Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report: Moral Socialization, Social Thriving, and Social Maladaptation in Three Countries:

Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report: Moral Socialization, Social Thriving, and Social... Evolutionary systems theory identifies niches as key developmental inheritances for animals. The human evolved developmental niche (EDN) is characterized by positive touch, responsiveness, play, and social togetherness and provides the responsive, relational dynamism that optimizes development. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of the human EDN have demonstrated correlations between degree of EDN consistency in early childhood and positive sociomoral development and avoidance of ill-being and misbehavior. We created a brief report of children’s recent EDN experience and examined its relation to child well-being and sociomoral development. Using samples from three cultures (United States, N=574; Switzerland, N=96; China, N=382), EDN provision in the past week was related to multiple child outcomes even after controlling for parental age, education, income, responsivity, and child gender. Factor analyses indicated three sets of latent factors in each sample: Moral Socialization, Social Maladaptation, and Social Thriving. Structural equation models indicated that EDN provision significantly predicted Social Thriving in all samples beyond control variables. EDN provision may be particularly helpful in predicting optimal social development. Keywords evolved developmental niche, sociality, Moral Socialization, China, Switzerland, preschool, parenting, Social Maladaptation, moral development, well-being Young children’s development is an ongoing, interactive pro- history (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005), and comprise what was first cess that occurs in the context of relationships. Mothers and called the “hunter-gatherer childhood model,” an intensified others provide an environment that fosters development of set of practices based on the social mammalian niche that children’s rapidly changing systems (Keating, 2016). Theories emerged over 30 million years ago (Konner, 2005). The of development that emphasize dynamism suggest that the human EDN includes responsiveness to young children’s experiences a child has early in life have significant long- needs, extensive positive touch, lengthy on-request breast- term effects. For example, relational developmental systems feeding, self-directed social play in nature, multiple respon- meta-theory considers change, process, and relationships as sive adult caregivers, and a positive climate of support. Thus, fundamental categories of development and self-organization (Overton & Molenaar, 2015). Similarly, evolutionary systems University of Notre Dame, IN, USA theory (Oyama, Griffiths, & Gray, 2001) identifies multiple Wellesley College, MA, USA extra-genetic inheritances that form part of human evolution- Beihang University, Beijing, China ary adaptation, such as culture and self-organization, and also University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany the particular developmental system, niche, or nest for the 5 University of Zurich, Switzerland young that optimizes normal development, which all animals University of Teacher Education Lucerne, Switzerland evolved to provide their young (Gottlieb, 2002). The charac- Corresponding Author: teristics of the human evolved developmental niche (EDN) Darcia Narvaez, Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, are commonly represented in nomadic foraging communities 390 Corbett Family Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA. Email: dnarvaez@nd.edu worldwide, the type of society that represents 95% of human Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open strong theoretical foundations in ethology exist for the pres- decreases social anxiety and increases openness in social ence of developmental niches, but regardless of the origin, interactions; Field, 2010). According to triune ethics meta- this study considers features of the purported evolved niche theory (TEM; Narvaez, 2014, 2016), three basic orienta- for young human beings. We developed a brief measure to tions that have their foundations in physiological and examine the EDN and its relation to child well-being and psychological development undergird sociomoral behavior. sociomoral development. When an orientation guides behavior, trumping other val- Narvaez and colleagues have been gathering information ues, it represents an ethic. First, self-protectionism emerges about the EDN and find that in industrialized societies from a routinely activated stress response, leading to a self- where empirical studies are usually conducted, each EDN guarding orientation in social situations. A self-protection- component has been related to the development of health ist ethic is facilitated by threat perception and is driven by and well-being (for EDN component reviews, see Narvaez, primitive survival systems. Behaviorally, it manifests as Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013a). For example, affec- social withdrawal or social opposition. Second, an engage- tionate touch moderates an infant’s stress response (Feldman, ment ethic involves face-to-face, flexible relational attun- Singer, & Zagoory, 2010) and increases oxytocin release ement. Behaviorally, it emerges from and is visible in which is associated with social affiliation (Feldman, 2012). mutually responsive social cooperation and play. Third, a In a longitudinal study of at-risk families, measures of posi- reflective imagination ethic uses executive functions to tive touch in the first year related positively to social engage- facilitate reasoning and imagine prosocial possibilities in ment at 18 months and negatively to externalizing behaviors social relations. Theoretically, an early life consistent with at ages 2 and 3; breastfeeding was linked to reduced aggres- the EDN fosters habitual use of relational attunement and sion and depression at age 2—even when controlling for reflective imagination—capacities associated with socio- maternal education and income (Narvaez, Gleason, et al., moral outcomes such as empathy, self-regulation, and con- 2013). Such findings support the idea that conformity to at cern after wrongdoing (Kochanska, 2002). In multiple least some aspects of the human EDN early in life is con- studies with adults, retrospective reports of EDN- nected to later healthy psychological outcomes. Using a sur- inconsistent care were related to self-protectionist ethics vey of the EDN components with a large sample (N=626) of (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), less prosocial behavior, American mothers of 3-year-olds, responsive parenting, free and greater aggression (Narvaez & Hardy, 2016; Narvaez, play with mother, closeness with caregivers, and affection- Thiel, Kurth, & Renfus, 2016). In contrast, reports of ate touch were significantly related to multiple child out- greater EDN-consistent childhood experience were related comes, such as empathy, self-regulation, and concern after to engagement and reflective imagination, and both were wrongdoing (Narvaez, Gleason, Lefever, Wang, & Cheng, related to prosocial action. The focus here is on measuring 2016). A similar but broader array of relationships among the provision of the EDN in early life where theoretically the EDN components and child outcomes was found when these contrasting ethical orientations are initiated. replicated with a sample of Chinese mothers (N=383; Early life orientations toward relational attunement or Narvaez, Wang, et al., 2013). For example, in China, breast- self-protection (opposition or withdrawal) reflect moral tem- feeding length was related to child empathy, inhibitory con- perament. We define moral temperament as an individual’s trol, and concern after wrongdoing. Play with adults other tendency to be open toward others or defensive in interac- than parents was related to these same outcomes in the tions with others. In prior studies with children, mothers’ Chinese sample but not in the American sample. In a related attitudes toward EDN-consistent caregiving were related to unpublished