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Learning Outcomes for Improving Science Entrepreneurship in Higher Education:

Learning Outcomes for Improving Science Entrepreneurship in Higher Education: This study’s purpose was to investigate the relationships among learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, learning outcomes, the entrepreneurial mindset, and the discrimination of social information. The main research methods adopted in the study were the partial least squares (PLS) and the Sobel test. We adopted PLS to test the relationships between six variables, including mediating and moderating effects. In addition to PLS, this study used the Sobel test to verify the mediating effects. Large samples may cause a mediating effect testing error when PLS is used; however, the Sobel test can resolve this issue. According to our test results, learning through experience and learning for stress resistance can change students’ learning cognition and improve their learning outcomes. In addition, an entrepreneurial mindset has a mediating effect on the relationship between learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cognition. That is, for the student, having an entrepreneurial mindset strengthens the effect of learning through experience, as well as learning for stress resistance, and improves learning cognition. However, the discrimination of social information has a moderating effect on the relationship between learning cognition and learning outcomes. That is, a lower discrimination capability with respect to social information changes learning cognition and results in poor learning outcomes. Keywords science entrepreneurship, higher education, PLS, Sobel test science and entrepreneurship (Elo & Kurtén, 2020). First, Introduction researchers such as Lebedeva et al. (2015), Charity et al. The aim of science education in colleges and universities is (2017), and Deveci and Çepni (2017a) have found that to help students understand scientific knowledge and to increasing student creativity and innovation capabilities are develop students’ abilities related to the scientific approach critical goals in science entrepreneurship. Therefore, col- to enquiry (Shahali & Halim, 2010). However, certain stu- leges should focus on how to use scientific knowledge to dents also have the desire to learn entrepreneurship skills develop an innovative scientific enterprise such as biotech, with respect to scientific knowledge. Therefore, in addition medical, or other high-tech enterprises. Second, students to traditional science education courses, increasingly more must learn related knowledge regarding business manage- institutions of higher learning have developed education pro- ment. In fact, entrepreneurship is required not only in found- grams in science entrepreneurship for science students ing a company but also in operating and managing a (Achor & Wilfred-Bonse, 2013). company. Therefore, knowledge of business management What is science entrepreneurship? How are the concepts has been deemed necessary learning content (Liu et al., of “entrepreneurship” and “science” integrated in college to 2017; Sternberg & Krauss, 2014). help students for learning science entrepreneurship? When Shimasaki (2014) tried to explore biotechnology entrepre- Xiamen University, China neurship, he gave an interesting definition for science entre- Wenzhou University, China preneurship. Science entrepreneurship is the sum of all Wenzhou Business College, China Shantou University, Guangdong, China activities necessary to build an enterprise through the meld- ing of both scientific knowledge and business disciplines. Corresponding Authors: Deveci and Seikkula-Lein (2016) explored the implementa- Xiaojie Wan, Department of Human Resource Management, Wenzhou Business College, Wenzhou 325000, China. tion process of entrepreneurship education into science edu- Email: a1104100@ms23.hinet.net cation, they also give the same definition. To help students learn science entrepreneurship, institutions of higher learn- Ping-Kuo Chen, Business School, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China. ing usually consist of two course contents that integrate Email: a1104100@ms23.hinet.net Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open To improve the effect of such science entrepreneurship understand which knowledge is required in the science entre- learning, researchers such as Liu et al. (2017) and Aziz and preneurship process. Therefore, learning through experience Rowland (2018) have investigated education content seems to be a means by which to change students’ cognition. designed for science entrepreneurship, such as the science, Liu et al. (2017) indicate that it is difficult to help students technology, innovation (STI) model, or developed ways to know which knowledge is necessary under the science entre- teach entrepreneurship, which involves teaching knowledge preneurship learning process. Therefore, when students regarding innovation and business management. However, develop incorrect cognition during the learning process, increasingly more colleges and universities are finding the although some studies, such as Deveci and Cepni (2017b), effect of such education disappointing. One reason is that assert that good teaching skills can change students’ cogni- science students are unwilling to study business manage- tion, the majority of students do not easily change their cog- ment. In fact, many students believe that creativity and inno- nition. However, if simulation experience can be combined vation are the critical factors for success in science with an entrepreneurship education program, the combina- entrepreneurship (Sorgo, 2012). Therefore, they disregard tion can help students become aware of the real operation studying business management. However, a lack of a thor- and management problems related to entrepreneurship, ough understanding of business management will result in which can change their learning cognition. Related research- poor company operation, and thus, the science entrepreneur- ers such as Winkler (2014) and Bing and Ji (2015) have also ship failure rate is high (Almeida, 2017). A second reason is found that learning through experience can drive students’ that students are typically ambitious at the beginning of a learning cognition change. Therefore, entrepreneurship edu- course in science entrepreneurship learning. However, suc- cation programs that are combined with learning through cess in science entrepreneurship requires a substantial experience may be necessary. amount of professional knowledge regarding innovation, In addition to learning through experience, teachers can creativity, and business management. Therefore, the learning change students’ learning cognition through the process of burden is heavy. Most students find it difficult to bear this learning for stress resistance. Learning for stress resistance large learning burden and fail to fully digest it. In addition, is defined as designing a process and related approaches to they do not consider such knowledge necessary, particularly gradually increase the students’ ability to address learning business management knowledge. However, because these pressure (Amorim et al., 2018). According to Raza et al. young entrepreneurs have weak knowledge in these areas, (2018), students should possess the capability to overcome they encounter failure. In fact, entrepreneurship failure also the learning pressure they experience in entrepreneurship indicates that the learning outcome in connection with entre- learning. If the students’ stress resistance is poor, they will preneurship is poor. find it hard to bear the heavy learning burden of the learn- Why are students unwilling to learn about business man- ing process. Although the relevant literature acknowledges agement? Why can they not bear the heavy learning burden? the importance of learning through experience and learning Arpiainen and Tynjälä (2017) note that the main problem is for stress resistance, empirical analyses are lacking regard- the students’ incorrect learning cognition process. According ing the relationships among learning through experience, to Diduck et al. (2012), cognition is defined as an individu- learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, and learn- al’s perspective on, and thinking regarding, a matter. The ing outcomes. development of cognition is typically related to growth, the In addition to their possible positive effects on student learning process, or even experience. Due to a lack of practi- learning cognition, the processes of learning through experi- cal entrepreneurship experience in past growth or learning, ence and learning for stress resistance may encourage an most students subjectively judge which knowledge is entrepreneurial mindset, which represents another means by required in the learning process. As a result, they only learn which to improve learning cognition. According to Ventura knowledge that interests them. In addition, even if students and Soyuer (2017), an entrepreneurial mindset means being know which knowledge is necessary, because they lack cognitively ready to always look at the world from an entre- experience with learning or working under pressure, most preneurial perspective. Nadelson et al. (2018) further still find it hard to bear the heavy learning burden. Thus, they explain that the entrepreneurial mindset is an entrepreneur- develop the wrong learning cognition within the science ial awareness and way of thinking, and its formation can be entrepreneurship learning process. divided into three levels. The lower level refers to individu- To change cognition, Costa et al. (2017) argue that learn- als who lack curiosity and do not engage in creative problem ing through experience plays an important role. Black et al. solving when encountering difficulties during the entrepre- (2014) and Kakouris and Georgiadis (2016) note that learn- neurship learning process; the moderate level refers to indi- ing from experience is defined as using a simulation environ- viduals who may be somewhat curious and may engage in ment to help students understand a real entrepreneurship an immoderate level of creative problem solving when situation. Through these simulation games and situations, encountering difficulties during the entrepreneurship learn- students experience the actual circumstances of science ing process; and the high level refers to individuals who fre- entrepreneurship in a manner that enables them to fully quently take a positive attitude to overcoming difficulties Chen et al. 3 cognition, learning outcomes, the entrepreneurial mindset, Entrepreneurial Discrimination of and the discrimination of social information. Based on the mindset social information research purpose, the following questions will be explored. Learning through experience Research Question 1 (RQ1): Does learning through Learning Learning experience and learning for stress resistance predict stu- cognition outcome dents’ learning cognition changes and improve their Learning of stress resistance learning outcomes? Research Question 2 (RQ2): Does the entrepreneurial mindset mediate the relationships among learning through Figure 1. Theoretical model. experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cognition in science entrepreneurship education? during the entrepreneurship learning process. Santos et al. Research Question 3 (RQ3): Does the discrimination of (2016) believe that if students have a positive and higher such information moderate the relationship between level entrepreneurial mindset, they will more easily change learning cognition and learning outcomes? their learning cognition and seek to learn entrepreneurship- related knowledge. Therefore, the entrepreneurial mindset Literature Review and Hypotheses seems to be a mediator. However, previous studies have Development only investigated the development of entrepreneurial mind- sets alone, such as Teerijoki and Murdock (2014); thus, Literature Review empirical analyses of a mediation effect are lacking. Science education is defined as “creative education to foster Therefore, whether the entrepreneurial mindset has a medi- the future needs of society” (Bayram-Jacobs, 2015). Actually, ating effect on the relationships among learning through scientific knowledge is used to establish a convenient life experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning environment and society, which makes it important work in cognition in science entrepreneurship education requires today’s society. Based on the above, we need to foster more verification. scientists. To foster scientists, science education is deemed a In addition, if students cannot discriminate social infor- critical element. Therefore, from primary school to higher mation, they will be easily influenced and hesitant to con- education institutions, science education is ubiquitous. tinue their study of entrepreneurship. In the end, the learning Science education in primary school usually focuses on the outcomes of science entrepreneurship may be negatively learning of basic scientific knowledge (Appleton, 2003); stu- affected. In fact, social information is defined as a form of dents learn under a fun atmosphere but do not understand public opinion. It is influential and can change people’s how to use this scientific knowledge. In junior and senior thinking and attitudes (Aubé & Rousseau, 2016). Today’s high schools, science education focuses on learning scien- social environment is flooded with public opinion regarding tific principles and concepts (Hastuti et al., 2018). However, entrepreneurship failure or risk. According to Lei et al. different countries may have different learning activities. For (2017), if social information is internalized and used to example, the Korean science education also adds a curricu- enhance an individual’s knowledge, it has a positive effect on lum based on science in everyday life, whereas the United entrepreneurship. However, Oftedal et al. (2018) observe States incorporates more scientific experimental courses to that if students cannot discriminate, they can be negatively ensure that students understand practical scientific knowl- influenced. Even if learning cognition in entrepreneurship edge (Choi & Choi, 2016). In higher education, science edu- education is positively affected, learning outcomes may still cation focuses on professional education, guiding students to be affected. Therefore, the discrimination of social informa- learn advanced scientific knowledge and exploring how to tion seems to be a moderator. However, existing researchers apply this scientific knowledge (Martin, 2019). such as Huang and