% team sports, 35.4% indi- Publisher 10 74.8 7.3 2.6 0.0 0.6 14.7 vidual sports) with only 5% involving other physical Total 87.3 3.6 1.1 0.2 0.4 7.4 activities. The last line in each cell of Table 3 shows high corrected normalized residuals: There is a strong relationship between categories that were inductively derived from the first read- the variables. The probability that Black people and interracial ing of the students’ descriptions. groups did sport and no other types of physical activities was significantly higher than would be expected if the variables Results were independent (remainders of 5.2 and 6.6, respectively). Hypothesis 1: Prevalence of White People Hypothesis 3: Field of Practice and Race The most numerous group featured in physical education textbooks for secondary schools in Spain is White people The contexts that were linked to the people represented in the (the in-group); they appeared in 2,256 photos (87.34% of the textbooks also varied according to the race to which the indi- total). This was followed by images that showed individuals vidual belongs. A .000 significance was obtained with from different races at the same time (192 photos, 7.43% of Pearson’s chi-square test, which allowed the rejection of the the total); Black people (92 photos, 3.56% of the total), null hypothesis with a confidence level of 95%. As Table 4 Asians (28 photos, 1.08% of the total), Latin Americans (4 shows, individuals from Black, Asian, and other groups were photos, 0.15% of the total), and other racial groups (11 pho- almost exclusively depicted in competition (75%, 56.5%, and tos, 0.43% of the total). 42.9%, respectively) and were excluded from educational There were some differences among the publishing contexts. In the case of Asians and Latin Americans, the per- houses: the percentage of photographs featuring non-White centage of pictures in formal educational contexts was 0. people ranged from 1.22 to 12.99. The highest percentage of Interracial groups were also more frequent in competitive interracial images from one publishing house was 28, and the fields of practice (78.6%). In formal educational contexts or lowest was below 3 (see Table 2). other fields, the figure was much lower (8.2%). In contrast, White people were mainly linked to non-competitive contexts. In the images of competitive activities, there was a sig- Hypothesis 2: Type of Physical Activity According nificantly higher proportion of individuals from “other” to Racial Group racial groups in comparison with White people (typified residuals of 9.1 and 14.7 compared with −17.8). In the The analysis of the relationship between the variables of remaining fields of practice (educational and non-competi- racial group and type of physical activity was undertaken by tive), there was a significantly higher proportion of White means of contingency tables and the Pearson χ test. When people than people from other racial groups. the two variables were interrelated, a critical value was obtained, which was associated to the χ statistic, lower than 0.05 (p value = .000). This means that the type of physical Hypothesis 4: Level of Activity and Race activity in which the textbooks showed the participants par- The Pearson chi-square test results also indicated (signifi- ticipating varied according to race (α = .05). cance level of .05) that there was a relationship between racial Of the images that featured White people, 19.2% involved group and participation in elite level sports (p value = .000). team sports, 22.4% individual sports, 10% artistic activities, There was a much higher proportion of pictures of White 15.8% fitness and physical conditioning, 9% physical activi- people in non-elite sports contexts than there were in elite ties in a natural environment, 9.7% games, and 13.9% sports (86.3%, compared with 13.7%). This statistic was showed individuals involved in other types of activities: Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 7 Table 3. Contingency Table for the Variables Race and Type of Table 4. Contingency Table for the Variables Race and Field of Physical Activity. Practice. Field of practice Type of physical activity Formal Race Sport Other (non-sport) Competitive education Utilitarian Others White White Count 939 1,317 Count 458 316 39 1,130 % of race 41.6 58.4 % of race 23.6 16.3 2.0 58.2 Corrected normalized residual −3.1 2.9 Corrected −17.8 3.9 2.1 13.0 Black normalized residual Count 76 16 Black Count 66 6 1 15 % of race 82.6 17.4 % of race 75.0 6.8 1.1 17.0 Corrected normalized residual 5.2 −4.8 Corrected 9.3 −2.2 −0.5 −6.8 Asian normalized residual Count 18 10 Asian % of race 64.3 35.7 Count 13 0 0 10 Corrected normalized residual 1.4 −1.3 % of race 56.5 0.0 0.0 43.5 Latin American Corrected 2.7 −2.0 −0.6 −0.9 Count 0 4 normalized residual % of race 0.0 100.0 Latin American Count 0 0 0 4 Corrected normalized residual −1.4 1.3 % of race 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 Others Corrected −1.3 −0.8 −0.3 1.9 Count 7 4 normalized residual % of race 63.3 36.4 Others Corrected normalized residual 0.9 −0.8 Count 3 2 0 2 Various % of race 42.9 28.6 0.0 28.6 Count 151 41 Corrected 0.7 1 −0.4 −1.3 % of race 78.6 21.4 normalized residual Corrected normalized residual 6.6 −6.1 Various Count 143 15 0 24 Total % of race 78.6 8.2 0.0 13.2 Count 1,191 1,392 Corrected 14.7 −2.7 −1.9 −11.1 % of race 46.1 53.9 normalized residual Total Count 683 339 40 1,185 corroborated by the corrected normalized residuals (−19.8 % of race 30.4 15.1 1.8 52.7 and 19.8). The proportion of pictures depicting Black people involved in elite-level competitive sports was much higher than the images of activities not related to elite sports (67.4% the images. A common discourse included reference to compared with 32.6%). The corrected normalized residuals “those others,” especially Black people, as “those people were 11.6 and −11.6. from over there,” “not from here.” A Black person is often The percentage of interracial group pictures depicting seen as belonging to “a different team and a different coun- people engaging in elite sports was also higher than that of try” (Student 76). In some cases, their presence was consid- interracial pictures referring to non-elite sports activities ered a problem, both in sporting terms, “the black guy is (63.6 compared with 36.4). The corrected typified remain- cheating, he’s pushing the white guy to get the ball off him” ders showed that these differences were statistically signifi- (Student 73), and in terms of the wider society, “the Chinese cant: 15.1 and −15.1 (see Table 5). are invading us” (Student 27). Activities such as football and athletics are seen as most adequate for Black people; the arguments are generalized Hypothesis 5: Images of People From the Out- stereotypes: “black people are usually stronger” (Student 6), Group in Physical Education Textbooks Engender “black people run a lot” (Student 46). Students appear to Greater Prejudices Than the Images of the In- attribute a certain physical superiority to Black people and Group place them exclusively in competitive environments: “they Sixty-one of the 87 participants (70.11%) wrote some type of are the best athletes and help to raise the level of the competi- comment relating to the racial group of the people featured in tion” (Student 87). 8 SAGE Open Table 5. Contingency Table for the Variables Race and Level of racial appearance. No previously published works on the Activity. relationships between racial variables and physical activities in school textbook images have been found. Nevertheless, a Level study by McDonald (2013) on the configuration of the con- Elite Non-elite cept of race in the textual content of physical education text- books concurred with the results of this current article and White argued that textbook discourses emphasize the superiority of Count 299 1,876 the “black race” in the sprint and running disciplines of ath- % of race 13.7 86.3 letics. Similar conclusions have been drawn with regard to Corrected normalized residual −19.8 19.8 the representation of Black people in the mass media in the Black United States—representation is almost exclusively oriented Count 60 29 toward baseball, basketball, and American football (Thomas, % of race 67.4 32.6 2004). We were unable to corroborate the association of Corrected normalized residual 11.6 −11.6 Black people with baseball; as it is not a sport that features in Asian Count 10 10 Spanish physical education textbooks, we could, however, % of race 50.0 50.0 consider athletics, basketball, and American football. The Corrected normalized residual 3.4 −3.4 results coincided with the opinions of the students (who Latin American linked these sports with Black people) and the results of a Count 0 4 number of other studies (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006). % of race 0.0 100.0 Hypotheses 3 and 4 were confirmed. Black people were Corrected normalized residual −1.0 1.0 frequently depicted in competitive, high-level sporting activ- Others ities. Images in Spanish physical education textbooks trans- Count 5 6 mit the message that racial diversity neither exists in the % of race 45.5 54.5 school nor in recreational contexts. People who are different Corrected normalized residual 2.2 −2.2 from the White and Western model are only shown in institu- Various tionalized competitive, high-performance sporting contexts, Count 110 63 and this might be the reason for beliefs concerning physical- Race % 63.6 36.4 conditioning superiority (Contreras et al., 2008; Harrison et Corrected normalized residual 15.1 −15.1 al., 2004; McDonald, 2013; Sheldon et al., 2007) and homog- Total enized sporting activities (Barbero, 2006; Mella, 2005). Count 484 1,988 Hypothesis 5 was confirmed through the opinions of the % of race 19.6 80.4 students that evidenced racial stereotypes and prejudices. The students commonly referred to the “others” as “foreign- ers” and problematized their presence in both sporting and Discussion non-sporting contexts. The students perceived the existence of different sports and physical activities in terms of race and The Absence of Diversity considered competition and high-performance sports to be Hypothesis 1 was confirmed. Individuals with a different the most adequate for Black people. Following the argument appearance to the in-group (White and Western) are very of Harrison et al. (2004), the stereotyped messages implicit much excluded from images shown in Spanish schools’ in physical education and sport often promote stereotypes physical education textbooks. This finding coincides with based on physical superiority. Nevertheless, the real differ- results of research on TV programs and advertising related to ences are based on social forces that construct the reality, not physical activity and sport (Billings & Tyler, 2002; López, on genetic or biological aspects. There is no scientific evi- 2005) and the few published studies on physical education dence that substantiates theories that aim to explain the phys- textbooks to date (Botelho et al., 2008): There is almost ical superiority of Black people or their supposed intellectual exclusive representation of Caucasian people and an absence failures in comparison with White people (Hayes & Sugden, of other racial groups. Black people are the second most rep- 1999). resented group, with a much lower percentage. This lack of racial diversity is not exclusive to physical education; previ- Conclusion ously published works have found similar disparities in other subject areas (Morales & Lischinsky, 2008; Torres, 2008). School textbooks are not coherent