pilot study with a smaller sample of American their children’s moral temperament. Mothers with positive mothers (N=55), observed maternal responsiveness was attitudes toward EDN-consistent parenting behaviors, such linked to 3-year-old children’s cognitive development, abil- as positive touch, play, responsiveness, and the engagement ity to identify emotions, and inhibitory control. These stud- of multiple caregivers, were more likely to have children ies provide support for the impact of EDN-consistent with a moral temperament of openness or engagement caregiving on child development as well as similarities and toward others (e.g., social attunement). In contrast, mothers differences between cultures. whose attitudes were less EDN-consistent had children who The relations that have emerged between EDN compo- exhibited defensive moral temperament or an orientation nents and sociomoral outcomes, such as empathy and con- toward self-protectionism (e.g., social withdrawal; Gleason, cern after wrongdoing, raise the question of the Narvaez, Cheng, Wang, & Brooks, 2016). The study pro- mechanisms—for example, what processes are responsible vided support for the idea that parenting attitudes toward for the relation between affectionate touch and empathy? EDN-consistent care related to children’s sociomoral orien- Theoretically, EDN-consistent caregiving facilitates the tations. In the current study, we expanded on this work, spe- development of physiological and psychological systems cifically wanting to examine connections between that are foundational for sociomoral functioning (e.g., parent-reported child experience of the EDN and children’s affectionate touch shapes the oxytocin system and adaptive moral temperament, as well as other measures of sociomoral vagus nerve activity while reducing cortisol release which development and well-being. Narvaez et al. 3 In prior studies of the EDN with child outcomes, mothers Educational Development (GED; 5.2%); some college, were questioned extensively about their general attitudes and associate’s, or technical degree (26.8%); bachelor’s degree behaviors. In this study, we sought to develop a way to mea- (37.5%); and master’s, professional, or doctorate degree sure a child’s EDN-consistent experience with only a few (29.5%). Annual household income ranged from less than questions and more proximally. We developed a measure that US$15,000 (3%), US$15,000 to US$30,000 (12.4%), could be used quickly and periodically with parents to mea- US$30,000 to US$50,000 (21.8%), US$50,000 to sure the child’s EDN-consistent experience over time. Based US$75,000 (23.5%), US$75,000 to US$100,000 (19.9%), to on success with a 11-item adult measure of EDN history that more than US$100,000 (19.5%). Participants completed the correlated with mental health, moral capacities, and moral ori- survey online and received a gift card. entation (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), we developed a proximal measure to be used by parents about a child’s recent Measures. Measures included reports on provision of the EDN experience, as a presumed snapshot of experience over EDN, responsivity, child mental health outcomes, and socio- the long term. We wanted to see whether a short measure of morality. Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) and reliabili- EDN-consistent experience could also capture relations ties are provided in Table 1. between reported childhood experience and child outcomes, as did research with the longer measures described earlier. Our Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report (EDNPR). The goal here was to validate the scores and the use of the scores to EDNPR is a six-item checklist about the child’s experience make predictions in three countries. Theoretically, we expected in the last week (6-point scale; 1= never; 6 = several times that scores on the new measure of EDN-consistent experience a day). It is based on the EDN History for adults (Narvaez, would be related to positive child outcomes. We also expected Wang, & Cheng, 2016), which contains 11 items, includ- that parents who reported their children’s recent experience as ing questions on breastfeeding and parental responsiveness EDN-consistent would have children with higher scores on eliminated here. We used six items appropriate for parents measures of psychological well-being (using measures of of preschoolers: positive and negative touch, indoor and out- well-being, happiness), sociomoral development (socializa- door free play, and family togetherness inside and outside the tion measures of self-regulation, empathy, conscience), and home (see supplemental materials for items). Responses were Social Thriving (social enjoyment, attunement, consideration, summed to create a composite. Questions represent a checklist imagination). If we found significant relationships between of a child’s overall environment (which can vary by calendar, scores on the new measure and positive child outcomes, it season, and life events), rather than a specific aspect, so 16 would demonstrate the construct validity of the measure. mothers provided test–retest reliability over a 2-week interval. Furthermore, we decided to take advantage of our data to explore their relation to negative outcomes. Although litera- Responsivity. For parental responsivity (Narvaez, Wang, ture explores the relationship between parental responsiveness et al., 2013), parents rated seven items (e.g., “I feel that and child outcomes, even mitigating negative child outcomes my child and I have warm, intimate times together”) on a (e.g., Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005), little work 6-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). addresses how a measure of the EDN might be related to nega- Responses were averaged. tive child outcomes, above and beyond responsive care. We thought that perhaps those with EDN-inconsistent experience Child well-being. Two measures assessed child well-being would be more likely to show psychopathology and self-pro- (Gleason et al., 2016). Thriving includes nine items (e.g., tective behaviors in social situations. Thus, we also explored “My child deals well with problems”) scored using a 6-point the relation between the EDN and negative child outcomes. In scale (1 = never to 6 = always). Happiness is a five-item both cases—positive and negative outcomes—we controlled frequency measure (e.g., “Dances spontaneously”) scored on for parent responsivity to find out whether our short measure a 6-point scale (1 = never to 6 = more than once a day). would provide predictive validity beyond parent responsivity. Child ill-being. Three measures assessed ill-being. Depres- sion (Gleason et al., 2016) included 10 items on frequency Study 1 of childhood depression symptoms (e.g., “How often does your child lack confidence?”) scored on a 6-point scale Method (1 = never to 6 = several times a day). The 14-item Preschool Participants and procedure. Participants were recruited from Anxiety Scale measured anxiety (Spence, Rapee, McDonald, online parenting blogs and regional daycares (574 U.S. par- & Ingram, 2001; e.g., “Is afraid of meeting or talking to unfa- ents [508 mothers] with 3- to 5-year-old children; 327 sons, miliar people”) on a 5-point scale (0 = not true at all to 1 “Other Sex”). Parental age ranged from 20 to 49 years 4 = very often true or not applicable). Misbehavior (Gleason (M = 32.85; M = 32.65). Education levels were et al., 2016) was measured with five frequency items (e.g., mothers fathers distributed across a wide spectrum: Participants completed “How often does your child misbehave?”) and was rated on some high school (1%); high school diploma/General a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = several times a day). 