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Influences of Training on Individual Outcomes for High School Sports Officials:

Influences of Training on Individual Outcomes for High School Sports Officials: The primary purpose of this study was to explore the influences of training on specific quality of work outcomes of job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and intentions to leave within high school sports officials. Evidence suggests that there is a shortage of high school officials in all categories of high school sport. Via a web-based survey, we explored the effects of training on the individual outcomes under study. Results indicated that the level of training had a significant effect on job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and turnover intentions. Analyses indicated that officials with less training had higher turnover intentions and lower job satisfaction than officials who had more training. Conversely, officials who engaged numerous training hours had lower pay satisfaction. This exploratory study supports the importance of training high school officials but, more importantly, provides an initial assessment on the reverse effects of training on pay satisfaction. Keywords high school sport, coaching, sport officials, part-time worker, pay satisfaction, training, turnover The educational system within the United States creates constraints do not allow for a surplus of income for those many opportunities for youth sport programs to exist in our who choose a career in youth sport (Wilcox, 2003). To over- society (Covell, 2012). As such, these programs have a direct come financial constraints, youth sport officials often turn to impact on the youth who participate and their families within individuals who are willing to become involved in youth communities. General participation from youth in sport sport as an avocation. An avocation is briefly defined as a seems as if it is a common rite and part of American culture subordinate occupation an individual chooses to participate as the numbers of participants within youth sport continually in, in addition to one’s primary employment (Eitzen, 1989). grow (Coakley, 2009). Although some may argue, reasons From this definition, many individuals who become involved for the increased numbers of participation stem from the in youth sport (e.g., officials) have professional careers out- positive traits received from individuals participating within side of the avocation of choice. In addition, it can further be these athletic programs. Such positive traits learned within assumed that many of these individuals work in industries these programs are proper sport instruction, character build- that demand attention and time resulting in minimal attention ing, and the avenue of sport as a bridge between childhood to other avenues of employment. As such, the primary and adulthood (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003). demands of their professional careers often interfere with the Furthermore, one’s involvement within youth sport as an secondary demands of the avocation resulting in high turn- administrator, coach, or official may increase the positive over in youth sport. traits received from overall involvement within youth sport. Many sport organizations, to a great extent, dedicate their However, anecdotal evidence suggests that turnover and planning hours into recruiting individuals who choose youth staffing may be a significant issue for youth sport officials sport as an avocation (Eitzen, 1989). In addition, administra- (Yu, 2007). Therefore from a management perspective, tors in youth sport spend a great deal of time focusing on the recruitment, training, and retention of youth sport officials coaching and player development. As a result, opportunities are salient to the continual growth of youth sport within our society. University of Memphis, TN, USA The existence of these youth programs depend on proper Rice University, Houston, TX, USA management from administrators who oversee finances, 3 Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA facilities, and most importantly the human resources needed Corresponding Author: to execute these programs (Quinn, 1999). More specifically, Timothy D. Ryan, Health and Sport Sciences Department, The University it is pertinent that these administrators recruit individuals of Memphis, 204A Elma Roane Fieldhouse, Memphis, TN 38152-3480, who can attempt to continually build a positive youth sport USA. culture. Such a task has proven to be difficult, as budgetary Email: tdryan@memphis.edu 2 SAGE Open to play and receive formalized training in coaching seem to industry (Chelladurai, 2006; Flagestad & Hope, 2001). To be readily available in many youth sport organizations. provide optimal service in all facets of the sport industry, However, one such area of formalized training that is often each organization is vying for the best employees to create a neglected is that of officiating (i.e., referees). Arguably, offi- premium product or service. The same holds true within cials are most important to youth sport contests aside from youth sport as these organizations actively seek employees the coaches and the participant, as their primary focus is to who can create an environment for safe youth sport partici- provide an atmosphere of safety and fair play. Practitioners pation. To offer an opportunity for youth to become involved, are not alone in their under examination of youth sport offi- there is a need for everyone within the organization to work cials, scholars in sport management to a great extent have together as cohesively as possible. As such, the focus of also focused much of their related works on coaches and many organizations and its managers should be the employ- player dynamics (Clopton, 2011; Cunningham & Sagas, ees or those who are vested within the organization (Eys & 2004; Smith & Smoll, 1997; Turman, 2003). Currently, there Carron, 2001). To that end, formalized training of employees is scant literature devoted to the individual outcomes of within the organization seems necessary in controlling qual- youth sport officials and their influence on the overall orga- ity, creating organizational culture, and retaining employees nization within youth sport. In general, it is relevant to these (Anderson, Rungtusanatham, Schroeder, & Devaraj, 2007). organizations to understand the attitudes and behaviors of Furthermore, training employees leads to tenure and organi- youth sport officials whose primary careers are not in youth zational commitment, which are both positive outcomes that sport. improve quality and productivity within the organization To that end, the primary focus of this study is to identify (Chelladurai, 2006). Winterton (2004) suggested