Wang (2013) and Drummond et al. (2018) However, Engeström (2017) finds that when students fin- have only noted how social information shares the experi- ish their science education, they are still confused about how ences of entrepreneurs to enhance entrepreneurship inten- to use their scientific knowledge for life improvement and tion, which means that they lack discussion of the problem of why they needed to learn scientific knowledge. Students of discrimination. Therefore, whether the discrimination of professional science education have a particularly difficulty such information has a moderating effect on the relationship time understanding how to plan their career development, between learning cognition and learning outcome requires and they have difficulty encountering related job positions verification. that require scientific knowledge. Therefore, an increasing Based on the above, this study develops a theoretical number of students in professional science education reflect model, as shown in Figure 1. Accordingly, the purpose of this on their learning as being not meaningful. However, this study seeks to investigate relationships among learning does not mean that learning scientific knowledge is through experience, learning for stress resistance, learning 4 SAGE Open meaningless. Actually, too much scientific knowledge on the above information, it is evident why most students remains in the academic community, and this scientific have incorrect learning cognition. Is business management knowledge is not widely applied in our lives. That is why knowledge not necessary? Johansson and Karlsson (2009) when students finish their learning, the learning of scientific believe that knowledge of science, innovation, creativity, knowledge still seems meaningless. Based on the above, if and business management complement each other in sci- students are encouraged to establish a professional business ence entrepreneurship, as seen with Mark Zuckerberg, the organization based on scientific knowledge and to further founder of Facebook. Although he has a vast knowledge of solve or satisfy the future needs of society, this will not only web technology and innovative ideas related to social net- help students understand the meaning and contribution of working sites, due to his lack of business management scientific knowledge but also guide students in understand- knowledge, he initially encountered operation and manage- ing its practical value and establishing a convenient environ- ment challenges. ment for both their own life and society. For this reason, In light of this difficulty, few researchers have begun to promoting science entrepreneurship has recently become an become aware of the problem and have started to explore important direction in colleges. how to change students’ cognition. For example, Ghobril What is science entrepreneurship? According to Lehrer et al. (2016) explored the case of the Illinois Institute of and Asakawa (2004), science entrepreneurship is a simulta- Technology and further provided an education model to neous dedication of scientists to academic science and to change students’ incorrect cognition, which is called the commercial profit. Successful science entrepreneurship not strategy, structure, and process model. The strategy aspect only increases national science and technology development consists of creating a strong entrepreneurial culture by offer- but also pushes economic growth and national competitive- ing opportunities for student entrepreneurship through ness, including that related to our lifestyle conveniences. hands-on projects in education programs. This means that Therefore, advanced countries such as the United States have students will have the chance to simulate real entrepreneur- discovered the importance of science entrepreneurship and ship. The structure aspect refers to the fact that the institute thus positively promote science entrepreneurship (Tobias & will provide a business incubator, entrepreneurship center, Sims, 2006). and external experts to support the above strategy, especially To promote science entrepreneurship, universities play a the simulation. The process aspect refers to the transition critical role. Specifically, universities can teach more scien- from academic courses to real simulation. Based on the tific knowledge and thereby increase innovation and creativ- above, the model has a positive effect on changing students’ ity capabilities through related education programs. In learning cognition. Students become aware of the impor- addition, they can also provide entrepreneurship education tance of business management knowledge and try to bear a resources or programs to guide students in how to start up a heavy learning pressure. Barron and Amorós (2019) also new venture. Most important, young students are brave provided an approach to changing students’ cognition. They enough to make such attempts and have more innovative indicated that science entrepreneurship education programs ideas and thinking. Therefore, if these students can both should invite experts in the business and science fields to maintain a great level of scientific knowledge and have validate students’ ideas in the market. Actually, these experts entrepreneurship intentions, they can be easily encouraged to have a deep well of experience, and their opinions and sug- attempt science entrepreneurship. For this reason, some gestions can help students understand the importance of advanced countries, such as the United States, Japan, and business management knowledge in addition to scientific Germany, have established a complete entrepreneurship edu- knowledge. cation system to encourage and help their students attempt However, few researchers have provided suggestions for science entrepreneurship (Lehrer & Asakawa, 2004). In their changing students’ incorrect cognition processes even though entrepreneurship education system, in addition to teaching problems still exist. First, the current research never reminds how to combine scientific knowledge, innovation, and cre- students to bear up under a heavy learning pressure. Second, ativity to develop entrepreneurship direction, these countries these researchers believe that connecting students with exter- have also designed a related business education course to nal experts will help students to understand the importance help students know how to operate and manage a new ven- and necessity of business management knowledge. Although ture (Rosa & Dawson, 2006). connecting students with experts is absolutely a good However, in reality, most students actually resist learn- approach, such experts are usually from industry sectors. In ing-related business management knowledge. These stu- real-life situations, the intention levels of these experts is dents believe that innovation and creativity capabilities are usually lower due to their heavy workloads. Thus, if colleges critical to entrepreneurship; if these two capabilities can be extend invitations to them, the majority of experts are combined with scientific knowledge, then a new venture unlikely to accept them. Therefore, the concept of attending with high competitiveness will be established. In addition, experts is always a difficult problem. Based on the above, the if the students engage in a combined business knowledge issue of how to change students’ incorrect learning cognition course, they need to bear a heavy learning pressure. Based process remains a gap in the existing studies. Chen et al. 5 reflect on the entrepreneurship outcome. In addition, Padma Hypotheses Development and Sridhar (2016) indicate that a positive learning cognition Based on this gap in the existing studies, this study attempts will result in positive learning behavior and a positive learn- to develop a theoretical model that fills this gap. Based on ing attitude, which will have a positive effect on improving the theoretical model of Figure 1, this section presents sev- the learning outcome. Therefore, we infer a relationship eral research hypotheses. between learning cognition in science entrepreneurship edu- Regarding the relationships among learning through cation and the learning outcomes, and we develop the fol- experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cogni- lowing hypothesis for verification: tion, Black et al. (2014) and Kakouris and Georgiadis (2016) note that learning from experience helps students understand Hypothesis 2 (H2): Does learning cognition predict a real-life entrepreneurship situation. When colleges and learning outcomes at a statistically significant level? other institutions of higher learning use simulations to immerse students in the entrepreneurship process, students Regarding the mediating effect of the entrepreneurial mind- become aware of the real problems related to entrepreneur- set, Rae and Melton (2017) indicate that the entrepreneurial ship. Zeng and Honig (2016) further indicate that different mindset is developed through effective learning and educa- experiences help students understand what capabilities they tion. If an entrepreneurial mindset emerges, Costa et al. require to address problems that occur during the entrepre- (2018) argue that it will positively affect learning cognition neurship process. Therefore, a small number of researchers, in entrepreneurship education. More precisely, an entrepre- such as Winkler (2014) and Bing and Ji (2015), believe that neurial mindset means the student has developed an aware- learning through experience can drive students’ learning ness of entrepreneurship. Therefore, the student understands cognition change. what knowledge and skills are required for entrepreneurship. In addition, learning for stress resistance may be another Laurikainen et al. (2018) indicate that when colleges or means by which to change student learning cognition. Yu and teachers foster students’ entrepreneurial mindset, it has a Jia (2014) indicate that high learning pressure results in a positive effect on improving students’ learning cognition. In negative student learning cognition. However, Yu and Jia addition, Nadelson et al. (2018) indicate that if students have only examine the problem in terms of the general learning positive and higher level entrepreneurial mindsets, then process. In entrepreneurship education, students must learn a learning any necessary knowledge is good not only for large body of knowledge. Therefore, they obviously experi- changing their incorrect cognition process but also to tran- ence substantial learning pressure. To ensure that students scend related knowledge learning, such as business knowl- can improve their knowledge and address any problem that edge, to enhance the effect of more meaningful learning may occur during future entrepreneurship situations, activities under the science entrepreneurship learning pro- researchers such as Kingston (2008) and Lackéus and cess. This means that if the entrepreneurship mindset cer- Middleton (2018) believe that colleges or teachers should tainly mediates the relationship among learning through create a “pressure cooker” with which to educate students, experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cogni- increase their durability under substantial learning pressure, tion, then it will enhance the effect of learning through expe- and maintain their positive learning cognition to improve rience and learning for stress resistance and absolutely their entrepreneurship knowledge. Therefore, we infer a rela- change students’ learning cognition and even create a more tionship between learning through experience, learning for positive learning effect. Thus, the entrepreneurial mindset stress resistance, and learning cognition in science entrepre- may have a mediating effect. Therefore, we propose the fol- neurship education, and we develop the two hypotheses as lowing hypothesis for verification: follows for verification: Hypothesis 3 (H3): Does the entrepreneurial mindset Hypothesis 1a (H1a): Does learning through experience mediate the relationship among learning through expe- predict learning cognition at a statistically significant rience, learning for stress resistance, and learning level? cognition? Hypothesis 1b (H1b): Does learning for stress resistance predict learning cognition at a statistically significant Regarding the moderating effect of the discrimination of level? social information, according to Aubé and Rousseau (2016), social information is a form of public opinion, which has an Regarding the relationship between learning cognition and influence on changing people’s thinking and attitudes. In learning outcomes, Gedeon (2014) and Hunter and Lean fact, entrepreneurship has become a popular topic in recent (2018) indicate that if students’ learning cognition in the years. Thus, we frequently encounter news reports that dis- entrepreneurship education process is positive, they will cuss entrepreneurship. Such reports describe successful work harder to learn related knowledge, their learning out- cases as well as failures. However, people are easily misled come will be improved, and the improved outcome will by jaundiced reports and can subsequently spread jaundiced 6 SAGE Open opinions. According to Alcaraz-Rodríguez et al. (2014), if than 1 year, 30.8% had been teachers of science entrepre- students can discriminate valuable opinions or information neurship education for the last 3 years, 17.11% had been and learn from, think about, or even follow such opinions or teachers of science entrepreneurship for more than 3 years information, this can strengthen the learning outcome of but less than 5 years, 9.13% had been teachers of science their entrepreneurship education. However, if students find it entrepreneurship for more than 5 years but less than 7 hard to discriminate valuable opinions within social informa- years, and 28.9% had more than 7 years of experience tion, they will fear becoming or even hesitant to continue teaching such courses. In addition, 30.04% of the respon- seeking to be entrepreneurs. Finally, even if they have a posi- dents held the position of professor, 47.91% were associate tive learning cognition, due to fear and hesitation, their learn- professors, and 21.67% were assistant professors or senior ing outcomes will be affected, and they will not improve lecturers. (Wu, 2018). Therefore, we infer that the discrimination of social information functions as a moderator. In science entre- Normality Tests preneurship education, this moderator may affect the rela- tionship between learning cognition and the learning To ensure data quality and valid research results, all the sam- outcome. Thus, we develop the following hypothesis for ples were tested for