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliability Coefficients for Predictors and Factors by Sample. United Sates Switzerland China (n = 451-574) (n = 80-96) (n = 365-382) Variable M (SD) α M (SD) α M (SD) α a b b b EDNPR 29.48 (3.43) .72 23.84 (9.37) .64 14.50 (4.51) .75 Responsivity 4.43 (0.53) .70 4.51 (0.41) .78 3.03 (0.38) .83 Moral Socialization variables Internalized conduct 4.32 (1.09) .86 3.06 (0.75) .84 4.13 (0.52) .61 Inhibitory control 4.97 (0.85) .83 — — 4.75 (0.79) .81 Concern after wrongdoing 5.16 (1.18) .88 3.46 (0.64) .70 5.21 (0.94) .82 Empathy 5.31 (0.60) .86 4.09 (0.54) .82 5.04 (0.68) .74 Social Maladaptation variables Depression 1.99 (0.68) .92 2.11 (0.75) .83 1.70 (0.65) .86 Anxiety 1.46 (0.51) .94 1.56 (0.44) .81 2.32 (0.91) .91 Misbehavior 2.69 (0.47) .75 2.08 (0.80) .67 2.24 (0.45) .81 Social opposition 2.63 (0.98) .92 2.27 (0.85) .88 1.98 (0.77) .89 c c c 1.84 (0.88) .70 1.81 (0.79) .76 Social distrust 3.08 (0.82) .42 Social withdrawal 2.43 (0.80) .91 2.22 (0.80) .87 2.15 (0.73) .90 Social Thriving variables Thriving 5.43 (0.51) .91 5.03 (0.54) .78 4.75 (0.78) .81 Happiness 5.35 (0.63) .72 4.21 (0.79) .74 4.50 (1.18) .62 Social attunement 5.16 (0.72) .88 4.18 (0.97) .88 3.88 (1.17) .94 Social enjoyment 5.61 (0.58) .93 5.09 (0.70) .89 4.67 (1.15) .97 Social consideration 5.00 (0.77) .84 3.99 (0.82) .71 3.64 (1.12) .91 Social imagination 4.97 (0.84) .81 4.46 (0.83) .78 3.87 (1.17) .94 Note. All reliability coefficients are Cronbach’s alpha, unless otherwise noted. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report. Composite score of EDNPR. Indicates test–retest reliability. Two-item measure, indicates bivariate correlation. Child Moral Socialization. Moral Socialization was mea- with social engagement: attunement, enjoyment, and consid- sured using 7-point Likert-type scales (1 = extremely untrue eration and one with imagination: social imagination. of your child to 7 = extremely true of your child). Because self-control is part of successful moral behavior, we mea- Analyses. A set of exploratory and confirmatory factor analy- sured self-regulation through (a) internalized conduct (nine ses identified three latent child outcome variables. We then items; Kochanska, 1994; e.g., “When unsupervised, is likely tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three factors to stop himself or herself on his or her own when just about using structural equation modeling (SEM; Figures 1-3). All to do something wrong”); (b) inhibitory control, using the models were analyzed using the lavaan package (Rosseel, Child Behavior Questionnaire subscale (CBQ; 13 items; 2012) in R (R Core Team, 2016). We utilized robust standard Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001; e.g., “Is good at error estimates, Yuan–Bentler corrections for model fit indi- following instructions”); and (c) concern after wrongdoing ces, and full-information maximum likelihood estimation to (eight items; Kochanska, 1994; e.g., “After having done deal with missing data (Yuan & Bentler, 2000). Furthermore, something naughty, asks to be forgiven”). We also measured we examined model fit based on three standard criteria: empathy (Kochanska, 1994; 13 items; e.g., “Will try to com- robust chi-square, comparative fit index (CFI), and bias- fort or reassure another in distress”). corrected 90% confidence interval (CI) of root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). Child moral temperament. The Child Triune Ethics Mea- sure (CTEM; Gleason et al., 2016) is a parent report of child moral temperament using a 6-point Likert-type scale Results (1 = never to 6 = several times a day). Its 53 items comprise Means and standard deviations are provided in the first col- seven subscales related to sociomoral capacities (Narvaez, umn of Table 1 (see supplemental materials for correlations). 2016). Three are associated with social self-protectionism: Previous work using data from 166 mothers of 3-year-old opposition, distrust, and withdrawal. Three are associated Narvaez et al. 5 Figure 1. U.S. Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (23) = 28.92, p = .18; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .033, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .04]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. Figure 2. U.S. Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (38) = 87.44, p < .001; CFI = .94; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. children (Narvaez, Gleason, et al., 2016) suggested that the retaining three factors, with three eigenvalues larger than 1. child outcomes loaded on three factors. For this study, both Therefore, three measurement models were created. First, parallel and exploratory factor analyses suggested three fac- Moral Socialization was a combination of internalized con- tors should be retained. Kaiser’s rule also pointed to duct, inhibitory control, concern after wrongdoing, and 6 SAGE Open Figure 3. U.S. Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 88.79, p < .001; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. empathy (see latent outcome in Figure 1). Within the mea- SEM models fit the data well (see Figures 1-3). As expected, surement model, we allowed for the residual covariances EDNPR positively predicted Moral Socialization (b = 0.17, between internalized conduct, concern after wrongdoing, p = .005) and Social Thriving (b = 0.22, p < .000). Both and inhibitory control, which created a saturated model. We models controlled for parents’ age, education, income, allowed these residuals to covary based on model modifica- responsivity, and child’s gender. Using the same controls, we tion indices. The same set of residual covariances was found that EDNPR also negatively predicted Social applied to Study 2 and Study 3 and were cross-validated (see Maladaptation (b = –0.11, p = .02). Study 2 and Study 3 results). We also explored the relation between EDN-consistent Discussion experience and negative outcomes. Social opposition, dis- trust, and withdrawal, along with anxiety, depression, and The EDNPR scores have good test–retest reliability and pre- misbehavior, loaded on Social Maladaptation (see latent out- dicted the positive child outcomes as expected. As hypothe- come in Figure 2). This model allowed for several residual sized, the EDNPR measure predicted both of the factors that covariances: social opposition with misbehavior, depression, emerged from the child outcome data: Moral Socialization and and distrust; depression with anxiety and misbehavior; and Social Thriving. Moral Socialization aligns with moral devel- misbehavior with withdrawal. Model fit was adequate: opment as previously studied longitudinally by Kochanska robust χ (3) = 2.53, p = .47; CFI = 1.00; and 90% CI (2002). We expected the relation between our brief measure of RMSEA = [.000, .070]. the EDNPR and Moral Socialization because of the theoretical Social Thriving included social attunement, social enjoy- connection between EDN-consistent care and healthy physio- ment, and social imagination, as well as consideration, thriv- logical systems that facilitate good self- and emotion regula- ing, and happiness (see latent outcome in Figure 3). A set of tion (Narvaez, Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013b). Social residuals was allowed to be covaried based on model modi- Thriving comprises outcomes of engaged social life (e.g., fication indices: well-being with happiness and consider- social attunement, thriving). The positive relation between ation with imagination and attunement. This model was EDNPR and Social Thriving is consistent with views of moral adequate: robust χ (6) = 3.45, p = .75; CFI = 1.00; and development that relate it to enjoyment of connections with 90% CI RMSEA = [.000, .037]. others. Specifically, Social Thriving includes social enjoy- Next, SEM models were fitted to test whether EDNPR ment, a component of what Darwin (1871/1981) identified as predicted each outcome while controlling for demographic humanity’s evolved moral sense. information. We used the latent child outcome measurement Social Maladaptation includes negative outcomes that model coefficients as constraints in SEM analyses. Both represent externalizing and internalizing tendencies that Narvaez et al. 7 overlap with protectionism in moral temperament. Scores on average (19.8%), to higher than the Swiss average (62.5%), the EDNPR were negatively related to maladaptation, even and one declined a response. Participants received an online when controlling for the effects of parental responsivity and gift card for participating. demographics. These results are consistent with work dem- onstrating relationships between