employees the influence of formalized training on quality of work out- who are committed to the organization and have intentions to come of youth sport officials. More specifically, it was the stay within the organization for an extended period of time intent of this study to explore the influence of levels of for- seek training opportunities. These outcomes of training have malized training on job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and been studied within a perspective of full-time employees intentions to leave high school sports officiating. Presently, within organizations in and outside of sport. Within the con- retaining individuals whose avocation of choice is officiating text of this study, it was the purpose to explore levels formal- has proven difficult to many sport organizations (Kellet & ized training on individuals who are employed within an Shilbury, 2007). Following relevant works within manage- avocation of choice. Therefore, it is important to assess the ment (Badri, Davis, & Davis, 1995; Kathuria & Davis, 2001; amount of time dedicated to training on the avocation of Natarajan & Nagar, 2011), training is linked to influencing youth sport officials in attempts to understand the influences the aforementioned quality of work outcomes. Yet, these of formalized training on quality of work outcomes. Job sat- linkages have been studied in the general management con- isfaction, pay satisfaction, and intentions to leave the organi- text of full-time employees and have yet to be explored zation are pertinent quality of work outcomes that have been within an avocation. To that end, we intended to analyze the found to influence the individual and the overall quality and effects of formalized training on job satisfaction, pay satis- production of the overall organization (Judge, Thoresen, faction, and turnover intentions of high school sport Bono, & Patton, 2001). As such, each of the aforementioned officials. constructs will be outlined in an attempt to illustrate the rationale of importance of training on these quality of work outcomes. Conceptual Framework To examine the influence of training on job satisfaction, pay Job Satisfaction and Intentions to Leave satisfaction, and turnover intentions, it is important to come to an understanding of each of these constructs. In addition, Scholars and practitioners alike have an esteemed interest in we intend to identify some of the relevant works completed job satisfaction due to its association to the individual and utilizing these constructs and their association within the organizational outcomes (Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, management literature. To date, there are many works dedi- 1998). Hamermesh (2002) contended that job satisfaction is cated to these constructs within and out of sport, but there is the most relevant construct used to measure the individual’s a dearth of literature dedicated to examining these constructs attitudes toward the job position, organization, and outside in the avocational context. We contended that there may be opportunities within the industry. From this, job satisfaction differences in attitudes and behaviors in the context of the globally encompasses the individual’s attitudes and well- avocation of youth sport officiating compared with those being gleaned from the job. Within the sport officiating con- officials who choose to officiate as full-time employment. text, the demands may be quite intense as officials not only adhere to the internal demands of the contest (e.g., fairness and player safety) but also the environmental extensions Formalized Training (e.g., coaches and fans) of the contest as well (Dale & Sport organizations are heavily dependent on their human Weinberg, 1990). As such, relevant works dedicated to job resources as the sport industry is very much a service satisfaction have suggested that those who report lower Ryan et al. 3 levels of job satisfaction have higher absenteeism and are have different perspectives in pay satisfaction. For example, more likely to leave the organization (Nagy, 2002). a sport official whose primary profession is in litigation may Furthermore, job satisfaction relates to overall firm perfor- not be concerned with the amount of money earned within a mance as those firms who maintain a higher level of job sat- season of officiating, and may not use social referents as a isfaction within their employees generally have higher basis of pay satisfaction. This individual may be involved in productivity rates (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Yet, youth sport officiating as an escape from the rigorous within the context of this study, it was important to identify demands of their primary employment, but still may have an the influence of job satisfaction of individuals who were optimal level of pay that will satisfy their efforts within the involved in youth sport officiating as an avocation. To date, avocation of officiating. As such, it is important to explore there is a dearth of literature dedicated to this area of sport. pay satisfaction within the avocation of sport officials and its Within the general business management literature, part-time relationship, if any, to formalized training of sport officials. workers are generally more dissatisfied with their jobs than full-time workers (Steffy & Jones, 2006). As such, it was Method deemed timely to identify job satisfaction levels of officials whose avocation is in youth sport. Reasons as to why part- Participants time workers, or those employed within an avocation, may be understudied, is due to the general focus of scholars on This study was part of a larger investigation that examined full-time management and those positions occupied by full- perceptions of high school officiating as an avocation. In this time employees (e.g., coaches). Within the avocation of offi- portion of the study, only volleyball and basketball officials ciating, turnover of officials may create instability from were selected as an appropriate sample due to similarities in season to season resulting in diluting the quality of officiat- seasonal play, the number of opportunities to officiate games, ing within youth sport. As aforementioned, officiating is dire and the total number of officials available to officiate during to the safety and overall execution of the contest, thus quality these seasons. Furthermore, basketball and volleyball serve and experience are a necessity. Within this sport context, it is as ideal sports because opportunities to officiate for women pertinent to identify the levels of job satisfaction of youth are higher than other sports such as high school football sport officials, as differential management strategies may be (Casey, 1992). A large Southwestern state