normality. This study tested normality verification: through five methods, including mean, standard deviation, variance, skewness, and kurtosis. To avoid a judgment error, Hypothesis 4 (H4): Does the discrimination of social the judgment of normality does not depend on a single information moderate the relationship between learning method, which is why we used five methods. The test results cognition and learning outcomes? of the mean, standard deviation, variance, skewness, and kurtosis are shown in Table 2. According to binti Yusoff and Wah (2012), value of mean should close median and value of Method standard deviation and variance should close 0. Test results seem to satisfy requirement; however, we still need to com- Questionnaire Construction, Data Collection, and bine the values of skewness and kurtosis to judge the normal- Sample Profile ity. Exactly, the measurement standard of skewness and To verify the theoretical model, we developed a focused kurtosis should be between 1 and −1. However, DiStefano questionnaire. For the variables of the theoretical model, we and Morgan (2014) indicated that, if values of skewness and designed six constructs: learning through experience (LE), kurtosis are ±3 and ±7 when the research framework is path learning for stress resistance (SR), learning cognition (LC), analysis, then that is acceptance range. According to the test learning outcome (LO), entrepreneurial mindset (EM), and results, all the item test results can be deemed to satisfy the discrimination of social information (DS). Each construct requirements for normality. was assessed using four items. The constructs, sources of the design elements, and scale items are listed in Table 1. Research Method Operationalization is also shown in Table 1. In the data col- lection, we used 5-point Likert-type scales. This study adopted the partial least squares (PLS) method to For data collection purposes, Chinese colleges were verify the theoretical model and hypotheses. According to studied. How did we select these investigation samples? Sosik et al. (2009), PLS is a powerful method for evaluating Specifically, in China, to promote and enhance entrepre- the relationship paths between variables. More precisely, it neurship education, most colleges usually establish an can generate estimates of standardized regression coeffi- “entrepreneurship education program.” China’s Ministry of cients for the paths between variables. Therefore, most Education usually measures the performance of these entre- researchers typically adopt this method to test their theoreti- preneurship education programs every year and announces cal models and hypotheses. In addition, PLS can be used to the top 50 models. We observed the top 50 models of 2019, analyze and test mediating and moderating effects. Therefore, paying particular attention to how science entrepreneurship its analysis capability is widely acknowledged. In this study, was involved in their education program. Therefore, the PLS analysis was performed using SmartPLS 3.0. entrepreneurship programs of these colleges became the Before testing the theoretical model and hypotheses, a main investigation targets. We used simple random sam- questionnaire was first developed to address and measure the pling to send 10 questionnaires to teachers at the entrepre- needs of this study. In addition, we designed six constructs neurship programs of each college, as these teachers are (factors) for the questionnaire to measure the research ques- responsible for the related courses or projects in their sci- tions. Therefore, an explanatory factor analysis (EFA) needed ence entrepreneurship education programs. We distributed to be used to ensure that the scale items (observed variables) 500 questionnaires and received 263 responses, for a 52.6% of each construct certainly belong to the same construct. In response rate. In the sample profile, 13.69% of the respon- the EFA, we used the eigenvalue to observe the EFA out- dents had been teachers of science entrepreneurship for less comes. The eigenvalue is a measure of how much of the 7 Table 1. Questionnaire Constructs. Constructs Scale items Sources Operationalization LE L1. Learning through experience strengthens the learning attitude toward science Zeng & Honig (2016) Learning through experience entrepreneurship. and Machado-Toledo is defined as using a et al. (2018) simulation environment to L2. Practical experience makes students aware of the importance of business help students understand management knowledge. a real entrepreneurship L3. Students will clearly understand the challenges of entrepreneurship and how to situation. address such challenges. L4. Students will understand what type of knowledge is required. SR S1. Provide a limited learning resource that requires students to achieve a learning Warhuus et al. (2016) Learning for stress resistance goal that can increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. and Domurat & is defined as designing Tyszka (2017) a process and related S2. Provide a time limit within which the students are required to finish a large approaches to gradually project to increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. increase the students’ ability S3. Trigger a conflict within a student project team and require the team to solve the to address learning pressure. conflict to increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S4. Continuously assign large mission and require that the students never give up to increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. LC C1. Clearly, understand the learning pressure that arises during the learning process. Rodrigues et al. (2014), Learning cognition is defined Santos et al. (2016), as an individual’s perspective C2. Understand that a large knowledge of innovation and creativity is necessary. and Matlay (2017) on and thinking regarding a C3. Understand that learning about business management is necessary to science matter. The development of entrepreneurship. cognition is typically related C4. Understand that comprehending a large body of knowledge is necessary in the to growth, the learning science entrepreneurship learning process. process, or even experience. LO P1. A good beginning is required for the success of an entrepreneurial start-up. Ahn et al. (2017), To measure the learning Williams & Gentry outcome of science P2. Students can overcome problems related to an entrepreneurial start-up. (2017), and Loi & entrepreneurship education. P3. Students can identify entrepreneurship problems and resolve them. Fayolle (2018) P4. Active expansion for business in entrepreneurial start-ups. EM W1. Focus on self-actualization. Piperopoulos & Dimov Entrepreneurial mindset is an (2015), Zhao (2016), entrepreneurial awareness W2. Attitude of getting along with others by emphasizing modesty. Westhead & Solesvik and way of thinking. W3. Understand the characteristics of an entrepreneur. (2016), and Kuratko W4. Active expansion of interpersonal relations for entrepreneurship. & Morris (2018) DS D1. Discrimination capability regarding the reliability of social information. Yang & Alex (2014) and To measure the discrimination Wu (2018) capability and whether the D2. Self-generated pressure when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. entrepreneurship mindset D3. When a widely held public opinion develops regarding entrepreneurship-related changes when information information, is the entrepreneur easily affected and does the entrepreneurial regarding entrepreneurship mindset change? is received from the social D4. Analysis capability when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. environment. 8 Table 2. Normality Test Results. Constructs Scale items M SD Variance Skewness Kurtosis LE L1. Learning through experience strengthens the learning attitude toward science entrepreneurship. 4.247 0.728 0.530 −1.195 2.544 L2. Practical experience makes students aware of the importance of business management 4.312 0.684 0.467 −0.993 2.062 knowledge. L3. Students will clearly understand the challenges of entrepreneurship and how to address such 4.293 0.732 0.536 −1.166 2.511 challenges. L4. Students will understand what type of knowledge is required. 4.354 0.666 0.443 −1.014 2.211 SR S1. Provide a limited learning resource that requires students to achieve a learning goal that can 4.194 0.734 0.539 −1.430 4.138 increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S2. Provide a time limit within which the students are required to finish a large project to increase 4.236 0.740 0.547 −1.433 4.002 the students’ resistance to learning stress. S3. Trigger a conflict within a student project team, and require the team to solve the conflict to 4.194 0.774 0.600 −1.245 2.784 increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S4. Continuously assign large mission and require that the students never give up to increase the 4.129 0.851 0.724 −1.225 2.068 students’ resistance to learning stress. LC C1. Clearly understand the learning pressure that arises during the learning process. 4.281 0.734 0.539 −1.138 2.090 C2. Understand that a large knowledge of innovation and creativity is necessary. 4.388 0.727 0.528 −1.286 2.257 C3. Understand that learning about business management is necessary to science entrepreneurship. 4.175 0.838 0.702 −1.085 1.323 C4. Understand that comprehending a large body of knowledge is necessary in the science 4.361 0.690 0.476 −1.107 2.164 entrepreneurship learning process. LO P1. A good beginning is required for the success of an entrepreneurial start-up. 4.148 0.770 0.592 −1.070 2.035 P2. Students can overcome problems related to an entrepreneurial start-up. 4.213 0.752 0.565 −1.078 2.157 P3. Students can identify entrepreneurship problems and resolve them. 4.232 0.754 0.568 −1.112 2.205 P4. Active expansion for business in entrepreneurial start-ups. 4.350 0.736 0.541 −1.237 2.152 EM W1. Focus on self-actualization. 4.255 0.756 0.572 −1.048 1.541 W2. Attitude of getting along with others by emphasizing modesty. 4.107 0.789 0.622 −0.802 1.025 W3. Understand the characteristics of an entrepreneur. 4.285 0.730 0.533 −0.974 1.415 W4. Active expansion of interpersonal relations for entrepreneurship. 4.323 0.750 0.563 −1.264 2.523 DS D1. Discrimination capability regarding the reliability of social information. 4.068 0.733 0.537 −1.045 2.476 D2. Self-generated pressure when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. 4.095 0.758 0.575 −0.743 0.898 D3. When a widely held public opinion develops regarding entrepreneurship-related information, is 4.133 0.732 0.536 −0.978 2.233 the entrepreneur easily affected and does the entrepreneurial mindset change? D4. Analysis capability when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. 4.164 0.746 0.557 −1.107 2.749 Chen et al. 9 variance of the observed variables a factor explains (Ledesma (with 5,000 subsamples) to test the statistical significance of & Valero-Mora, 2007). Any factor with an eigenvalue ≥1 each path coefficient of the theoretical model using t-tests. In explains more variance than a single observed variable addition, we used PLS to detect the moderating effect of the (Harman, 1976). discrimination of social information on the relationship Then, the validity and reliability of the constructs needed between learning cognition in science entrepreneurship edu- to be tested. In testing construct validity, factor loadings and cation and the learning outcomes. For the mediating effect of average variance extracted (AVE) values were the primary the entrepreneurial mindset, in addition to testing two paths indices. In establishing reliability, composite reliability (i.e., learning through experience × entrepreneurial mindset (C.R.) and Cronbach’s α were the primary indices. Regarding × learning cognition; learning for stress resistance × entre- the requirements of the indices, according to Hasan and Ali preneurial mindset × learning cognition), we also used the (2007) and Hair et al. (2011), all the factor loadings for the Sobel test to verify the mediation effect of the entrepreneur- same factor should exceed .5, the C.R. should exceed .7, the ial mindset. AVE must exceed .5, and Cronbach’s α should exceed .7. All All test results are shown in Figures 2 and 3. As shown in the test results are shown in Table 3. As shown in the table, Figure 2, we found that the path coefficient between learning all the indices satisfy the requirements of Hasan and Ali through experience and learning cognition is 6.897, with a p (2007) and Hair et al. (2011). Thus, the test results are accept- value lower than .01. In addition, the path coefficient between able. In addition to validity and reliability, the model fit learning for stress resistance and learning cognition was should satisfy the requirement related to the recommenda- 2.327, with a p value also lower than .05. Therefore, tion value. In this study, the standardized root mean square Hypotheses 1a and 1b were supported. For the relationship residual (SRMR) was the main index of model fit, and it was between learning cognition and learning outcomes, the path lower than .05. coefficient was 5.284, with a p value lower than .01. Thus, In addition to PLS, this study used the Sobel test to test for Hypothesis 2 was supported. a mediating effect. According to Hayes (2009), large samples Regarding the mediating effect of the entrepreneurial may cause a mediating effect testing error when PLS is used. mindset, we first used PLS to verify whether there was such However, the Sobel test can resolve this issue. To test the an effect. We sought to verify learning through experience × mediating effect through the Sobel test, Preacher and entrepreneurial mindset × learning cognition and learning Leonardelli have developed a tool that is freely available on for stress resistance × entrepreneurial mindset × learning the web at http://quantpsy.org/sobel/sobel.htm. Researchers cognition. The verification results reveal three path coeffi- are only required to provide the path coefficient from their cients, including 5.753 (learning through experience × PLS calculative results, and the tool calculates and provides entrepreneurial mindset), 4.180 (entrepreneurial mindset × more precise results regarding the mediation effect. learning cognition), and 2.924 (learning for stress resistance Finally, we needed to measure the model’s goodness of × entrepreneurial mindset). All the p values were lower than fit. According to Andrei et al. (2017), the SRMR is reported .01. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported. However, to to be an approximate measure of model goodness of fit. ensure the validity of the test results, we applied the Sobel Therefore, the SRMR was used as the main index of good- test. As shown in Figure 3, the p values of the paths between ness of fit. learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, entrepreneurial mindset, and learning cognition were lower than .01. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported. Research Results Finally, the path coefficient between discrimination of Before we analyzed and verified our research hypotheses, we social information, learning cognition, and learning out- tested for EFA, construct validity, and reliability. Regarding comes was 2.036, with a p value lower than .05. Thus, the EFA test results, the eigenvalue of LE was 2.776, and its Hypothesis 4 was supported; that is, the discrimination of explained variance rate was 69.395%; the eigenvalue of SR social information has a moderating effect. was 2.846, and its explained variance rate was 71.145%; the Regarding the goodness of fit of the model, the SRMR is eigenvalue of LC was 2.861, and its explained variance rate .048 and is lower than .08. Thus, the model’s fit is also was 71.537%; the eigenvalue of LO was 2.689, and its accepted, and satisfies the requirement of SRMR. explained variance rate was 67.234%; the eigenvalue of EM was 2.928, and its explained variance rate was 73.208%; and Discussion the eigenvalue of DS was 2.949, and its explained variance rate was 73.714%. Regarding the test results of construct This section discusses the test results. According to the test validity and reliability, all the test results are shown in Table results, learning through experience is a necessity. Based on 3, and all the test results satisfy the necessary requirements. our test results, learning through experience can predict to Next, we tested the research hypotheses. SmartPLS 3.0 change students’ learning cognition and improve the learning was the primary analysis tool. Following the suggestions of outcome. Our test results are in fact reasonable. Increasingly Hair et al. (2011), we performed a bootstrapping procedure more institutions of higher education in various countries, 10 Table 3. Test Results for Construct Validity and Reliability. Constructs Scale items Factor loading AVE C.R. Cronbach’s α LE L1. Learning through experience strengthens the learning attitude toward science entrepreneurship. .726 .594 .854 .852 L2. Practical experience makes students aware of the importance of business management knowledge. .761 L3. Students will clearly understand the challenges of entrepreneurship and how to address such .847 challenges. L4. Students will understand what type of knowledge is required. .744 SR S1. Provide a limited learning resource that requires students to achieve a learning goal that can increase .701 .618 .865 .864 the students’ resistance to learning stress. S2. Provide a time limit within which the students are required to finish a large project to increase the .823 students’ resistance to learning stress. S3. Trigger a conflict within a student project team, and require the team to solve the conflict to .798 increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S4. Continuously assign large mission and require that the students never give up to increase the .835 students’ resistance to learning stress. LC C1. Clearly understand the learning pressure that arises during the learning process. .783 .623 .868 .866 C2. Understand that a large knowledge of innovation and creativity is necessary. .840 C3. Understand that learning about business management is necessary to science entrepreneurship. .829 C4. Understand that comprehending a large body of knowledge is necessary in the science .700 entrepreneurship learning process. LO P1. A good beginning is required for the success of an entrepreneurial start-up. .735 .563 .837 .837 P2. Students can overcome problems related to an entrepreneurial start-up. .757 P3. Students can identify entrepreneurship problems and resolve them. .770 P4. Active expansion for business in entrepreneurial start-ups. .738 EM W1. Focus on self-actualization. .808 .643 .878 .877 W2. Attitude of getting along with others by emphasizing modesty. .797 W3. Understand the characteristics of an entrepreneur. .821 W4. Active expansion of interpersonal relations for entrepreneurship. .779 DS D1. Discrimination capability regarding the reliability of social information. .762 .648 .880 .881 D2. Self-generated pressure when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. .825 D3. When a widely held public opinion develops regarding entrepreneurship-related information, is the .854 entrepreneur easily affected and does the entrepreneurial mindset change? D4. Analysis capability when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. .775 Note. AVE = average variance extracted; C.R. = composite reliability. Chen et al. 11 learning cognition. In fact, the entrepreneurial mindset is Entrepreneurial generally viewed as an important factor in entrepreneurship Discrimination of mindset social information education. Researchers such as Ridley (2016) and Bosman 5.753** and Fernhaber (2018) indicate that the entrepreneurial mind- Learning through 4.180** 2.036* experience set can be understood in terms of entrepreneurship intention. 6.897** Learning Learning According to Pfeifer et al. (2016), if a student has a strong 2.924** cognition outcome 5.284** intention to be an entrepreneur, the student will accept any Learning for entrepreneurship education and endeavor to learn related stress resistance 2.327* knowledge. Therefore, the entrepreneurial mindset is typi- cally regarded as an activator by which to change students’ Figure 2. Results of path analysis. learning cognition. In this study, an incorrect learning cogni- *p < .05. **p < .01. tion results from a lack of practical experience and large learning pressure. This study demonstrates that teachers or such as China and the United States, are becoming aware of colleges can adopt learning through experience and learning the importance of experience and have designed experiential for stress resistance to change students’ learning cognition environments for teaching purposes. A small number of processes. If one considers the influence and characteristics European institutions of higher education have also devel- of the entrepreneurial mindset, it certainly appears possible oped entrepreneurship experience environments. These that such a mindset can mediate the relationships among teaching environments seek to provide a realistic experien- learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, tial environment through games, service learning, and attend- and learning cognition. However, there is a big challenge ing entrepreneurs’ daily planning sessions and have regarding the formation of an entrepreneurship mindset. demonstrated a clear positive effect of learning through According to Nadelson et al. (2018), the formation of an experience. More students have come to understand the need entrepreneurship mindset usually depends on the knowledge for entrepreneurship knowledge and have had their learning of the faculty members and uses a rich course design to guide cognition process changed. Therefore, certain researchers, the formation of a high-level entrepreneurship mindset. such as Carayannis et al. (2016) and Sulich et al. (2017), Therefore, in the design of experience-related courses and have investigated specific institutions that have implemented stress resistance, in addition to colleges needing to ensure experiential teaching for students of science entrepreneur- that the knowledge of faculty members can guide students to ship over a long period. These researchers have found that form a positive entrepreneurship mindset, colleges need to such learning clearly changes students’ learning cognition ensure that course design is also highlighted. However, this and improves learning outcomes. Such students typically study only explores the mediating effect of the entrepreneur- exhibit greater entrepreneurship performance. Thus, learning ship mindset and lacks an exploration of how to improve the through experience represents a necessary teaching approach. knowledge of faculty members and design a rich course to In addition to the importance of learning through experi- guide the formation of a high-level entrepreneurship mind- ence, our test results indicate the necessity of learning for set. Therefore, future research can deeply explore the above stress resistance. Science entrepreneurship education typi- issues. Specifically, as Nadelson noted, the formation of an cally involves substantial learning pressure. If students lack entrepreneurship mindset plays a critical role in the entrepre- the ability to resist such pressure, they may be unable to neurship learning process. withstand the heavy knowledge burden of the learning pro- Finally, although learning cognition can be changed cess. In fact, learning pressure has recently begun to receive through learning through experience, learning for stress increased research attention. A number of studies have inves- resistance, and the mediating effect of the entrepreneurial tigated how to decrease learning pressure, such as Arpiainen mindset, our test results indicate that if students find it hard and Tynjälä (2017). However, it is frequently impossible to to discriminate social information, their learning outcomes decrease such pressure. Therefore, to help students adapt, will still be affected even if the students maintain a positive they should be made aware of the necessity of such pressure learning cognition. As defined in this study, social informa- and encouraged to accept it. If resistance to learning stress tion resembles public opinion. However, public opinion typi- can be gradually improved through learning, students can cally exhibits personal subjective characteristics and involves learn to bear up under a heavy learning pressure. In these irrational criticism. In fact, because entrepreneurship has times, students can be required to learn large bodies of become widespread in today’s society, increasingly more knowledge under pressure. people are interested in cases of failure among young entre- In addition to the relationships among learning through preneurs. Students can obtain valuable suggestions from experience, learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, such cases. However, social information includes subjective and learning outcomes, our test results reveal that an entre- and irrational opinions. If students cannot discriminate which preneurial mindset mediates the relationships among learn- opinions are valuable among such subjective and irrational ing through experience, learning for stress resistance, and opinions, they may fear or be hesitant to become involved in 12 SAGE Open Figure 3. Sobel test results. (A) Learning through experience × entrepreneurial mindset × learning cognition. (B) Learning for stress resistance × entrepreneurial mindset × learning cognition. entrepreneurship. Therefore, although students may have a and the discrimination of social information are generally positive learning cognition and strive to learn more regard- discussed independently. Although a few studies have noted ing the requirements of entrepreneurship, they will find it their influence on learning cognition change and learning difficult to produce a greater learning outcome. outcomes, these studies have failed to verify the existence of this influence. Therefore, this study tried to determine the factors’ mediating and moderating effects. Thus, our test Conclusion results extend the scope of the literature. Regarding our This study’s purpose was to investigate the relationships study’s practical implications, in fact, increasingly more col- among learning through experience, learning for stress resis- leges and universities are seeking to improve science entre- tance, learning cognition, learning outcomes, the entrepre- preneurship. However, success has been achieved in only a neurial mindset, and the discrimination of social information. few cases. Although these institutions recognize that stu- According to our test results, in addition to learning through dents’ learning cognition in science entrepreneurship learn- experience, learning for stress resistance can change stu- ing is the primary problem, they remain confused regarding dents’ learning cognition in science entrepreneurship educa- how to improve and change students’ learning cognition pro- tion and improve their learning outcomes. We also found that cesses. Our research results provide valuable suggestions for the entrepreneurial mindset mediates the relationships among such institutions and their teachers regarding how to design learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, an effective experiential environment and content for stress and learning cognition. Finally, we also found that the dis- resistance learning. In addition, our results can help teachers crimination of social information has a moderating effect on understand how to improve students’ entrepreneurial mind- the relationship between learning cognition and learning out- set to improve their learning cognition, thus improving the comes. That is, even if the learning cognition is positive, if success rate of their science entrepreneurship. students find it hard to discriminate valuable social informa- Against this backdrop, this study used empirical tests to tion, their learning outcomes will not satisfy their expecta- verify the relationships among learning through experience, tions, which will increase the entrepreneurship failure rate. learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, and learn- Our research results have significant academic and practi- ing outcomes. In addition, we verified the mediating effect cal implications. The literature on science entrepreneurship of the entrepreneurial mindset and the moderating effect of typically focuses on improving innovation and creativity. A the discrimination of social information. However, this small number of studies have noted the importance of study has several limitations. First, we use an exclusively improving learning cognition and the influence of learning Chinese sample. Therefore, our analysis results may only through experience and learning for stress resistance on reflect Chinese circumstances. Second, although our learning cognition improvement. However, empirical analy- research results indicate that learning through experience ses are lacking. Therefore, this study contributes to closing and learning for stress resistance can change learning cogni- that research gap. 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Learning Outcomes for Improving Science Entrepreneurship in Higher Education:

Chen, Kun-Dang; Wan, Xiaojie; Chen, Ping-Kuo
SAGE Open , Volume 11 (1): 1 – Jan 9, 2021
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Abstract

This study’s purpose was to investigate the relationships among learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, learning outcomes, the entrepreneurial mindset, and the discrimination of social information. The main research methods adopted in the study were the partial least squares (PLS) and the Sobel test. We adopted PLS to test the relationships between six variables, including mediating and moderating effects. In addition to PLS, this study used the Sobel test to verify the mediating effects. Large samples may cause a mediating effect testing error when PLS is used; however, the Sobel test can resolve this issue. According to our test results, learning through experience and learning for stress resistance can change students’ learning cognition and improve their learning outcomes. In addition, an entrepreneurial mindset has a mediating effect on the relationship between learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cognition. That is, for the student, having an entrepreneurial mindset strengthens the effect of learning through experience, as well as learning for stress resistance, and improves learning cognition. However, the discrimination of social information has a moderating effect on the relationship between learning cognition and learning outcomes. That is, a lower discrimination capability with respect to social information changes learning cognition and results in poor learning outcomes. Keywords science entrepreneurship, higher education, PLS, Sobel test science and entrepreneurship (Elo & Kurtén, 2020). First, Introduction researchers such as Lebedeva et al. (2015), Charity et al. The aim of science education in colleges and universities is (2017), and Deveci and Çepni (2017a) have found that to help students understand scientific knowledge and to increasing student creativity and innovation capabilities are develop students’ abilities related to the scientific approach critical goals in science entrepreneurship. Therefore, col- to enquiry (Shahali & Halim, 2010). However, certain stu- leges should focus on how to use scientific knowledge to dents also have the desire to learn entrepreneurship skills develop an innovative scientific enterprise such as biotech, with respect to scientific knowledge. Therefore, in addition medical, or other high-tech enterprises. Second, students to traditional science education courses, increasingly more must learn related knowledge regarding business manage- institutions of higher learning have developed education pro- ment. In fact, entrepreneurship is required not only in found- grams in science entrepreneurship for science students ing a company but also in operating and managing a (Achor & Wilfred-Bonse, 2013). company. Therefore, knowledge of business management What is science entrepreneurship? How are the concepts has been deemed necessary learning content (Liu et al., of “entrepreneurship” and “science” integrated in college to 2017; Sternberg & Krauss, 2014). help students for learning science entrepreneurship? When Shimasaki (2014) tried to explore biotechnology entrepre- Xiamen University, China neurship, he gave an interesting definition for science entre- Wenzhou University, China preneurship. Science entrepreneurship is the sum of all Wenzhou Business College, China Shantou University, Guangdong, China activities necessary to build an enterprise through the meld- ing of both scientific knowledge and business disciplines. Corresponding Authors: Deveci and Seikkula-Lein (2016) explored the implementa- Xiaojie Wan, Department of Human Resource Management, Wenzhou Business College, Wenzhou 325000, China. tion process of entrepreneurship education into science edu- Email: a1104100@ms23.hinet.net cation, they also give the same definition. To help students learn science entrepreneurship, institutions of higher learn- Ping-Kuo Chen, Business School, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China. ing usually consist of two course contents that integrate Email: a1104100@ms23.hinet.net Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open To improve the effect of such science entrepreneurship understand which knowledge is required in the science entre- learning, researchers such as Liu et al. (2017) and Aziz and preneurship process. Therefore, learning through experience Rowland (2018) have investigated education content seems to be a means by which to change students’ cognition. designed for science entrepreneurship, such as the science, Liu et al. (2017) indicate that it is difficult to help students technology, innovation (STI) model, or developed ways to know which knowledge is necessary under the science entre- teach entrepreneurship, which involves teaching knowledge preneurship learning process. Therefore, when students regarding innovation and business management. However, develop incorrect cognition during the learning process, increasingly more colleges and universities are finding the although some studies, such as Deveci and Cepni (2017b), effect of such education disappointing. One reason is that assert that good teaching skills can change students’ cogni- science students are unwilling to study business manage- tion, the majority of students do not easily change their cog- ment. In fact, many students believe that creativity and inno- nition. However, if simulation experience can be combined vation are the critical factors for success in science with an entrepreneurship education program, the combina- entrepreneurship (Sorgo, 2012). Therefore, they disregard tion can help students become aware of the real operation studying business management. However, a lack of a thor- and management problems related to entrepreneurship, ough understanding of business management will result in which can change their learning cognition. Related research- poor company operation, and thus, the science entrepreneur- ers such as Winkler (2014) and Bing and Ji (2015) have also ship failure rate is high (Almeida, 2017). A second reason is found that learning through experience can drive students’ that students are typically ambitious at the beginning of a learning cognition change. Therefore, entrepreneurship edu- course in science entrepreneurship learning. However, suc- cation programs that are combined with learning through cess in science entrepreneurship requires a substantial experience may be necessary. amount of professional knowledge regarding innovation, In addition to learning through experience, teachers can creativity, and business management. Therefore, the learning change students’ learning cognition through the process of burden is heavy. Most students find it difficult to bear this learning for stress resistance. Learning for stress resistance large learning burden and fail to fully digest it. In addition, is defined as designing a process and related approaches to they do not consider such knowledge necessary, particularly gradually increase the students’ ability to address learning business management knowledge. However, because these pressure (Amorim et al., 2018). According to Raza et al. young entrepreneurs have weak knowledge in these areas, (2018), students should possess the capability to overcome they encounter failure. In fact, entrepreneurship failure also the learning pressure they experience in entrepreneurship indicates that the learning outcome in connection with entre- learning. If the students’ stress resistance is poor, they will preneurship is poor. find it hard to bear the heavy learning burden of the learn- Why are students unwilling to learn about business man- ing process. Although the relevant literature acknowledges agement? Why can they not bear the heavy learning burden? the importance of learning through experience and learning Arpiainen and Tynjälä (2017) note that the main problem is for stress resistance, empirical analyses are lacking regard- the students’ incorrect learning cognition process. According ing the relationships among learning through experience, to Diduck et al. (2012), cognition is defined as an individu- learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, and learn- al’s perspective on, and thinking regarding, a matter. The ing outcomes. development of cognition is typically related to growth, the In addition to their possible positive effects on student learning process, or even experience. Due to a lack of practi- learning cognition, the processes of learning through experi- cal entrepreneurship experience in past growth or learning, ence and learning for stress resistance may encourage an most students subjectively judge which knowledge is entrepreneurial mindset, which represents another means by required in the learning process. As a result, they only learn which to improve learning cognition. According to Ventura knowledge that interests them. In addition, even if students and Soyuer (2017), an entrepreneurial mindset means being know which knowledge is necessary, because they lack cognitively ready to always look at the world from an entre- experience with learning or working under pressure, most preneurial perspective. Nadelson et al. (2018) further still find it hard to bear the heavy learning burden. Thus, they explain that the entrepreneurial mindset is an entrepreneur- develop the wrong learning cognition within the science ial awareness and way of thinking, and its formation can be entrepreneurship learning process. divided into three levels. The lower level refers to individu- To change cognition, Costa et al. (2017) argue that learn- als who lack curiosity and do not engage in creative problem ing through experience plays an important role. Black et al. solving when encountering difficulties during the entrepre- (2014) and Kakouris and Georgiadis (2016) note that learn- neurship learning process; the moderate level refers to indi- ing from experience is defined as using a simulation environ- viduals who may be somewhat curious and may engage in ment to help students understand a real entrepreneurship an immoderate level of creative problem solving when situation. Through these simulation games and situations, encountering difficulties during the entrepreneurship learn- students experience the actual circumstances of science ing process; and the high level refers to individuals who fre- entrepreneurship in a manner that enables them to fully quently take a positive attitude to overcoming difficulties Chen et al. 3 cognition, learning outcomes, the entrepreneurial mindset, Entrepreneurial Discrimination of and the discrimination of social information. Based on the mindset social information research purpose, the following questions will be explored. Learning through experience Research Question 1 (RQ1): Does learning through Learning Learning experience and learning for stress resistance predict stu- cognition outcome dents’ learning cognition changes and improve their Learning of stress resistance learning outcomes? Research Question 2 (RQ2): Does the entrepreneurial mindset mediate the relationships among learning through Figure 1. Theoretical model. experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cognition in science entrepreneurship education? during the entrepreneurship learning process. Santos et al. Research Question 3 (RQ3): Does the discrimination of (2016) believe that if students have a positive and higher such information moderate the relationship between level entrepreneurial mindset, they will more easily change learning cognition and learning outcomes? their learning cognition and seek to learn entrepreneurship- related knowledge. Therefore, the entrepreneurial mindset Literature Review and Hypotheses seems to be a mediator. However, previous studies have Development only investigated the development of entrepreneurial mind- sets alone, such as Teerijoki and Murdock (2014); thus, Literature Review empirical analyses of a mediation effect are lacking. Science education is defined as “creative education to foster Therefore, whether the entrepreneurial mindset has a medi- the future needs of society” (Bayram-Jacobs, 2015). Actually, ating effect on the relationships among learning through scientific knowledge is used to establish a convenient life experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning environment and society, which makes it important work in cognition in science entrepreneurship education requires today’s society. Based on the above, we need to foster more verification. scientists. To foster scientists, science education is deemed a In addition, if students cannot discriminate social infor- critical element. Therefore, from primary school to higher mation, they will be easily influenced and hesitant to con- education institutions, science education is ubiquitous. tinue their study of entrepreneurship. In the end, the learning Science education in primary school usually focuses on the outcomes of science entrepreneurship may be negatively learning of basic scientific knowledge (Appleton, 2003); stu- affected. In fact, social information is defined as a form of dents learn under a fun atmosphere but do not understand public opinion. It is influential and can change people’s how to use this scientific knowledge. In junior and senior thinking and attitudes (Aubé & Rousseau, 2016). Today’s high schools, science education focuses on learning scien- social environment is flooded with public opinion regarding tific principles and concepts (Hastuti et al., 2018). However, entrepreneurship failure or risk. According to Lei et al. different countries may have different learning activities. For (2017), if social information is internalized and used to example, the Korean science education also adds a curricu- enhance an individual’s knowledge, it has a positive effect on lum based on science in everyday life, whereas the United entrepreneurship. However, Oftedal et al. (2018) observe States incorporates more scientific experimental courses to that if students cannot discriminate, they can be negatively ensure that students understand practical scientific knowl- influenced. Even if learning cognition in entrepreneurship edge (Choi & Choi, 2016). In higher education, science edu- education is positively affected, learning outcomes may still cation focuses on professional education, guiding students to be affected. Therefore, the discrimination of social informa- learn advanced scientific knowledge and exploring how to tion seems to be a moderator. However, existing researchers apply this scientific knowledge (Martin, 2019). such as Huang and Wang (2013) and Drummond et al. (2018) However, Engeström (2017) finds