negative attitudes toward Measures. The measures used in Study 1 were used in Study EDN-consistent care and negative child outcomes (Gleason 2; however, inhibitory control was removed from analyses et al., 2016). due to items that were culturally foreign (e.g., reference to All latent factors were predicted by EDNPR even after unfamiliar games) and due to severe missing data. The test– multiple controls. Interestingly, apart from the consistent retest reliability of EDNPR was assessed based on the data of power of parental responsivity, the significance of controls 15 mothers and two fathers over a 2-week interval (r = .64). varied for each model. Gender was also predictive for Social Materials were translated into German by native speakers on Thriving and Moral Socialization. In both models, the out- the research team and underwent discursive validation in a come scores were higher for girls than boys. One interpreta- pretest involving six parents (two fathers). tion of these findings is that girls tend to mature more quickly and be more resilient to stressors than boys (Schore, 2017), Results and perhaps as a result, their scores on the Moral Socialization and Social Thriving measures were higher. The fact that Means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients are income was a significant predictor of Moral Socialization listed in Table 1 (see supplemental materials for correla- corresponds with research connecting socioeconomic status tions). We again fitted SEM models to examine the same (SES) and socioemotional development (Bradley & Corwyn, three measurement models of the outcomes variables, and 2002), suggesting differences in socialization or a poverty then the relationship between EDNPR and the outcomes (see deficit (more toxic stress) might influence factors of self- Figures 4-6). The Moral Socialization measurement model control, conscience, and empathy. Finally, for Social was saturated; however, as noted above, inhibitory control Maladaptation, only responsivity was predictive along with was not included. Social Thriving had the same factorial EDNPR, suggesting that EDNPR may be useful for predict- structure with similarly adequate fit indices as U.S. Social ing negative outcomes. Thriving, robust χ (6) = 2.62, p = .85, CFI = 1.00, 90% CI The new measure worked well with a U.S. sample, but RMSEA = [.000, .085]. Finally, the Social Maladaptation would it work with a sample from a different country? measure model fit the Swiss data well, robust χ (3) = .408, Although we expected EDN-consistent behavior to influence p = .94, CFI = 1.00, 90% RMSEA = [.001, .0001]. We sociomoral development regardless of the culture because therefore assumed cross-cultural configural measurement the basis of these behaviors is purported to be in human evo- invariance for the child outcome variables as shown in the lution, norms for behaviors such as touch, play, and together- same latent structures of the outcomes between countries. ness might differ cross-culturally. To investigate these Following the creation of the Swiss measurement models, questions, we collected the same variables in Switzerland. we tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three out- comes using SEM models. All models controlled for moth- er’s age, education, income, responsivity, and child’s gender. Study 2 All models fit the data well (see Figures 4-6). EDNPR significantly positively predicted Social Method Thriving (b = 0.51, p < .001), but did not predict Moral Participants and procedures. Participants were recruited from Socialization (b = 0.20, p = .11) or Social Maladaptation children’s hospitals, pediatricians’ practices, daycares, and (b = 0.01, p = .99). family counseling centers in Switzerland. Institutions dis- tributed flyers describing the study that contained a link to Discussion the online survey. In addition, a call for participants was pub- lished on the Facebook page of one of the universities host- The role of the EDNPR in predicting the two predicted sets ing the study. Eighty-four Swiss mothers and 12 Swiss of child outcomes was notably different in the Swiss sample fathers of 3- to 5-year-old children participated (52 sons). than in the U.S. sample and also for Social Maladaptation. Parental age ranged from 28 to 66 years (M = 36.3; EDN-consistent care appeared to be a good predictor of mothers M = 41.2). Education levels were distributed across a Social Thriving but had no bearing on Moral Socialization or fathers wide spectrum: finished compulsory school (2.1%), high Social Maladaptation. In the Swiss sample, other variables school diploma or apprenticeship (26%), teacher education had more relevance for predicting child outcomes: Low seminary (5.2%), applied science or bachelor’s degree parental responsivity was a significant predictor of Social (33.3%), and master’s or doctorate degree (33.4%). Annual Maladaptation; older mothers tended to report greater Social household income ranged from below the Swiss average of Maladaptation and lower Moral Socialization among their CHF 85,344 or US$86,363 (16.7%), equal to the Swiss children than did younger mothers, suggesting that 8 SAGE Open Figure 4. Swiss Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (14) = 13.99, p = .45; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .00, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .10]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. Figure 5. Swiss Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 38.51, p = .71; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .00, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .05]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. investigating parenting differences between the children of Moral Socialization was also predicted by gender of child older and younger mothers—or the perspectives of these (mothers reported higher Moral Socialization for girls than mothers themselves—might illuminate processes or mecha- boys), which is consistent with prior findings attributing nisms in children’s sociomoral development. more attention to and concern with the feelings of others Narvaez et al. 9 Figure 6. Swiss Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 44.89, p = .43; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .01, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .07]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. among girls than boys. The other behaviors associated with blur the distinction between good, appropriate, and bad and EDN-consistent caregiving (e.g., positive and negative inappropriate behavior and have influenced other responses. touch, family togetherness) did not contribute to variables Parents’ understanding of the core concepts of the EDN and dependent upon self-regulatory strategies. In contrast, EDN- the scales included in Moral Socialization, Social Thriving consistent caregiving did predict Social Thriving. Theorized and Social Maladaptation should be explored in more depth effects of EDN-consistent care relating to the establishment to delineate cultural differences. of healthy, robust physiological systems controlling self-reg- The Swiss sample was significantly smaller than the U.S. ulatory behaviors that comprise elements of Moral sample. In addition, almost two thirds of the sample had an Socialization were not found in this sample. Although empa- income higher than average, comparable with 20% of the thy was significantly correlated with EDNPR, concern after U.S. sample. Even so, the United States and Switzerland wrongdoing and internalized conduct were not, and in the share similarities as Western nations. The inconsistencies in models, EDNPR did not outweigh the prediction of child results between these two countries suggested that relation- gender, parent age, and education for Moral Socialization. ships between the EDNPR and sociomoral development These findings suggest that the benefits of the caregiving might be significantly different if tested in a third, more practices addressed in the EDNPR may vary by culture. diverse, culture. Consequently, Study 3 was conducted using Some of the survey items may have been interpreted dif- a sample from China. ferently by Swiss parents due to cultural norms. For exam- ple, the