was chosen for its needed for the development and retention of qualified availability and size. The state high school officiating asso- officials. ciation’s member database was used to contact officials via broadcast email asking them to respond to the web-based survey (n = 1,075). After 2 weeks had passed, a second Pay Satisfaction and Intentions to Leave broadcast email was sent out as a reminder and prompt to Similar to job satisfaction, pay satisfaction of an individual respond to the web-based questionnaire. Of this sample, has been a principal focus of work quality outcomes of many between volleyball and basketball officials, n = 926 usable organizational behavior researchers. Griffeth, Hom, and responses were gathered, resulting in an approximate 86% Gaetner (2000) contended that pay satisfaction is linked to response rate. A large portion of those officials who individual turnover intentions, which is of much concern to responded were male 83% (n = 770). In addition, a large youth sport organizations as many individuals within the number of the respondents classified themselves as Caucasian avocation of youth sport have low retention rates. In addi- 62.5% (n = 575), while 20.8% (n = 191) classified them- tion, relevant works within pay satisfaction suggest that the selves as African American, 15.5% (n = 138) Asian, 0.8% (n individual utilizes social referents to determine satisfaction = 8) Latino, and 0.4% (n = 4) as Other. with pay (Ryan & Sagas, 2009; Williams, McDaniel, & Nguyen, 2006). For example, individuals assess their pay Measures satisfaction based on their individual contributions (e.g., hours worked) and compensation to those of other employ- All participants who completed the questionnaire were asked ees who perform similar job duties. Furthermore, pay satis- to respond to demographic questions (sex, ethnicity, age) and faction is often a measure of what one receives in comparison to respond to items related to satisfaction with their jobs, pay, with what they would like to receive (Tang, 1995). As such, and intentions to leave the avocation of officiating. All multi- pay satisfaction is heavily reliant upon distributive justice item measure items were measured utilizing a 7-point Likert- within the profession. This example of pay satisfaction fits type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In well when analyzing individuals who are in a job that is out- addition, respondents were asked to approximate the number side their primary career choice, as these individuals may of hours per season dedicated to training within their avoca- value their extra time expecting to be compensated according tion. Forty hours was used as the dividing time as it most was to their hours devoted to officiating in youth sport. closest to the middle point for dividing officials into two Alternatively, within the framework of this particular study, groups. Those officials who dedicated less than 40 hr were these individuals choosing to officiate as an avocation may categorized into a “low training group” (n = 492), whereas 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Correlations Between Measures. to the level of training of the officials within the data set Wilks’s λ = .96, F(3, 922) = 14.14, p < .001. Results indi- Variable 1 2 3 4 cated significant effects for level of formalized training with 1. Job satisfaction .81 respect to job satisfaction, F(1, 924) = 19.68, p < .001, η = 2. Pay satisfaction .15** .77 .02; pay satisfaction, F(1, 924) = 14.04, p < .001, η = .02; 3. Intentions to leave −.46** −.17** .88 and intentions to leave the avocation of officiating, F(1, 916) 4. Training groups .14** −12** −.09* = 7.37, p < .01, η = .01. From these results, we were able to M 6.26 3.46 2.49 0.47 identify officials who were in the high-level training groups SD 0.68 1.12 1.30 0.50 (M = 6.37, SD = 0.58) were more satisfied with their avoca- tion, than those who were in the low training group (M = Note. Cronbach’s alpha on diagonal. 6.18, SD = 0.58). In addition, officials who were in the high *p < .01. **p < .001. training group (M = 3.29, SD = 1.12) were less satisfied with their pay, whereas those in the low training group (M = 3.56, those officials who spent 40 or more hours were categorized SD = 1.14) showed signs of higher pay satisfaction. Finally, into a “high training group” (n = 434). in regard to intentions to leave the avocation, officials in the Job satisfaction was assessed with three items based on high training group (M = 2.36, SD = 1.27) were overall less Hackman and Oldham’s (1975) measure. An example item likely to leave officiating, whereas those in the low training from the scale is “All in all I am satisfied with my job.” The group (M = 2.59, SD = 1.28) were more likely to leave the reliability estimate produced by the scale for this sample was avocation. (α = .81) and is considered acceptable. To assess pay satisfaction, the Pay Satisfaction Discussion Questionnaire (Judge & Welbourne, 1994) was utilized. An example item from the four-item scale is “All in all I am The results of this study suggest that formalized training cor- satisfied with my take home pay.” As with the job satisfac- relates with various meaningful work outcomes. Small but tion construct, the reliability of the multi-item scale for this significant effects were observed between an official’s train- sample was (α = .77) and is considered acceptable (Nunnally ing amount and their job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and & Bernsein, 1994). intention to leave the officiating profession. These results Finally to measure individual respondent’s intentions to suggest some alignment with past research, and should be of leave the avocation of officiating, turnover intentions were some significance to administrators. One possible interpreta- measured through a three-item scale (Jaros, 1997). An exam- tion of the results is that those officials with higher level of ple item of the turnover intentions scale is “All in all I often training experience significantly more job satisfaction, have think about leaving the avocation of officiating.” The con- lower turnover intentions, but also greater dissatisfaction struct reliability for this particular sample was (α = .88). with pay. In inspecting the results for each DV, the outcome aligns with past research in that individuals who receive more train- Data Analysis ing often report greater job satisfaction, and thus, lower turn- As noted above, reliability estimates (Cronbach’s α) were over intentions (Natarajan & Nagar, 2011). Moreover, and of computed for each of the multi-item measures on the ques- interest, is that referees who have logged more hours in train- tionnaire, and means and standard deviation were calculated ing may feel that they should