with educational policies that favor interracial education and learning. The images in secondary school physical education textbooks portray a Racial Stereotypes and Physical Activity racial homogeneity with majority representation of the in- Hypothesis 2 was confirmed. The analysis revealed the group (White and Western), compared with the minority rep- assignation of a specific type of physical activity based on resentation of people from different races (the out-groups). Táboas-Pais and Rey-Cao 9 The messages transmitted by the images shown in Spanish curriculum: Learn to obey through images]. Arte, Individuo y Sociedad, 17, 205-218. Retrieved from http://revistas.ucm.es/ physical education textbooks do not facilitate the construc- index.php/ARIS/article/view/6657 tion of racial diverse and shared identities: People with a dif- Azzarito, L. (2009). The Panopticon of physical education: Pretty, ferent appearance from the in-group (mainly Black people) active, and ideally white. Physical Education and Sport are only represented in a limited number of contexts that are Pedagogy, 14, 19-39. doi:10.1080/17408980701712106 stereotyped in accordance with conceptions of “race.” They Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M. A. (2005). A reconceptualiza- only appear in sports and activities such as football, basket- tion of physical education: The intersection of gender/ ball, and athletics and are excluded from artistic physical race/social class. Sport, Education and Society, 10, 25-47. activities or games that take place in the natural environ- doi:10.1080/135733205200028794 ment. In general, Black people, Asians, and other people who Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M. A. (2006). A poststructural analy- are not from the in-group are always linked to competition sis of high school students’ gendered and racialized bodily and elite sport, and are excluded from recreational or utilitar- meanings. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 25, 75-98. Retrieved from http://journals.humankinetics.com/ ian contexts in the educational environment. AcuCustom/Sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/5391.pdf These sporting contexts, mainly basketball and football in Barbero, J. I. (2006). Deporte y cultura: De la modernidad a los high-performance competition, offer a biased vision of cor- discursos posmodernos del cuerpo [Sport and culture: From poral culture and reinforce racial prejudice and stereotypes. modernity to postmodern discourses of the body]. Educación This analysis makes a contribution to the body of research física y deporte, 25(1), 69-93. Retrieved from http://aprendeen- that was initiated by other authors from many countries (e.g., linea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/educacionfisicaydeporte/ Azzarito & Solomon, 2005; Flintoff, 2015; Grahn, 2014; article/viewArticle/221 Harrison et al., 2002). Grahn (2014) studied textbooks used Billings, A. C., & Tyler, S. (2002). Selective representa- in coaching education programs in Sweden and demonstrated tion of gender, ethnicity, and nationality in American that textbooks construct gender differences. Recently, Anne television coverage of the 2000 Summer Olympics. Flintoff (2015) concluded by arguing for a critical analysis of International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37, 351-370. doi:10.1177/101269020203700302 the construction of Whiteness through physical education Botelho, P., Silva, P., Queirós, T., & Caetano, S. (2008). Manuais teacher education. This study demonstrates the need to raise de educação física: Em rota de colisão com género, diversi- awareness with regard to the content of physical education dade e cidadania? [Physical education manuals: On collision textbooks and the importance of working to overcome racial course with gender, diversity and citizenship?]. In F. Henriques stereotypes associated with sport and physical education. (Ed.), Género, diversidade e cidadania (pp. 89-101). 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Retrieved from http://www.ine.es/ss/ 57-90. Retrieved from http://www5.uva.es/agora/revista/4/ Satellite?L=es_ES&c=INECifrasINE_C&cid=125993802212 agora4-5_.pedraz_4.pdf 2&p=1254735116567&pagename=ProductosYServicios%2F PYSLayout Author Biographies Thomas, B. (2004). On the sidelines: Sex and racial segregation in María Inés Táboas-Pais (PhD, University of Vigo, Spain) is pro- television sports broadcasting. Sociology of Sport Journal, 21, fessor of the Department of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at 322-341. Retrieved from http://journals.humankinetics.com/ Faculty of Sport, Universidad Católica San Antonio, Murcia, Spain. AcuCustom/Sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/4072.pdf His current themes of research include stereotypes in physical edu- Torres, J. (2008). Diversidad cultural y contenidos escolares cation, curriculum development, didactic material, body culture, [Cultural diversity and scholastic content]. Revista de and sport. Educación, 345, 83-110. Retrieved from http://www.revista- educacion.mec.es/re345/re345_04.pdf Ana Rey-Cao (PhD, University of Coruña, Spain) is the principal Vicente, M. (2007). El cuerpo sin escuela: proyecto de supresión de investigator of DE-4 Research Group and professor of physical la educación fisica escolar y qué hacer con su detritus [Body education didactics of the Department of Special Didactics at without school: Draft abolition of physical education and what Faculty of Educational Sciences and Sports, University of Vigo, to do with their detritus]. Ágora para la EF y el Deporte, 4-5, Spain.

Journal

SAGE Open – SAGE

Published: Mar 10, 2015

Keywords: race; stereotype; image; textbook; physical education

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