that when students fin- have only noted how social information shares the experi- ish their science education, they are still confused about how ences of entrepreneurs to enhance entrepreneurship inten- to use their scientific knowledge for life improvement and tion, which means that they lack discussion of the problem of why they needed to learn scientific knowledge. Students of discrimination. Therefore, whether the discrimination of professional science education have a particularly difficulty such information has a moderating effect on the relationship time understanding how to plan their career development, between learning cognition and learning outcome requires and they have difficulty encountering related job positions verification. that require scientific knowledge. Therefore, an increasing Based on the above, this study develops a theoretical number of students in professional science education reflect model, as shown in Figure 1. Accordingly, the purpose of this on their learning as being not meaningful. However, this study seeks to investigate relationships among learning does not mean that learning scientific knowledge is through experience, learning for stress resistance, learning 4 SAGE Open meaningless. Actually, too much scientific knowledge on the above information, it is evident why most students remains in the academic community, and this scientific have incorrect learning cognition. Is business management knowledge is not widely applied in our lives. That is why knowledge not necessary? Johansson and Karlsson (2009) when students finish their learning, the learning of scientific believe that knowledge of science, innovation, creativity, knowledge still seems meaningless. Based on the above, if and business management complement each other in sci- students are encouraged to establish a professional business ence entrepreneurship, as seen with Mark Zuckerberg, the organization based on scientific knowledge and to further founder of Facebook. Although he has a vast knowledge of solve or satisfy the future needs of society, this will not only web technology and innovative ideas related to social net- help students understand the meaning and contribution of working sites, due to his lack of business management scientific knowledge but also guide students in understand- knowledge, he initially encountered operation and manage- ing its practical value and establishing a convenient environ- ment challenges. ment for both their own life and society. For this reason, In light of this difficulty, few researchers have begun to promoting science entrepreneurship has recently become an become aware of the problem and have started to explore important direction in colleges. how to change students’ cognition. For example, Ghobril What is science entrepreneurship? According to Lehrer et al. (2016) explored the case of the Illinois Institute of and Asakawa (2004), science entrepreneurship is a simulta- Technology and further provided an education model to neous dedication of scientists to academic science and to change students’ incorrect cognition, which is called the commercial profit. Successful science entrepreneurship not strategy, structure, and process model. The strategy aspect only increases national science and technology development consists of creating a strong entrepreneurial culture by offer- but also pushes economic growth and national competitive- ing opportunities for student entrepreneurship through ness, including that related to our lifestyle conveniences. hands-on projects in education programs. This means that Therefore, advanced countries such as the United States have students will have the chance to simulate real entrepreneur- discovered the importance of science entrepreneurship and ship. The structure aspect refers to the fact that the institute thus positively promote science entrepreneurship (Tobias & will provide a business incubator, entrepreneurship center, Sims, 2006). and external experts to support the above strategy, especially To promote science entrepreneurship, universities play a the simulation. The process aspect refers to the transition critical role. Specifically, universities can teach more scien- from academic courses to real simulation. Based on the tific knowledge and thereby increase innovation and creativ- above, the model has a positive effect on changing students’ ity capabilities through related education programs. In learning cognition. Students become aware of the impor- addition, they can also provide entrepreneurship education tance of business management knowledge and try to bear a resources or programs to guide students in how to start up a heavy learning pressure. Barron and Amorós (2019) also new venture. Most important, young students are brave provided an approach to changing students’ cognition. They enough to make such attempts and have more innovative indicated that science entrepreneurship education programs ideas and thinking. Therefore, if these students can both should invite experts in the business and science fields to maintain a great level of scientific knowledge and have validate students’ ideas in the market. Actually, these experts entrepreneurship intentions, they can be easily encouraged to have a deep well of experience, and their opinions and sug- attempt science entrepreneurship. For this reason, some gestions can help students understand the importance of advanced countries, such as the United States, Japan, and business management knowledge in addition to scientific Germany, have established a complete entrepreneurship edu- knowledge. cation system to encourage and help their students attempt However, few researchers have provided suggestions for science entrepreneurship (Lehrer & Asakawa, 2004). In their changing students’ incorrect cognition processes even though entrepreneurship education system, in addition to teaching problems still exist. First, the current research never reminds how to combine scientific knowledge, innovation, and cre- students to bear up under a heavy learning pressure. Second, ativity to develop entrepreneurship direction, these countries these researchers believe that connecting students with exter- have also designed a related business education course to nal experts will help students to understand the importance help students know how to operate and manage a new ven- and necessity of business management knowledge. Although ture (Rosa & Dawson, 2006). connecting students with experts is absolutely a good However, in reality, most students actually resist learn- approach, such experts are usually from industry sectors. In ing-related business management knowledge. These stu- real-life situations, the intention levels of these experts is dents believe that innovation and creativity capabilities are usually lower due to their heavy workloads. Thus, if colleges critical to entrepreneurship; if these two capabilities can be extend invitations to them, the majority of experts are combined with scientific knowledge, then a new venture unlikely to accept them. Therefore, the concept of attending with high competitiveness will be established. In addition, experts is always a difficult problem. Based on the above, the if the students engage in a combined business knowledge issue of how to change students’ incorrect learning cognition course, they need to bear a heavy learning pressure. Based process remains a gap in the existing studies. Chen et al. 5 reflect on the entrepreneurship outcome. In addition, Padma Hypotheses Development and Sridhar (2016) indicate that a positive learning cognition Based on this gap in the existing studies, this study attempts will result in positive learning behavior and a positive learn- to develop a theoretical model that fills this gap. Based on ing attitude, which will have a positive effect on improving the theoretical model of Figure 1, this section presents sev- the learning outcome. Therefore, we infer a relationship eral research hypotheses. between learning cognition in science entrepreneurship edu- Regarding the relationships among learning through cation and the learning outcomes, and we develop the fol- experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cogni- lowing hypothesis for verification: tion, Black et al. (2014) and Kakouris and Georgiadis (2016) note that learning from experience helps students understand Hypothesis 2 (H2): Does learning cognition predict a real-life entrepreneurship situation. When colleges and learning outcomes at a statistically significant level? other institutions of higher learning use simulations to immerse students in the entrepreneurship process, students Regarding the mediating effect of the entrepreneurial mind- become aware of the real problems related to entrepreneur- set, Rae and Melton (2017) indicate that the entrepreneurial ship. Zeng and Honig (2016) further indicate that different mindset is developed through effective learning and educa- experiences help students understand what capabilities they tion. If an entrepreneurial mindset emerges, Costa et al. require to address problems that occur during the entrepre- (2018) argue that it will positively affect learning cognition neurship process. Therefore, a small number of researchers, in entrepreneurship education. More precisely, an entrepre- such as Winkler (2014) and Bing and Ji (2015), believe that neurial mindset means the student has developed an aware- learning through experience can drive students’ learning ness of entrepreneurship. Therefore, the student understands cognition change. what knowledge and skills are required for entrepreneurship. In addition, learning for stress resistance may be another Laurikainen et al. (2018) indicate that when colleges or means by which to change student learning cognition. Yu and teachers foster students’ entrepreneurial mindset, it has a Jia (2014) indicate that high learning pressure results in a positive effect on improving students’ learning cognition. In negative student learning cognition. However, Yu and Jia addition, Nadelson et al. (2018) indicate that if students have only examine the problem in terms of the general learning positive and higher level entrepreneurial mindsets, then process. In entrepreneurship education, students must learn a learning any necessary knowledge is good not only for large body of knowledge. Therefore, they obviously experi- changing their incorrect cognition process but also to tran- ence substantial learning pressure. To ensure that students scend related knowledge learning, such as business knowl- can improve their knowledge and address any problem that edge, to enhance the effect of more meaningful learning may occur during future entrepreneurship situations, activities under the science entrepreneurship learning pro- researchers such as Kingston (2008) and Lackéus and cess. This means that if the entrepreneurship mindset cer- Middleton (2018) believe that colleges or teachers should tainly mediates the relationship among learning through create a “pressure cooker” with which to educate students, experience, learning for stress resistance, and learning cogni- increase their durability under substantial learning pressure, tion, then it will enhance the effect of learning through expe- and maintain their positive learning cognition to improve rience and learning for stress resistance and absolutely their entrepreneurship knowledge. Therefore, we infer a rela- change students’ learning cognition and even create a more tionship between learning through experience, learning for positive learning effect. Thus, the entrepreneurial mindset stress resistance, and learning cognition in science entrepre- may have a mediating effect. Therefore, we propose the fol- neurship education, and we develop the two hypotheses as lowing hypothesis for verification: follows for verification: Hypothesis 3 (H3): Does the entrepreneurial mindset Hypothesis 1a (H1a): Does learning through experience mediate the relationship among learning through expe- predict learning cognition at a statistically significant rience, learning for stress resistance, and learning level? cognition? Hypothesis 1b (H1b): Does learning for stress resistance predict learning cognition at a statistically significant Regarding the moderating effect of the discrimination of level? social information, according to Aubé and Rousseau (2016), social information is a form of public opinion, which has an Regarding the relationship between learning cognition and influence on changing people’s thinking and attitudes. In learning outcomes, Gedeon (2014) and Hunter and Lean fact, entrepreneurship has become a popular topic in recent (2018) indicate that if students’ learning cognition in the years. Thus, we frequently encounter news reports that dis- entrepreneurship education process is positive, they will cuss entrepreneurship. Such reports describe successful work harder to learn related knowledge, their learning out- cases as well as failures. However, people are easily misled come will be improved, and the improved outcome will by jaundiced reports and can subsequently spread jaundiced 6 SAGE Open opinions. According to Alcaraz-Rodríguez et al. (2014), if than 1 year, 30.8% had been teachers of science entrepre- students can discriminate valuable opinions or information neurship education for the last 3 years, 17.11% had been and learn from, think about, or even follow such opinions or teachers of science entrepreneurship for more than 3 years information, this can strengthen the learning outcome of but less than 5 years, 9.13% had been teachers of science their entrepreneurship education. However, if students find it entrepreneurship for more than 5 years but less than 7 hard to discriminate valuable opinions within social informa- years, and 28.9% had more than 7 years of experience tion, they will fear becoming or even hesitant to continue teaching such courses. In addition, 30.04% of the respon- seeking to be entrepreneurs. Finally, even if they have a posi- dents held the position of professor, 47.91% were associate tive learning cognition, due to fear and hesitation, their learn- professors, and 21.67% were assistant professors or senior ing outcomes will be affected, and they will not improve lecturers. (Wu, 2018). Therefore, we infer that the discrimination of social information functions as a moderator. In science entre- Normality Tests preneurship education, this moderator may affect the rela- tionship between learning cognition and the learning To ensure data quality and valid research results, all the sam- outcome. Thus, we develop the following hypothesis for ples were tested for normality. This study tested normality verification: through five