be paid more. This can be seen for the multi-item measures. See Table 1 for these descriptive as confirmation with some organizational justice theories in statistics, including correlations and reliability estimates. To satisfaction (DeConick & Stillwell, 2004), where individuals explore the relationships between levels of formalized train- feel satisfaction when their inputs are approximately equal to ing on the quality of work outcomes, we conducted a three- what they receive. Likewise, those officials who are in the way MANOVA. This analysis was deemed appropriate due lower training group reported greater satisfaction with pay. to the number of the dependent variables (DVs) under study, Unfortunately, the relationship between training and the and the differences in levels of formalized training (Hair, three examined outcomes need to be evaluated together, and Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The level of for- not individually. This justifies looking at the unusual find- malized training served as the independent variable (IV), ings of those in the higher training group reporting lower pay whereas job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and intentions to satisfaction. However, as might be expected, higher training leave were operationalized as the DVs. correlated with higher job satisfaction. This unusual relation- ship may be partially due to the avocation nature of officials, as referees may enjoy the work they are doing, but may not Results feel they are adequately rewarded for the hours and training The MANOVA procedures revealed a significant multivari- that they put into their work. In addition, it is worth noting ate effect for the three latent variables as a group in relation that officials, like many volunteers, have some amount of Ryan et al. 5 control of when they work, and as important, when they do examination of role salience might be a meaningful area to not work. In this way, they may act as free agents, as they consider, especially when considering quality of work out- may have some autonomy in selecting the schools, confer- comes like job satisfaction, organizational and occupational ences, and sports that they work with. From a theoretical per- commitment, and turnover intentions. spective, this research is significant as it looks at pay and job satisfaction in jobs that are avocations, and it is suggested Declaration of Conflicting Interests here that from a theoretical and practical perspective, the The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect levers that motivate and satisfy workers will not be similar. to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. In addition, this research is quite meaningful in sport organizations as many operate with a significant number of Funding volunteers or part-time workers (Chelladurai, 2006). It is The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or quite possible that many workers within sport enter to be authorship of this article. involved with the teams, kids, organizations, or sport, and while pay might not be necessary to retain these employees, References training may improve satisfaction for these workers. Anderson, J., Rungtusanatham, M., Schroeder, R., & Devaraj, S. Therefore, a meaningful application for this research is for (2007). A path analytic model of a theory of quality manage- managers to invest in training for officials, coaches, and vol- ment underlying the Deming management method: Preliminary unteers, especially when pay is limited or control by school empirical findings. Decision Sciences, 26, 637-658. or organizational limits. Badri, M., Davis, D., & Davis, D. (1995). A study of measuring the Furthermore, it is suggested that much of this research critical factors of quality management. International Journal of could be replicated to youth, high school, and college coaches Quality & Reliability Management, 12, 36-53. who enjoy investing time and energy into a sport organiza- Casey, A. (1992). Title IX and women officials: How have they been affected? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and tion, and find their work satisfying, yet might find that the Dance, 63, 45-47. pay received for their job is not aligning with their percep- Chelladurai, P. (2006). Human resource management in sport and tions of their inputs (Covell, 2012). Again, it is suggested recreation (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. that for these individuals, when pay is limited, training and Clopton, A. W. (2011). Examining racial differences in social capi- other items may help compensate, and further research could tal development among college student-athletes. Journal of be done on what areas help satisfy coaches, officials, and African American Studies, 15, 58-73. others in avocation-type jobs when pay is limited. In addi- Coakley, J. (2009). Sports in society: Issues and controversies (10th tion, it would be interesting to see what effect role salience ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. has on officials as we suggest that individuals who identify Covell, D. (2012). High school and youth sports. In L. P. stronger with their role of official also are the ones more Masteralexis, C. A. Barr, & M. A. Hums (Eds.), Principals and likely to receive extra training and greater satisfaction in the practices of sport management (Vol. 4, pp. 141-162). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. job they do. It is suggested that future research examine simi- Cunningham, G., & Sagas, M. (2004). Group diversity, occu- lar constructs among high school coaches as many of these pational commitment, and occupational turnover intentions coaches will work a full-time job in teaching, but identify among NCAA Division 1A football coaching staffs. Journal of with, further training in, and find more satisfaction within Sport Management, 18, 236-254. their part-time coaching role (Ryan & Sagas, 2006). Dale, J., & Weinberg, R. (1990). Burnout in sport: A review and A main strength to this research is the examination of a critique. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2, 67-83. prominent cog of the athletic event—the official. While other DeConick, J., & Stillwell, C. (2004). Incorporating organizational researchers have examined the athlete and the coach, exami- justice, role states, pay satisfaction, and supervisor satisfac- nation of officials has not been undertaken. We hope that this tion in a model of turnover intentions. 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His past work exam- Psychology, 75, 77-86. ines quality of work issues for coaches, including work-family con- Natarajan, N. K., & Nagar, D. (2011). Induction age, training flict and job satisfaction. duration & job performance on organizational commitment Jason P. Sosa is a Senior Lecturer within the Department of Sport & job satisfaction. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 46, Management at Rice University. He earned his PhD at Texas A&M 491-497. University within the Sport Management program. Dr. Sosa is also Nunnally, J., & Bernsein, L. (1994). Psychometric theory. New a Graduate of Thurgood Marshall School of Law where he gradu- York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ated with honors, and is licensed to practice law in the State of Quinn, J. (1999). Where need meets opportunity: Youth develop- Texas. ment programs for early teens. Future of Children, 9, 96-116. Ryan, T. D., & Sagas, M. (2006). Interrole conflict and turnover Michael A. Thornton is a Clinical Assistant Professor in the intent in the high school teacher/coach. International Journal Department of Health and Kinesiology at Texas A&M University. of Sport Management, 7, 425-444. Dr. Thornton has been involved as a sports official at both the high Ryan, T. D., & Sagas, M. (2009). Relationships between pay sat- school and collegiate levels for over 10 years, and also serves as the isfaction, work-family conflict, and coaching turnover inten- General Manager of Read Youth Charities. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

Influences of Training on Individual Outcomes for High School Sports Officials:

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Abstract

The primary purpose of this study was to explore the influences of training on specific quality of work outcomes of job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and intentions to leave within high school sports officials. Evidence suggests that there is a shortage of high school officials in all categories of high school sport. Via a web-based survey, we explored the effects of training on the individual outcomes under study. Results indicated that the level of training had a significant effect on job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and turnover intentions. Analyses indicated that officials with less training had higher turnover intentions and lower job satisfaction than officials who had more training. Conversely, officials who engaged numerous training hours had lower pay satisfaction. This exploratory study supports the importance of training high school officials but, more importantly, provides an initial assessment on the reverse effects of training on pay satisfaction. Keywords high school sport, coaching, sport officials, part-time worker, pay satisfaction, training, turnover The educational system within the United States creates constraints do not allow for a surplus of income for those many opportunities for youth sport programs to exist in our who choose a career in youth sport (Wilcox, 2003). To over- society (Covell, 2012). As such, these programs have a direct come financial constraints, youth sport officials often turn to impact on the youth who participate and their families within individuals who are willing to become involved in youth communities. General participation from youth in sport sport as an avocation. An avocation is briefly defined as a seems as if it is a common rite and part of American culture subordinate occupation an individual chooses to participate as the numbers of participants within youth sport continually in, in addition to one’s primary employment (Eitzen, 1989). grow (Coakley, 2009). Although some may argue, reasons From this definition, many individuals who become involved for the increased numbers of participation stem from the in youth sport (e.g., officials) have professional careers out- positive traits received from individuals participating within side of the avocation of choice. In addition, it can further be these athletic programs. Such positive traits learned within assumed that many of these individuals work in industries these programs are proper sport instruction, character build- that demand attention and time resulting in minimal attention ing, and the avenue of sport as a bridge between childhood to other avenues of employment. As such, the primary and adulthood (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003). demands of their professional careers often interfere with the Furthermore, one’s involvement within youth sport as an secondary demands of the avocation resulting in high turn- administrator, coach, or official may increase the positive over in youth sport. traits received from overall involvement within youth sport. Many sport organizations, to a great extent, dedicate their However, anecdotal evidence suggests that turnover and planning hours into recruiting individuals who choose youth staffing may be a significant issue for youth sport officials sport as an avocation (Eitzen, 1989). In addition, administra- (Yu, 2007). Therefore from a management perspective, tors in youth sport spend a great deal of time focusing on the recruitment, training, and retention of youth sport officials coaching and player development. As a result, opportunities are salient to the continual growth of youth sport within our society. University of Memphis, TN, USA The existence of these youth programs depend on proper Rice University, Houston, TX, USA management from administrators who oversee finances, 3 Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA facilities, and most importantly the human resources needed Corresponding Author: to execute these programs (Quinn, 1999). More specifically, Timothy D. Ryan, Health and Sport Sciences Department, The University it is pertinent that these administrators recruit individuals of Memphis, 204A Elma Roane Fieldhouse, Memphis, TN 38152-3480, who can attempt to continually build a positive youth sport USA. culture. Such a task has proven to be difficult, as budgetary Email: tdryan@memphis.edu 2 SAGE Open to play and receive formalized training in coaching seem to industry (Chelladurai, 2006; Flagestad & Hope, 2001). To be readily available in many youth sport organizations. provide optimal service in all facets of the sport industry, However, one such area of formalized training that is often each organization is vying for the best employees to create a neglected is that of officiating (i.e., referees). Arguably, offi- premium product or service. The same holds true within cials are most important to youth sport contests aside from youth sport as these organizations actively seek employees the coaches and the participant, as their primary focus is to who can create an environment for safe youth sport partici- provide an atmosphere of safety and fair play. Practitioners pation. To offer an opportunity for youth to become involved, are not alone in their under examination of youth sport offi- there is a need for everyone within the organization to work cials, scholars