term “misbehavior” in English was translated as Study 3 “bad behavior.” Three participants explicitly complained about the use of the term “bad” in describing young chil- Method dren’s behavior. Two argued that “bad” was abstract and Participants and procedure. Parents of 382 children (188 boys, might describe various kinds of behavior and added that “bad 191 girls, three nonresponse) from six preschools in Beijing, behavior” was seen from the adult’s point of view, not the China, participated. Parental age ranged from 21 to 45 years child’s. The third argued that “bad” had a negative connota- (M = 33.49; M = 34.07). Children ranged in age tion, but that a child’s exploration of boundaries and of his or mothers fathers from 3 to 5 years. Education levels were no formal education her own sense of self was something he or she could not see (0.5%), technical secondary school (7.3%), high school as negative or bad. These statements express an attitude of (5.8%), associate’s degree (17.8%), bachelor’s degree critical reflection and a hesitation to negatively label behav- (33.8%), master’s degree or doctorate (30.3%), other ior not desirable from an adult point of view. The latter might 10 SAGE Open Figure 7. China Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (23) = 42.67, p = .006; CFI = .94; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.03, .07]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. certificate (0.8%), and missing (3.7%). Annual household Thriving had the same factorial structure with similarly ade- income (converted to American dollars) was distributed: less quate fit indices as United States, χ (6) = 20.09, p = .003, than US$15,000 (2.4%), US$15,000 to US$45,000 (7.5%), CFI = .987, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .12]. Again, we assume US$45,000 to US$80,000 (13.1%), US$80,000 to cross-cultural configural measurement invariance for the US$120,000 (17.7%), US$120,000 to US$160,000 (17.7%), child outcome variables based on good model fit of the con- and more than US$160,000 (41.6%). firmatory factor analysis (CFA) models and the exact same Participants received packets from their children’s pre- latent structure between countries. school teachers that included a cover letter explaining the We tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three study, a consent form, and the study measures. Those who outcomes using SEM, controlling for the same variables as returned the materials were given a book as a gift. previously. All models fit the data well (see Figures 7-9). The China data suggested that EDNPR positively predicted Measures. The same measures and composites used in Study Moral Socialization (b = 0.14, p = .02) and Social Thriving 1 were used in this study. Native speakers of Chinese on the (b = 0.13, p = .03), but did not predict Social Maladaptation research team translated the materials. The test–retest reli- (b = –0.02, p = .80). ability of EDNPR was assessed based on the data of 43 mothers over a 2-week interval (r = .75). Discussion The measure worked well in predicting positive outcomes. Results The links that emerged between EDNPR and responsivity and both Moral Socialization and Social Thriving were con- Means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients are sistent with prior research in China. In Chinese families, listed in the third column of Table 1 (see Supplemental parental warmth was related to preschoolers’ social cogni- Materials for correlations). As in the first two studies, we tion (Li & Sang, 2006), and parental responsivity was related conducted SEM to examine the relationship between the to child empathy and sociability (Liu et al., 2010). The fact EDNPR measure and the child outcomes (see Figures 7-9). that the EDNPR predicted Moral Socialization and Social The Moral Socialization measurement model was saturated Thriving beyond responsivity suggests that other EDN- when fitted to the China data. Social Maladaptation also had consistent components might also be important for socio- good fit indices, χ (3) = 2.84, p = .42, CFI = 1.00, 90% CI moral development. RMSEA = [.00, .09] with the same factorial structure. Social Narvaez et al. 11 Figure 8. China Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 54.92, p = .125; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .025, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .04]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. Figure 9. China Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 42.67, p = .006; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .045, 90% CI RMSEA = [.03, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. For Social Thriving, EDNPR was predictive along with also facilitate mothers’ perceptions of their children as happy, responsivity, but parental education and income also pre- thriving, and attuned to others if their lives are less stressful dicted Social Thriving. Again, this enjoyment of others than those of their lower SES counterparts. appears to be partly a function of those parenting practices Social Maladaptation was predicted only by responsivity. thought to be characteristic of the EDN over and above One interpretation of these findings is related to the collec- mothers’ responsiveness to their children. Higher SES might tivistic and communal orientation of Chinese culture in 12 SAGE Open comparison particularly with U.S. culture. This difference at least in comparison with responsivity. The fact that gender relates to a system of values and self-construal in which was also predictive of Moral Socialization in the U.S. and Chinese citizens are less likely to focus on individual emo- Swiss samples but not in the Chinese sample raises the ques- tions or to centralize them in their lives (Ryder et al., 2008). tion of whether parents manifest gender differences in their Some collectivist cultures, like traditional Chinese culture, expectations for processes such as self-regulation and empa- discourage expression of negative emotion (Triandis, thy in these Western cultures but not in China. McCusker, & Hui, 1990). Similarly, cultural rules about behavior might disallow showing opposition, distrust, or EDN Provision Related to Social Thriving withdrawal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of psy- chopathology, a widely acknowledged key finding is that The fact that EDNPR scores predicted Social Thriving Chinese individuals are more likely to exhibit somatic symp- beyond responsivity alone in all three samples is consistent toms rather than psychological symptoms of depression with work in anthropology, in that societies that provide (Ryder, Yang, & Heine, 2002). Moreover, it is well docu- EDN-consistent care (nomadic foragers) are also described mented that the Chinese stigmatize mental illnesses (Ryder as socially thriving (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005; Konner, 2005). et al., 2008). These cultural factors might have influenced The co-occurrence of EDN provision and Social Thriving is mothers’ responses to the variables relating to psychopathol- also evident in accounts of contemporary hunter-gatherer ogy and misbehavior in particular. However, such an expla- groups (Narvaez, Valentino, Fuentes, McKenna, & Gray, nation does not account for the fact that parental responsivity 2014). In these contexts, “children are not ‘parented’ or was negatively associated with Social Maladaptation, as in ‘reared’ so much as supported as they actively develop as both of the other samples. This issue could be explored in individuals within the community” (Gleason & Narvaez, future studies that explicitly address cultural differences. 