methods, including mean, standard deviation, variance, skewness, and kurtosis. To avoid a judgment error, Hypothesis 4 (H4): Does the discrimination of social the judgment of normality does not depend on a single information moderate the relationship between learning method, which is why we used five methods. The test results cognition and learning outcomes? of the mean, standard deviation, variance, skewness, and kurtosis are shown in Table 2. According to binti Yusoff and Wah (2012), value of mean should close median and value of Method standard deviation and variance should close 0. Test results seem to satisfy requirement; however, we still need to com- Questionnaire Construction, Data Collection, and bine the values of skewness and kurtosis to judge the normal- Sample Profile ity. Exactly, the measurement standard of skewness and To verify the theoretical model, we developed a focused kurtosis should be between 1 and −1. However, DiStefano questionnaire. For the variables of the theoretical model, we and Morgan (2014) indicated that, if values of skewness and designed six constructs: learning through experience (LE), kurtosis are ±3 and ±7 when the research framework is path learning for stress resistance (SR), learning cognition (LC), analysis, then that is acceptance range. According to the test learning outcome (LO), entrepreneurial mindset (EM), and results, all the item test results can be deemed to satisfy the discrimination of social information (DS). Each construct requirements for normality. was assessed using four items. The constructs, sources of the design elements, and scale items are listed in Table 1. Research Method Operationalization is also shown in Table 1. In the data col- lection, we used 5-point Likert-type scales. This study adopted the partial least squares (PLS) method to For data collection purposes, Chinese colleges were verify the theoretical model and hypotheses. According to studied. How did we select these investigation samples? Sosik et al. (2009), PLS is a powerful method for evaluating Specifically, in China, to promote and enhance entrepre- the relationship paths between variables. More precisely, it neurship education, most colleges usually establish an can generate estimates of standardized regression coeffi- “entrepreneurship education program.” China’s Ministry of cients for the paths between variables. Therefore, most Education usually measures the performance of these entre- researchers typically adopt this method to test their theoreti- preneurship education programs every year and announces cal models and hypotheses. In addition, PLS can be used to the top 50 models. We observed the top 50 models of 2019, analyze and test mediating and moderating effects. Therefore, paying particular attention to how science entrepreneurship its analysis capability is widely acknowledged. In this study, was involved in their education program. Therefore, the PLS analysis was performed using SmartPLS 3.0. entrepreneurship programs of these colleges became the Before testing the theoretical model and hypotheses, a main investigation targets. We used simple random sam- questionnaire was first developed to address and measure the pling to send 10 questionnaires to teachers at the entrepre- needs of this study. In addition, we designed six constructs neurship programs of each college, as these teachers are (factors) for the questionnaire to measure the research ques- responsible for the related courses or projects in their sci- tions. Therefore, an explanatory factor analysis (EFA) needed ence entrepreneurship education programs. We distributed to be used to ensure that the scale items (observed variables) 500 questionnaires and received 263 responses, for a 52.6% of each construct certainly belong to the same construct. In response rate. In the sample profile, 13.69% of the respon- the EFA, we used the eigenvalue to observe the EFA out- dents had been teachers of science entrepreneurship for less comes. The eigenvalue is a measure of how much of the 7 Table 1. Questionnaire Constructs. Constructs Scale items Sources Operationalization LE L1. Learning through experience strengthens the learning attitude toward science Zeng & Honig (2016) Learning through experience entrepreneurship. and Machado-Toledo is defined as using a et al. (2018) simulation environment to L2. Practical experience makes students aware of the importance of business help students understand management knowledge. a real entrepreneurship L3. Students will clearly understand the challenges of entrepreneurship and how to situation. address such challenges. L4. Students will understand what type of knowledge is required. SR S1. Provide a limited learning resource that requires students to achieve a learning Warhuus et al. (2016) Learning for stress resistance goal that can increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. and Domurat & is defined as designing Tyszka (2017) a process and related S2. Provide a time limit within which the students are required to finish a large approaches to gradually project to increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. increase the students’ ability S3. Trigger a conflict within a student project team and require the team to solve the to address learning pressure. conflict to increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S4. Continuously assign large mission and require that the students never give up to increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. LC C1. Clearly, understand the learning pressure that arises during the learning process. Rodrigues et al. (2014), Learning cognition is defined Santos et al. (2016), as an individual’s perspective C2. Understand that a large knowledge of innovation and creativity is necessary. and Matlay (2017) on and thinking regarding a C3. Understand that learning about business management is necessary to science matter. The development of entrepreneurship. cognition is typically related C4. Understand that comprehending a large body of knowledge is necessary in the to growth, the learning science entrepreneurship learning process. process, or even experience. LO P1. A good beginning is required for the success of an entrepreneurial start-up. Ahn et al. (2017), To measure the learning Williams & Gentry outcome of science P2. Students can overcome problems related to an entrepreneurial start-up. (2017), and Loi & entrepreneurship education. P3. Students can identify entrepreneurship problems and resolve them. Fayolle (2018) P4. Active expansion for business in entrepreneurial start-ups. EM W1. Focus on self-actualization. Piperopoulos & Dimov Entrepreneurial mindset is an (2015), Zhao (2016), entrepreneurial awareness W2. Attitude of getting along with others by emphasizing modesty. Westhead & Solesvik and way of thinking. W3. Understand the characteristics of an entrepreneur. (2016), and Kuratko W4. Active expansion of interpersonal relations for entrepreneurship. & Morris (2018) DS D1. Discrimination capability regarding the reliability of social information. Yang & Alex (2014) and To measure the discrimination Wu (2018) capability and whether the D2. Self-generated pressure when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. entrepreneurship mindset D3. When a widely held public opinion develops regarding entrepreneurship-related changes when information information, is the entrepreneur easily affected and does the entrepreneurial regarding entrepreneurship mindset change? is received from the social D4. Analysis capability when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. environment. 8 Table 2. Normality Test Results. Constructs Scale items M SD Variance Skewness Kurtosis LE L1. Learning through experience strengthens the learning attitude toward science entrepreneurship. 4.247 0.728 0.530 −1.195 2.544 L2. Practical experience makes students aware of the importance of business management 4.312 0.684 0.467 −0.993 2.062 knowledge. L3. Students will clearly understand the challenges of entrepreneurship and how to address such 4.293 0.732 0.536 −1.166 2.511 challenges. L4. Students will understand what type of knowledge is required. 4.354 0.666 0.443 −1.014 2.211 SR S1. Provide a limited learning resource that requires students to achieve a learning goal that can 4.194 0.734 0.539 −1.430 4.138 increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S2. Provide a time limit within which the students are required to finish a large project to increase 4.236 0.740 0.547 −1.433 4.002 the students’ resistance to learning stress. S3. Trigger a conflict within a student project team, and require the team to solve the conflict to 4.194 0.774 0.600 −1.245 2.784 increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S4. Continuously assign large mission and require that the students never give up to increase the 4.129 0.851 0.724 −1.225 2.068 students’ resistance to learning stress. LC C1. Clearly understand the learning pressure that arises during the learning process. 4.281 0.734 0.539 −1.138 2.090 C2. Understand that a large knowledge of innovation and creativity is necessary. 4.388 0.727 0.528 −1.286 2.257 C3. Understand that learning about business management is necessary to science entrepreneurship. 4.175 0.838 0.702 −1.085 1.323 C4. Understand that comprehending a large body of knowledge is necessary in the science 4.361 0.690 0.476 −1.107 2.164 entrepreneurship learning process. LO P1. A good beginning is required for the success of an entrepreneurial start-up. 4.148 0.770 0.592 −1.070 2.035 P2. Students can overcome problems related to an entrepreneurial start-up. 4.213 0.752 0.565 −1.078 2.157 P3. Students can identify entrepreneurship problems and resolve them. 4.232 0.754 0.568 −1.112 2.205 P4. Active expansion for business in entrepreneurial start-ups. 4.350 0.736 0.541 −1.237 2.152 EM W1. Focus on self-actualization. 4.255 0.756 0.572 −1.048 1.541 W2. Attitude of getting along with others by emphasizing modesty. 4.107 0.789 0.622 −0.802 1.025 W3. Understand the characteristics of an entrepreneur. 4.285 0.730 0.533 −0.974 1.415 W4. Active expansion of interpersonal relations for entrepreneurship. 4.323 0.750 0.563 −1.264 2.523 DS D1. Discrimination capability regarding the reliability of social information. 4.068 0.733 0.537 −1.045 2.476 D2. Self-generated pressure when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. 4.095 0.758 0.575 −0.743 0.898 D3. When a widely held public opinion develops regarding entrepreneurship-related information, is 4.133 0.732 0.536 −0.978 2.233 the entrepreneur easily affected and does the entrepreneurial mindset change? D4. Analysis capability when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. 4.164 0.746 0.557 −1.107 2.749 Chen et al. 9 variance of the observed variables a factor explains (Ledesma (with 5,000 subsamples) to test the statistical significance of & Valero-Mora, 2007). Any factor with an eigenvalue ≥1 each path coefficient of the theoretical model using t-tests. In explains more variance than a single observed variable addition, we used PLS to detect the moderating effect of the (Harman, 1976). discrimination of social information on the relationship Then, the validity and reliability of the constructs needed between learning cognition in science entrepreneurship edu- to be tested. In testing construct validity, factor loadings and cation and the learning outcomes. For the mediating effect of average variance extracted (AVE) values were the primary the entrepreneurial mindset, in addition to testing two paths indices. In establishing reliability, composite reliability (i.e., learning through experience × entrepreneurial mindset (C.R.) and Cronbach’s α were the primary indices. Regarding × learning cognition; learning for stress resistance × entre- the requirements of the indices, according to Hasan and Ali preneurial mindset × learning cognition), we also used the (2007) and Hair et al. (2011), all the factor loadings for the Sobel test to verify the mediation effect of the entrepreneur- same factor should exceed .5, the C.R. should exceed .7, the ial mindset. AVE must exceed .5, and Cronbach’s α should exceed .7. All All test results are shown in Figures 2 and 3. As shown in the test results are shown in Table 3. As shown in the table, Figure 2, we found that the path coefficient between learning all the indices satisfy the requirements of Hasan and Ali through experience and learning cognition is 6.897, with a p (2007) and Hair et al. (2011). Thus, the test results are accept- value lower than .01. In addition, the path coefficient between able. In addition to validity and reliability, the model fit learning for stress resistance and learning cognition was should satisfy the requirement related to the recommenda- 2.327, with a p value also lower than .05. Therefore, tion value. In this study, the standardized root mean square Hypotheses 1a and 1b were supported. For the relationship residual (SRMR) was the main index of model fit, and it was between learning cognition and learning outcomes, the path lower than .05. coefficient was 5.284, with a p value lower than .01. Thus, In addition to PLS, this study used the Sobel test to test for Hypothesis 2 was supported. a mediating effect. According to Hayes (2009), large samples Regarding the mediating effect of the entrepreneurial may cause a mediating effect testing error when PLS is used. mindset, we first used PLS to verify whether there was such However, the Sobel test can resolve this issue. To test the an effect. We sought to verify learning through experience × mediating effect through the Sobel test, Preacher and entrepreneurial mindset × learning cognition and learning Leonardelli have developed a tool that is freely available on for stress resistance × entrepreneurial mindset × learning the web at http://quantpsy.org/sobel/sobel.htm. Researchers cognition. The verification results reveal three path coeffi- are only required to provide the path coefficient from their cients, including 5.753 (learning through experience × PLS calculative results, and the tool calculates and provides entrepreneurial mindset), 4.180 (entrepreneurial mindset × more precise results regarding the mediation effect. learning cognition), and 2.924 (learning for stress resistance Finally, we needed to measure the model’s goodness of × entrepreneurial mindset). All the p values were lower than fit. According to Andrei et al. (2017), the SRMR is reported .01. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported. However, to to be an approximate measure of model goodness of fit. ensure the validity of the test results, we applied the Sobel Therefore, the SRMR was used as the main index of good- test. As shown in Figure 3, the p values of the paths between ness of fit. learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, entrepreneurial mindset, and learning cognition were lower than .01. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported. Research Results Finally, the path coefficient between discrimination of Before we analyzed and verified our research hypotheses, we social information, learning cognition, and learning out- tested for EFA, construct validity, and reliability. Regarding comes was 2.036, with a p value lower than .05. Thus, the EFA test results, the eigenvalue of LE was 2.776, and its Hypothesis 4 was supported; that is, the discrimination of explained variance rate was 69.395%; the eigenvalue of SR social information has a moderating effect. was 2.846, and its explained variance rate was 71.145%; the Regarding the goodness of fit of the model, the SRMR is eigenvalue of LC was 2.861, and its explained variance rate .048 and is lower than .08. Thus, the model’s fit is also was 71.537%; the eigenvalue of LO was 2.689, and its accepted, and satisfies the requirement of SRMR. explained variance rate was 67.234%; the eigenvalue of EM was 2.928, and its explained variance rate was 73.208%; and Discussion the eigenvalue of DS was 2.949, and its explained variance rate was 73.714%. Regarding the test results of construct This section discusses the test results. According to the test validity and reliability, all the test results are shown in Table results, learning through experience is a necessity. Based on 3, and all the test results satisfy the necessary requirements. our test results, learning through experience can predict to Next, we tested the research hypotheses. SmartPLS 3.0 change students’ learning cognition and improve the learning was the primary analysis tool. Following the suggestions of outcome. Our test results are in fact reasonable. Increasingly Hair et al. (2011), we performed a bootstrapping procedure more institutions of higher education in various countries, 10 Table 3. Test Results for Construct Validity and Reliability. Constructs Scale items Factor loading AVE C.R. Cronbach’s α LE L1. Learning through experience strengthens the learning attitude toward science entrepreneurship. .726 .594 .854 .852 L2. Practical experience makes students aware of the importance of business management knowledge. .761 L3. Students will clearly understand the challenges of entrepreneurship and how to address such .847 challenges. L4. Students will understand what type of knowledge is required. .744 SR S1. Provide a limited learning resource that requires students to achieve a learning goal that can increase .701 .618 .865 .864 the students’ resistance to learning stress. S2. Provide a time limit within which the students are required to finish a large project to increase the .823 students’ resistance to learning stress. S3. Trigger a conflict within a student project team, and require the team to solve the conflict to .798 increase the students’ resistance to learning stress. S4. Continuously assign large mission and require that the students never give up to increase the .835 students’ resistance to learning stress. LC C1. Clearly understand the learning pressure that arises during the learning process. .783 .623 .868 .866 C2. Understand that a large knowledge of innovation and creativity is necessary. .840 C3. Understand that learning about business management is necessary to science entrepreneurship. .829 C4. Understand that comprehending a large body of knowledge is necessary in the science .700 entrepreneurship learning process. LO P1. A good beginning is required for the success of an entrepreneurial start-up. .735 .563 .837 .837 P2. Students can overcome problems related to an entrepreneurial start-up. .757 P3. Students can identify entrepreneurship problems and resolve them. .770 P4. Active expansion for business in entrepreneurial start-ups. .738 EM W1. Focus on self-actualization. .808 .643 .878 .877 W2. Attitude of getting along with others by emphasizing modesty. .797 W3. Understand the characteristics of an entrepreneur. .821 W4. Active expansion of interpersonal relations for entrepreneurship. .779 DS D1. Discrimination capability regarding the reliability of social information. .762 .648 .880 .881 D2. Self-generated pressure when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. .825 D3. When a widely held public opinion develops regarding entrepreneurship-related information, is the .854 entrepreneur easily affected and does the entrepreneurial mindset change? D4. Analysis capability when receiving entrepreneurship-related information. .775 Note. AVE = average variance extracted; C.R. = composite reliability. Chen et al. 11 learning cognition. In fact, the entrepreneurial mindset is Entrepreneurial generally viewed as an important factor in entrepreneurship Discrimination of mindset social information education. Researchers such as Ridley (2016) and Bosman 5.753** and Fernhaber (2018) indicate that the entrepreneurial mind- Learning through 4.180** 2.036* experience set can be understood in terms of entrepreneurship intention. 6.897** Learning Learning According to Pfeifer et al. (2016), if a student has a strong 2.924** cognition outcome 5.284** intention to be an entrepreneur, the student will accept any Learning for entrepreneurship education and endeavor to learn related stress resistance 2.327* knowledge. Therefore, the entrepreneurial mindset is typi- cally regarded as an activator by which to change students’ Figure 2. Results of path analysis. learning cognition. In this study, an incorrect learning cogni- *p < .05. **p < .01. tion results from a lack of practical experience and large learning pressure. This study demonstrates that teachers or such as China and the United States, are becoming aware of colleges can adopt learning through experience and learning the importance of experience and have designed experiential for stress resistance to change students’ learning cognition environments for teaching purposes. A small number of processes. If one considers the influence and characteristics European institutions of higher education have also devel- of the entrepreneurial mindset, it certainly appears possible oped entrepreneurship experience environments. These that such a mindset can mediate the relationships among teaching environments seek to provide a realistic experien- learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, tial environment through games, service learning, and attend- and learning cognition. However, there is a big challenge ing entrepreneurs’ daily planning sessions and have regarding the formation of an entrepreneurship mindset. demonstrated a clear positive effect of learning through According to Nadelson et al. (2018), the formation of an experience. More students have come to understand the need entrepreneurship mindset usually depends on the knowledge for entrepreneurship knowledge and have had their learning of the faculty members and uses a rich course design to guide cognition process changed. Therefore, certain researchers, the formation of a high-level entrepreneurship mindset. such as Carayannis et al. (2016) and Sulich et al. (2017), Therefore, in the design of experience-related courses and have investigated specific institutions that have implemented stress resistance, in addition to colleges needing to ensure experiential teaching for students of science entrepreneur- that the knowledge of faculty members can guide students to ship over a long period. These researchers have found that form a positive entrepreneurship mindset, colleges need to such learning clearly changes students’ learning cognition ensure that course design is also highlighted. However, this and improves learning outcomes. Such students typically study only explores the mediating effect of the entrepreneur- exhibit greater entrepreneurship performance. Thus, learning ship mindset and lacks an exploration of how to improve the through experience represents a necessary teaching approach. knowledge of faculty members and design a rich course to In addition to the importance of learning through experi- guide the formation of a high-level entrepreneurship mind- ence, our test results indicate the necessity of learning for set. Therefore, future research can deeply explore the above stress resistance. Science entrepreneurship education typi- issues. Specifically, as Nadelson noted, the formation of an cally involves substantial learning pressure. If students lack entrepreneurship mindset plays a critical role in the entrepre- the ability to resist such pressure, they may be unable to neurship learning process. withstand the heavy knowledge burden of the learning pro- Finally, although learning cognition can be changed cess. In fact, learning pressure has recently begun to receive through learning through experience, learning for stress increased research attention. A number of studies have inves- resistance, and the mediating effect of the entrepreneurial tigated how to decrease learning pressure, such as Arpiainen mindset, our test results indicate that if students find it hard and Tynjälä (2017). However, it is frequently impossible to to discriminate social information, their learning outcomes decrease such pressure. Therefore, to help students adapt, will still be affected even if the students maintain a positive they should be made aware of the necessity of such pressure learning cognition. As defined in this study, social informa- and encouraged to accept it. If resistance to learning stress tion resembles public opinion. However, public opinion typi- can be gradually improved through learning, students can cally exhibits personal subjective characteristics and involves learn to bear up under a heavy learning pressure. In these irrational criticism. In fact, because entrepreneurship has times, students can be required to learn large bodies of become widespread in today’s society, increasingly more knowledge under pressure. people are interested in cases of failure among young entre- In addition to the relationships among learning through preneurs. Students can obtain valuable suggestions from experience, learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, such cases. However, social information includes subjective and learning outcomes, our test results reveal that an entre- and irrational opinions. If students cannot discriminate which preneurial mindset mediates the relationships among learn- opinions are valuable among such subjective and irrational ing through experience, learning for stress resistance, and opinions, they may fear or be hesitant to become involved in 12 SAGE Open Figure 3. Sobel test results. (A) Learning through experience × entrepreneurial mindset × learning cognition. (B) Learning for stress resistance × entrepreneurial mindset × learning cognition. entrepreneurship. Therefore, although students may have a and the discrimination of social information are generally positive learning cognition and strive to learn more regard- discussed independently. Although a few studies have noted ing the requirements of entrepreneurship, they will find it their influence on learning cognition change and learning difficult to produce a greater learning outcome. outcomes, these studies have failed to verify the existence of this influence. Therefore, this study tried to determine the factors’ mediating and moderating effects. Thus, our test Conclusion results extend the scope of the literature. Regarding our This study’s purpose was to investigate the relationships study’s practical implications, in fact, increasingly more col- among learning through experience, learning for stress resis- leges and universities are seeking to improve science entre- tance, learning cognition, learning outcomes, the entrepre- preneurship. However, success has been achieved in only a neurial mindset, and the discrimination of social information. few cases. Although these institutions recognize that stu- According to our test results, in addition to learning through dents’ learning cognition in science entrepreneurship learn- experience, learning for stress resistance can change stu- ing is the primary problem, they remain confused regarding dents’ learning cognition in science entrepreneurship educa- how to improve and change students’ learning cognition pro- tion and improve their learning outcomes. We also found that cesses. Our research results provide valuable suggestions for the entrepreneurial mindset mediates the relationships among such institutions and their teachers regarding how to design learning through experience, learning for stress resistance, an effective experiential environment and content for stress and learning cognition. Finally, we also found that the dis- resistance learning. In addition, our results can help teachers crimination of social information has a moderating effect on understand how to improve students’ entrepreneurial mind- the relationship between learning cognition and learning out- set to improve their learning cognition, thus improving the comes. That is, even if the learning cognition is positive, if success rate of their science entrepreneurship. students find it hard to discriminate valuable social informa- Against this backdrop, this study used empirical tests to tion, their learning outcomes will not satisfy their expecta- verify the relationships among learning through experience, tions, which will increase the entrepreneurship failure rate. learning for stress resistance, learning cognition, and learn- Our research results have significant academic and practi- ing outcomes. In addition, we verified the mediating effect cal implications. The literature on science entrepreneurship of the entrepreneurial mindset and the moderating effect of typically focuses on improving innovation and creativity. A the discrimination of social information. However, this small number of studies have noted the importance of study has several limitations. First, we use an exclusively improving learning cognition and the influence of learning Chinese sample. Therefore, our analysis results may only through experience and learning for stress resistance on reflect Chinese circumstances. Second, although our learning cognition improvement. However, empirical analy- research results indicate that learning through experience ses are lacking. Therefore, this study contributes to closing and learning for stress resistance can change learning cogni- that research gap. 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Journal

SAGE Open – SAGE

Published: Jan 9, 2021

Keywords: science entrepreneurship; higher education; PLS; Sobel test

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