in sport management to a great extent have together as cohesively as possible. As such, the focus of also focused much of their related works on coaches and many organizations and its managers should be the employ- player dynamics (Clopton, 2011; Cunningham & Sagas, ees or those who are vested within the organization (Eys & 2004; Smith & Smoll, 1997; Turman, 2003). Currently, there Carron, 2001). To that end, formalized training of employees is scant literature devoted to the individual outcomes of within the organization seems necessary in controlling qual- youth sport officials and their influence on the overall orga- ity, creating organizational culture, and retaining employees nization within youth sport. In general, it is relevant to these (Anderson, Rungtusanatham, Schroeder, & Devaraj, 2007). organizations to understand the attitudes and behaviors of Furthermore, training employees leads to tenure and organi- youth sport officials whose primary careers are not in youth zational commitment, which are both positive outcomes that sport. improve quality and productivity within the organization To that end, the primary focus of this study is to identify (Chelladurai, 2006). Winterton (2004) suggested employees the influence of formalized training on quality of work out- who are committed to the organization and have intentions to come of youth sport officials. More specifically, it was the stay within the organization for an extended period of time intent of this study to explore the influence of levels of for- seek training opportunities. These outcomes of training have malized training on job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and been studied within a perspective of full-time employees intentions to leave high school sports officiating. Presently, within organizations in and outside of sport. Within the con- retaining individuals whose avocation of choice is officiating text of this study, it was the purpose to explore levels formal- has proven difficult to many sport organizations (Kellet & ized training on individuals who are employed within an Shilbury, 2007). Following relevant works within manage- avocation of choice. Therefore, it is important to assess the ment (Badri, Davis, & Davis, 1995; Kathuria & Davis, 2001; amount of time dedicated to training on the avocation of Natarajan & Nagar, 2011), training is linked to influencing youth sport officials in attempts to understand the influences the aforementioned quality of work outcomes. Yet, these of formalized training on quality of work outcomes. Job sat- linkages have been studied in the general management con- isfaction, pay satisfaction, and intentions to leave the organi- text of full-time employees and have yet to be explored zation are pertinent quality of work outcomes that have been within an avocation. To that end, we intended to analyze the found to influence the individual and the overall quality and effects of formalized training on job satisfaction, pay satis- production of the overall organization (Judge, Thoresen, faction, and turnover intentions of high school sport Bono, & Patton, 2001). As such, each of the aforementioned officials. constructs will be outlined in an attempt to illustrate the rationale of importance of training on these quality of work outcomes. Conceptual Framework To examine the influence of training on job satisfaction, pay Job Satisfaction and Intentions to Leave satisfaction, and turnover intentions, it is important to come to an understanding of each of these constructs. In addition, Scholars and practitioners alike have an esteemed interest in we intend to identify some of the relevant works completed job satisfaction due to its association to the individual and utilizing these constructs and their association within the organizational outcomes (Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, management literature. To date, there are many works dedi- 1998). Hamermesh (2002) contended that job satisfaction is cated to these constructs within and out of sport, but there is the most relevant construct used to measure the individual’s a dearth of literature dedicated to examining these constructs attitudes toward the job position, organization, and outside in the avocational context. We contended that there may be opportunities within the industry. From this, job satisfaction differences in attitudes and behaviors in the context of the globally encompasses the individual’s attitudes and well- avocation of youth sport officiating compared with those being gleaned from the job. Within the sport officiating con- officials who choose to officiate as full-time employment. text, the demands may be quite intense as officials not only adhere to the internal demands of the contest (e.g., fairness and player safety) but also the environmental extensions Formalized Training (e.g., coaches and fans) of the contest as well (Dale & Sport organizations are heavily dependent on their human Weinberg, 1990). As such, relevant works dedicated to job resources as the sport industry is very much a service satisfaction have suggested that those who report lower Ryan et al. 3 levels of job satisfaction have higher absenteeism and are have different perspectives in pay satisfaction. For example, more likely to leave the organization (Nagy, 2002). a sport official whose primary profession is in litigation may Furthermore, job satisfaction relates to overall firm perfor- not be concerned with the amount of money earned within a mance as those firms who maintain a higher level of job sat- season of officiating, and may not use social referents as a isfaction within their employees generally have higher basis of pay satisfaction. This individual may be involved in productivity rates (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Yet, youth sport officiating as an escape from the rigorous within the context of this study, it was important to identify demands of their primary employment, but still may have an the influence of job satisfaction of individuals who were optimal level of pay that will satisfy their efforts within the involved in youth sport officiating as an avocation. To date, avocation of officiating. As such, it is important to explore there is a dearth of literature dedicated to this area of sport. pay satisfaction within the avocation of sport officials and its Within the general business management literature, part-time relationship, if any, to formalized training of sport officials. workers are generally more dissatisfied with their jobs than full-time workers (Steffy & Jones, 2006). As such, it was Method deemed timely to identify job satisfaction levels of officials whose avocation is in youth sport. Reasons as to why part- Participants time workers, or those employed within an avocation, may be understudied, is due to the general focus of scholars on This study was part of a larger investigation that examined full-time management and those positions occupied by full- perceptions of high school officiating as an avocation. In this time employees (e.g., coaches). Within the avocation of offi- portion of the study, only volleyball and basketball officials ciating, turnover of officials may create instability from were selected as an appropriate sample due to similarities in season to season resulting in diluting the quality of officiat- seasonal play, the number of opportunities to officiate games, ing within youth sport. As aforementioned, officiating is dire and the total number of officials available to officiate during to the safety and overall execution of the contest, thus quality these seasons. Furthermore, basketball and volleyball serve and experience are a necessity. Within this sport context, it is as ideal sports because opportunities to officiate for women pertinent to identify the levels of job satisfaction of youth are higher than other sports such as high school football sport officials, as differential management strategies may be (Casey, 1992). A large Southwestern state was chosen for its needed for the development and retention of qualified availability and size. The state high school officiating asso- officials. ciation’s member database was used to contact officials via broadcast email asking them to respond to the web-based survey (n = 1,075). After 2 weeks had passed, a second Pay Satisfaction and Intentions to Leave broadcast email was sent out as a reminder and prompt to Similar to job satisfaction, pay satisfaction of an individual respond to the web-based questionnaire. Of this sample, has been a principal focus of work quality outcomes of many between volleyball and basketball officials, n = 926 usable organizational behavior researchers. Griffeth, Hom, and responses were gathered, resulting in an approximate 86% Gaetner (2000) contended that pay satisfaction is linked to response rate. A large portion of those officials who individual turnover intentions, which is of much concern to responded were male 83% (n = 770). In addition, a large youth sport organizations as many individuals within the number of the respondents classified themselves as Caucasian avocation of youth sport have low retention rates. In addi- 62.5% (n = 575), while 20.8% (n = 191) classified them- tion, relevant works within pay satisfaction suggest that the selves as African American, 15.5% (n = 138) Asian, 0.8% (n individual utilizes social referents to determine satisfaction = 8) Latino, and 0.4% (n = 4) as Other. with pay (Ryan & Sagas, 2009; Williams, McDaniel, & Nguyen, 2006). For example, individuals assess their pay Measures satisfaction based on their individual contributions (e.g., hours worked) and compensation to those of other employ- All participants who completed the questionnaire were asked ees who perform similar job duties. Furthermore, pay satis- to respond to demographic questions (sex, ethnicity, age) and faction is often a measure of what one receives in comparison to respond to items related to satisfaction with their jobs, pay, with what they would like to receive (Tang, 1995). As such, and intentions to leave the avocation of officiating. All multi- pay satisfaction is heavily reliant upon distributive justice item measure items were measured utilizing a 7-point Likert- within the profession. This example of pay satisfaction fits type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In well when analyzing individuals who are in a job that is out- addition, respondents were asked to approximate the number side their primary career choice, as these individuals may of hours per season dedicated to training within their avoca- value their extra time expecting to be compensated according tion. Forty hours was used as the dividing time as it most was to their hours devoted to officiating in youth sport. closest to the middle point for dividing officials into two Alternatively, within the framework of this particular study, groups. Those officials who dedicated less than 40 hr were these individuals choosing to officiate as an avocation may categorized into a “low training group” (n = 492), whereas 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Correlations Between Measures. to the level of training of the officials within the data set Wilks’s λ = .96, F(3, 922) = 14.14, p < .001. Results indi- Variable 1 2 3 4 cated significant effects for level of formalized training with 1. Job satisfaction .81 respect to job satisfaction, F(1, 924) = 19.68, p < .001, η = 2. Pay satisfaction .15** .77 .02; pay satisfaction, F(1, 924) = 14.04, p < .001, η = .02; 3. Intentions to leave −.46** −.17** .88 and intentions to leave the avocation of officiating, F(1, 916) 4. Training groups .14** −12** −.09* = 7.37, p < .01, η = .01. From these results, we were able to M 6.26 3.46 2.49 0.47 identify officials who were in the high-level training groups SD 0.68 1.12 1.30 0.50 (M = 6.37, SD = 0.58) were more satisfied with their avoca- tion, than those who were in the low training group (M = Note. Cronbach’s alpha on diagonal. 6.18, SD = 0.58). In addition, officials who were in the high *p < .01. **p < .001. training group (M = 3.29, SD = 1.12) were less satisfied with their pay, whereas those in the low training group (M = 3.56, those officials who spent 40 or more hours were categorized SD = 1.14) showed signs of higher pay satisfaction. Finally, into a “high training group” (n = 434). in regard to intentions to leave the avocation, officials in the Job satisfaction was assessed with three items based on high training group (M = 2.36, SD = 1.27) were overall less Hackman and Oldham’s (1975) measure. An example item likely to leave officiating, whereas those in the low training from the scale is “All in all I am satisfied with my job.” The group (M = 2.59, SD = 1.28) were more likely to leave the reliability estimate produced by the scale for this sample was avocation. (α = .81) and is considered acceptable. To assess pay satisfaction, the Pay Satisfaction Discussion Questionnaire (Judge & Welbourne, 1994) was utilized. An example item from the four-item scale is “All in all I am The results of this study suggest that formalized training cor- satisfied with my take home pay.” As with the job satisfac- relates with various meaningful work outcomes. Small but tion construct, the reliability of the multi-item scale for this significant effects were observed between an official’s train- sample was (α = .77) and is considered acceptable (Nunnally ing amount and their job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and & Bernsein, 1994). intention to leave the officiating profession. These results Finally to measure individual respondent’s intentions to suggest some alignment with past research, and should be of leave the avocation of officiating, turnover intentions were some significance to administrators. One possible interpreta- measured through a three-item scale (Jaros, 1997). An exam- tion of the results is that those officials with higher level of ple item of the turnover intentions scale is “All in all I often training experience significantly more job satisfaction, have think about leaving the avocation of officiating.” The con- lower turnover intentions, but also greater dissatisfaction struct reliability for this particular sample was (α = .88). with pay. In inspecting the results for each DV, the outcome aligns with past research in that individuals who receive more train- Data Analysis ing often report greater job satisfaction, and thus, lower turn- As noted above, reliability estimates (Cronbach’s α) were over intentions (Natarajan & Nagar, 2011). Moreover, and of computed for each of the multi-item measures on the ques- interest, is that referees who have logged more hours in train- tionnaire, and means and standard deviation were calculated ing may feel that they should be paid more. This can be seen for the multi-item measures. See Table 1 for these descriptive as confirmation with some organizational justice theories in statistics, including correlations and reliability estimates. To satisfaction (DeConick & Stillwell, 2004), where individuals explore the relationships between levels of formalized train- feel satisfaction when their inputs are approximately equal to ing on the quality of work outcomes, we conducted a three- what they receive. Likewise, those officials who are in the way MANOVA. This analysis was deemed appropriate due lower training group reported greater satisfaction with pay. to the number of the dependent variables (DVs) under study, Unfortunately, the relationship between training and the and the differences in levels of formalized training (Hair, three examined outcomes need to be evaluated together, and Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The level of for- not individually. This justifies looking at the unusual find- malized training served as the independent variable (IV), ings of those in the higher training group reporting lower pay whereas job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and intentions to satisfaction. However, as might be expected, higher training leave were operationalized as the DVs. correlated with higher job satisfaction. This unusual relation- ship may be partially due to the avocation nature of officials, as referees may enjoy the work they are doing, but may not Results feel they are adequately rewarded for the hours and training The MANOVA procedures revealed a significant multivari- that they put into their work. In addition, it is worth noting ate effect for the three latent variables as a group in relation that officials, like many volunteers, have some amount of Ryan et al. 5 control of when they work, and as important, when they do examination of role salience might be a meaningful area to not work. In this way, they may act as free agents, as they consider, especially when considering quality of work out- may have some autonomy in selecting the schools, confer- comes like job satisfaction, organizational and occupational ences, and sports that they work with. From a theoretical per- commitment, and turnover intentions. spective, this research is significant as it looks at pay and job satisfaction in jobs that are avocations, and it is suggested Declaration of Conflicting Interests here that from a theoretical and practical perspective, the The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect levers that motivate and satisfy workers will not be similar. to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. In addition, this research is quite meaningful in sport organizations as many operate with a significant number of Funding volunteers or part-time workers (Chelladurai, 2006). It is The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or quite possible that many workers within sport enter to be authorship of this article. involved with the teams, kids, organizations, or sport, and while pay might not be necessary to retain these employees, References training may improve satisfaction for these workers. Anderson, J., Rungtusanatham, M., Schroeder, R., & Devaraj, S. Therefore, a meaningful application for this research is for (2007). A path analytic model of a theory of quality manage- managers to invest in training for officials, coaches, and vol- ment underlying the Deming management method: Preliminary unteers, especially when pay is limited or control by school empirical findings. Decision Sciences, 26, 637-658. or organizational limits. Badri, M., Davis, D., & Davis, D. (1995). A study of measuring the Furthermore, it is suggested that much of this research critical factors of quality management. 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His past work exam- Psychology, 75, 77-86. ines quality of work issues for coaches, including work-family con- Natarajan, N. K., & Nagar, D. (2011). Induction age, training flict and job satisfaction. duration & job performance on organizational commitment Jason P. Sosa is a Senior Lecturer within the Department of Sport & job satisfaction. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 46, Management at Rice University. He earned his PhD at Texas A&M 491-497. University within the Sport Management program. Dr. Sosa is also Nunnally, J., & Bernsein, L. (1994). Psychometric theory. New a Graduate of Thurgood Marshall School of Law where he gradu- York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ated with honors, and is licensed to practice law in the State of Quinn, J. (1999). Where need meets opportunity: Youth develop- Texas. ment programs for early teens. Future of Children, 9, 96-116. Ryan, T. D., & Sagas, M. (2006). Interrole conflict and turnover Michael A. Thornton is a Clinical Assistant Professor in the intent in the high school teacher/coach. International Journal Department of Health and Kinesiology at Texas A&M University. of Sport Management, 7, 425-444. Dr. Thornton has been involved as a sports official at both the high Ryan, T. D., & Sagas, M. (2009). Relationships between pay sat- school and collegiate levels for over 10 years, and also serves as the isfaction, work-family conflict, and coaching turnover inten- General Manager of Read Youth Charities.

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SAGE OpenSAGE

Published: Apr 29, 2014

Keywords: high school sport; coaching; sport officials; part-time worker; pay satisfaction; training; turnover

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