2014, p. 339). The mechanisms by which practices such as touch, play, and family togetherness influence developmen- tal outcomes cannot be determined by our data, but the find- General Discussion ings suggest that EDN-consistent care might be characteristic We were interested in testing and validating a brief measure of a social context in which children grow up to take pleasure of recent experience (as a proxy for ongoing experience) in their interactions with others. consistent with the EDN. Theoretically, measuring the provi- In contrast to the important constructs of resilience and sion of the EDN is an indicator of early life experience that is adaptation, social thriving is not typically examined in devel- species-typical. By examining the relation between EDN opmental research. Examination of EDN-consistent care provision and sociomoral development in three cultures, we might provide clues as to how to optimize development hoped to illuminate the extent to which this short measure of (Narvaez & Gleason, 2013), at least with respect to social EDN-consistent care was predictive of positive child out- engagement within communities. However, Social Thriving, comes and to examine its construct validity. Generally, the or pleasure in interactions with others, might by necessity ENDPR scores were significantly related to positive child precede what Darwin (1871/1981) described as humanity’s outcomes even after controlling for parental responsivity and moral sense—a connection to others that elicits, reinforces, other demographic variables, except for Swiss Moral and supports moral behavior. Darwin emphasized social Socialization, which could be due to its very small sample pleasure, which includes capacities for being-with others size. Therefore construct validity of EDNPR is largely sup- (e.g., being emotionally present, instead of caught up in com- ported across two countries (United States, China), with petition or fear). Our measure of Social Thriving resonates methodological issues making validity in Switzerland with this idea, as well as with Aristotle’s claim that social- unverifiable. fittedness reflects flexible relational attunement (Narvaez, 2016). Nevertheless, both Darwin and Aristotle noted that those who display virtuous character also exercise self-regu- EDN Provision Related to Moral Socialization lation (Nussbaum, 1988) and self-control, as included our For Moral Socialization, EDNPR scores and responsivity Moral Socialization variable. were predictors in the United States and China, but neither predicted Moral Socialization in the Swiss model. This latter EDN Provision Related to Social Maladaptation finding is puzzling, given that responsive care facilitates development of multiple physiological systems underlying We explored whether EDNPR would be predictive of nega- self-regulatory capacities such as the stress response (Lupien, tive child outcomes. It was negatively predictive of Social McEwen, Gunnar, & Heim, 2009). The effects of EDNPR on Maladaptation only in the United States, although responsiv- Moral Socialization were also small in the U.S. and China ity was predictive in every model. This finding suggests that samples. These estimates suggest that the elements of EDN- the EDNPR may not be as useful for predicting negative as consistent care that we measured in the EDNPR have signifi- for predicting positive outcomes. In other words, absence of cant but modest influence on children’s Moral Socialization, EDN-consistent care, at least the elements measured by the Narvaez et al. 13 EDNPR, is not typically detrimental to average trouble-free data might have attenuated the effects on developmental development (except perhaps in the United States). One way outcomes. to conceptualize the role of these caregiving practices is by providing the difference between healthy, adequate care and Future Directions care that facilitates Social Thriving and perhaps some pro- motion of sociomoral development. Again, this interpreta- A short parenting report like the EDNPR allows for longitu- tion supports the idea that caregiving practices consistent dinal data collection to measure the flux in experience. The with the EDN might help optimize development, even as the findings presented here suggest that the EDNPR might allow adaptability of the human species might mean that missing for analysis of the concurrent and predictive relations these EDN-consistent components does not compromise between EDN-consistent experience and reports of child out- average development. comes. In-depth analysis of family dynamics through obser- vation would also be helpful for interpretation and might help illuminate ways in which parenting practices promote Parental Responsivity developmental optimization specifically in relation to chil- As expected, parental responsivity was predictive in nearly dren’s social engagement. every model. These findings are consistent with a plethora of The correspondence in the directions of effects between research connecting parent responsivity to children’s devel- the EDNPR and parental responsivity for some developmen- opmental outcomes. When relationships between scores on tal outcomes raises the question of whether and how EDN- the EDNPR and the outcome variables were significant, they consistent parenting might be related to attachment. Because were in the same direction as responsivity, which could be secure attachment has been related to higher Moral interpreted as providing modest concurrent validity of the Socialization and lower Social Maladaptation (Sroufe et al., EDNPR measure. 2005), attachment security could be examined for its relation In summary, the EDNPR allowed for the assessment of to experiences measured by the EDNPR. Attachment secu- children’s experience beyond parental responsivity alone. rity is consistently correlated with parental responsiveness, The findings suggest that measuring the EDN proximally relating to greater social skills and emotional and behavioral might be beneficial for predicting children’s positive out- self-regulation longitudinally (Allen & Fonagy, 2002; comes, at least in relation to Social Thriving and to some Fonagy, Steele, Moran, Steele, & Higgitt, 1991; Kochanska, extent Moral Socialization. While research on children’s 2002; Sroufe et al., 2005). resilience has provided an optimistic story regarding our Trevarthen (2005) provides an interesting framework for species’ adaptability, consideration of the contexts and how attachment and EDN-consistent parenting might be practices that promote not just healthy adaptation, but related. He suggests that typical measures of attachment, actual Social Thriving, is a worthy goal. The results pre- based on Bowlby’s definition of warmth attachment (which sented here are promising for a short measure of the EDN, includes soothability and deactivation of defensive emotions although further attention must be paid to the different and behaviors), are not measuring optimal attachment. ways in which culture might influence these processes. Instead, optimal attachment, which Trevarthen calls compan- Finally, the inconsistency in the predictive power of the ionship attachment, involves togetherness in play, intention, other control variables raises interesting questions about interests, and affective appraisals—behaviors reminiscent of how demographic characteristics such as child gender, EDN-consistent caregiving. Care that fosters companionship parental age, income, and education might influence devel- attachment might reflect the evolved nest as provided in opmental outcomes. hunter-gatherer groups described by anthropologists (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005). Perhaps responsivity fosters warmth attach- ment, whereas other EDN-consistent practices promote com- Limitations panionship attachment. Theoretically, the measure of Social This study has several limitations. Theoretically, we mea- Thriving presented here might be an indicator of this form of sured features of humanity’s purported EDN but only within optimal attachment. Examination of this possibility might industrialized societies. Ideally, the comparison of EDN- illuminate the study of developmental optimization. related experience would involve indigenous cultures and possibly cross-species (mammals) comparisons. There were Declaration of Conflicting Interests methodological weaknesses as well. First, all data were The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect obtained through parental report. Correlations that emerged to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. could be owing to the common source of information. Future studies should use observation to corroborate both EDN pro- Funding vision (what children are experiencing) and child outcomes. Second, the methodological differences, small sample size, The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The and the lower reliability of the EDNPR measure in the Swiss 14 SAGE Open author(s) received funding from the Institute for Educational Cognitive Development, 17, 1287-1300. doi:10.1016/S0885- Initiatives and the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies at 2014(02)00120-X the University of Notre Dame. Hewlett, B. S., & Lamb, M. E. (2005). Hunter-gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perspectives. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine. doi:10.4324/9780203789445 Supplemental Material Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation Supplemental material for this article is available online. modeling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53-60. doi:10.12691/ jbms-1-5-2 Notes Keating, D. P. (2016). Transformative role of epigenetics in child 1. For this measure, we cut down the number of items from 29 to development research: Commentary on the special section. 14, considering item content as well as statistical information, Child Development, 87, 135-142. doi:10.1111/cdev.12488 and achieved similar reliability. Kochanska, G. (1994). Beyond cognition: Expanding the search for 2. The response scale for the Evolved Developmental Niche the early roots of internalization and conscience. Developmental Provision Report was translated conceptually rather than liter- Psychology, 30, 20-22. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.20 ally because of cultural preferences. Kochanska, G. (2002). Mutually responsive orientation between mothers and their young children: A context for the early devel- ORCID iD opment of conscience. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 191-195. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00198 Darcia Narvaez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8633-8998 Konner, M. (2005). Hunter-gatherer infancy and childhood: The !Kung and others. In B. Hewlett & M. Lamb (Eds.), Hunter- References gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural Allen, J. G., & Fonagy, P. (2002). The development of mentalizing perspectives (pp. 19-64). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. and its role in psychopathology and psychotherapy (Technical Li, Y., & Sang, B. (2006). Mothers’ parenting style and the devel- Report 02-0048). Topeka, KS: Menninger Clinic. opment of children’s theory of mind. Chinese Mental Health Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and Journal, 20(1), 5-9. child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371- Liu, G., Wang, H., Zhang, J., Lian, G., Huang, X., & Shi, S. (2010). 399. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233 Relation of gender and family environment to social-ability Darwin, C. (1981). The descent of man. Princeton, NJ: Princeton development in children aged 30-36 months in urban China. University Press. (Original work published 1871) Chinese Mental Health Journal, 24, 295-299. Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans. Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Hormones and Behavior, 61, 380-391. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour Feldman, R., Singer, M., & Zagoory, O. (2010). Touch attenu- and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434-445. ates infants’ physiological reactivity to stress. Developmental doi:10.1038/nrn2639 Science, 13, 271-278. Narvaez, D. (2014). Neurobiology and the development of human Field, T. (2010). Touch for socioemotional and physical well-being: morality: Evolution, culture and wisdom. New York, NY: A review. Developmental Review, 30, 367-383. doi:10.1016/j. W.W. Norton. dr.2011.01.001 Narvaez, D. (2016). Embodied morality: Protectionism, engage- Fonagy, P., Steele, H., Moran, G., Steele, M., & Higgitt, A. ment and imagination. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. (1991). The capacity for understanding mental states: The doi:10.1057%2F978-1-137-55399-7 reflective self in parent and child and its significance for Narvaez, D., & Gleason, T. (2013). Developmental optimization. security of attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 13, In D. Narvaez, J. Panksepp, A. Schore, & T. Gleason (Eds.), 200-217. doi:10.1002/1097-0355(199123)12:3<201::AID- Evolution, early experience and human development: From IMHJ2280120307>3.0.CO;2- research to practice and policy (pp. 307-325). New York, Gleason, T., & Narvaez, D. (2014). Child environments and flour- NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso ishing. In D. Narvaez, K. Valentino, A. Fuentes, J. McKenna, %2F9780199755059.003.0018 & P. Gray (Eds.), Ancestral landscapes in human evolution: Narvaez, D., Gleason, T., Lefever, J. B., Wang, L., & Cheng, Culture, childrearing and social wellbeing (pp. 335-348). A. (2016). Early experience and ethical orientation. In New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof D. Narvaez (Ed.), Embodied morality: Protectionism, engage- :oso/9780199964253.003.0025 ment and imagination (pp. 73-98). New York, NY: Palgrave Gleason, T., Narvaez, D., Cheng, A., Wang, L., & Brooks, J. (2016). Macmillan. Well-being and sociomoral development in preschoolers: The Narvaez, D., Gleason, T., Wang, L., Brooks, J., Lefever, J., Cheng, role of maternal parenting attitudes consistent with the Evolved A. & Centers for the Prevention of Child Neglect. (2013). Developmental Niche. In D. Narvaez, J. Braungart-Rieker, The Evolved Development Niche: Longitudinal effects of L. Miller, L. Gettler, & P. Hastings (Eds.), Contexts for young caregiving practices on early childhood psychosocial devel- child flourishing: Evolution, family and society (pp. 166-184). opment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 759-773. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof: doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.003 oso/9780190237790.003.0008 Narvaez, D., & Hardy, S. (2016). Measuring triune eth- Gottlieb, G. (2002). On the epigenetic evolution of species- ics orientations. In D. Narvaez (Ed.), Embodied moral- specific perception: The developmental manifold concept. ity: Protectionism, engagement and imagination (pp. Narvaez et al. 15 47-72). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057 Ryder, A. G., Yang, J., Zhu, X., Yao, S., Yi, J., Heine, S. J., & %2F978-1-137-55399-7_3 Bagby, R. M. (2008). The cultural shaping of depression: Narvaez, D., Panksepp, J., Schore, A., & Gleason, T. (Eds.). Somatic symptoms in China, psychological symptoms in North (2013a). Evolution, early experience and human develop- America? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 300-313. ment: From research to practice and policy. New York, NY: doi:10.1037/0021-843x.117.2.300 Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso Schore, A. N. (2017). All our sons: The developmental neurobi- %2F9780199755059.001.0001 ology and neuroendocrinology of boys at risk. Infant Mental Narvaez, D., Panksepp, J., Schore, A., & Gleason, T. (2013b). The Health Journal, 38, 15-52. doi:10.1002/imhj.21616 value of using an evolutionary framework for gauging chil- Spence, S. H., Rapee, R., McDonald, C., & Ingram, M. (2001). dren’s well-being. In Evolution, early experience and human The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. development: From research to practice and policy (pp. 3-30). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1293-1316. doi:10.1016/ New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof: s0005-7967(00)00098-x oso/9780199755059.003.0001 Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). Narvaez, D., Thiel, A., Kurth, A., & Renfus, K. (2016). Past moral The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and action and ethical orientation. In D. Narvaez (Ed.), Embodied adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York, NY: Guilford. morality: Protectionism, engagement and imagination (pp. 99- Trevarthen, C. (2005). Stepping away from the mirror: Pride and 118). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/978- shame in adventures of companionship—Reflections on the 1-137-55399-7_5 nature and emotional needs of infant intersubjectivity. In C. S. Narvaez, D., Valentino, K., Fuentes, A., McKenna, J., & Carter, L. Ahnert, K. E. Grossmann, S. B. Hrdy, M. E. Lamb, Gray, P. (2014). Ancestral landscapes in human evolu- S. W. Porges, & N. Sachser (Eds.), Attachment and bonding: A tion: Culture, childrearing and social wellbeing. New new synthesis (pp. 55-84). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof: Triandis, H., McCusker, C., & Hui, C. (1990). Multimethod probes oso/9780199964253.001.0001 of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality Narvaez, D., Wang, L., & Cheng, A. (2016). Evolved Developmental and Social Psychology, 59, 1006-1020. doi:10.1037/0022- Niche History: Relation to adult psychopathology and moral- 3514.59.5.1006 ity. Applied Developmental Science, 4, 294-309. doi:10.1080/1 Yuan, K.-H., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Three likelihood-based 0888691.2015.1128835 methods for mean and covariance structure analysis with non- Narvaez, D., Wang, L., Gleason, T., Cheng, A., Lefever, J., & normal missing data. Sociological Methodology, 30, 165-200. Deng, L. (2013). The evolved developmental niche and socio- doi:10.1111/0081-1750.00078 moral outcomes in Chinese three-year-olds. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10, 106-127. doi:10.1080/1740 Author Biographies 5629.2012.761606 Darcia Narvaez is professor of psychology at the University of Nussbaum, M. C. (1988). Non-relative virtues: An Aristotelian Notre Dame who studies lifespan flourishing and moral develop- approach. In P. A. French, T. E. Uehling, & H. K. ment. She is a fellow of the American Psychological Association Wettstein (Eds.), Ethical theory: Character and vir- and the American Educational Research Association. Her book, tue, Vol. XIII: Midwest studies in philosophy (pp. 32- Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, 53). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Culture and Wisdom won the APA’s William James book award doi:10.1093/0198287976.003.0019 and the Expanded Reason Award for research. Overton, W. F., & Molenaar, P. C. (2015). Concepts, theory, and method in developmental science: A view of the issues. In Ryan Woodbury is currently a research and data analyst at the W. F. Overton & P. Molenaar (Eds.), Theory and method, Institute for Educational Initiatives at the University of Notre Vol. 1: Handbook of child psychology and developmen- Dame. He focuses on K-12 education evaluation and improvement. tal science (7th ed., pp. 2-8). New York, NY: John Wiley. He has interests in character education programs and works with doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy101 community- and school-based organizations to support school lead- Oyama, S., Griffiths, P. E., & Gray, R. D. (2001). Cycles of contin- ers, teachers, and students. gency: Developmental systems and evolution. Cambridge, MA: Ying Cheng is an associate professor of Psychology and fellow of MIT Press. the Institute for Educational Initiatives at University of Notre Dame. R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statisti- She primarily works on methodological issues in psychological and cal computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical educational measurement and has won multiple awards including Computing. Available from http://www.R-project.org the NSF CAREER award. She is currently the editor of British Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equa- Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology (BJMSP) and a tion modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1-36. fellow of Society of Multivariate and Experimental Psychology. doi:10.18637/jss.v048.i02 Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Lijuan Wang is an associate professor in Quantitative Psychology Investigations of temperament at 3-7 years: The Children’s at University of Notre Dame. Her research interests are mainly in Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394-1408. developing and applying quantitative methods to better address doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00355 research questions in developmental psychology, family research, Ryder, A. G., Yang, J., & Heine, S. J. (2002). Somatization vs. psy- and health sciences. chologization of emotional distress: A paradigmatic example for cultural psychopathology. Online Readings in Psychology Angela Kurth is a doctoral candidate in the department of and Culture, 10(2). doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1080 Psychology at University of Notre Dame. She studies emotion 16 SAGE Open regulation and moral development in the context of parent-child the University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany, as a Guest Professor. relationships. Her research and teaching focus on socio-moral development across the lifespan; moral emotions; school bullying and its moral Tracy Gleason is a professor of Psychology at Wellesley College. dimensions; teacher professional ethos; teacher professional Her research concerns young children’s peer relationships, particu- development. larly with imaginary companions, as well as the parenting practices and social environments that promote prosocial behavior and moral Markus Christen is a researcher at the University of Zurich. His development. research interests include empirical ethics (developing and apply- ing measures for moral competences and moral reasoning), neuro- Lifang Deng is professor in Psychology at Beihang University. ethics (ethical issues of brain interventions), and ethics & technol- Her current research interests are in psychological measurement ogy (normative issues of artificial intelligence, big data and and psychological intervention, Aerospace Psychology, and I/O cybersecurity). Psychology. Eveline Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger currently works at the Catherine Näpflin, is researcher and PhD Student at University of Interdisciplinary Center for Integration and Migration Research at Teacher Education in Lucerne, Switzerland. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report: Moral Socialization, Social Thriving, and Social Maladaptation in Three Countries:

Download PDF
16 pages

Loading next page...
 
/lp/sage/evolved-developmental-niche-provision-report-moral-socialization-vIvqoGxBrx

References (51)

Publisher
SAGE
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 by SAGE Publications Inc, unless otherwise noted. Manuscript content on this site is licensed under Creative Commons Licenses.
ISSN
2158-2440
eISSN
2158-2440
DOI
10.1177/2158244019840123
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Evolutionary systems theory identifies niches as key developmental inheritances for animals. The human evolved developmental niche (EDN) is characterized by positive touch, responsiveness, play, and social togetherness and provides the responsive, relational dynamism that optimizes development. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of the human EDN have demonstrated correlations between degree of EDN consistency in early childhood and positive sociomoral development and avoidance of ill-being and misbehavior. We created a brief report of children’s recent EDN experience and examined its relation to child well-being and sociomoral development. Using samples from three cultures (United States, N=574; Switzerland, N=96; China, N=382), EDN provision in the past week was related to multiple child outcomes even after controlling for parental age, education, income, responsivity, and child gender. Factor analyses indicated three sets of latent factors in each sample: Moral Socialization, Social Maladaptation, and Social Thriving. Structural equation models indicated that EDN provision significantly predicted Social Thriving in all samples beyond control variables. EDN provision may be particularly helpful in predicting optimal social development. Keywords evolved developmental niche, sociality, Moral Socialization, China, Switzerland, preschool, parenting, Social Maladaptation, moral development, well-being Young children’s development is an ongoing, interactive pro- history (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005), and comprise what was first cess that occurs in the context of relationships. Mothers and called the “hunter-gatherer childhood model,” an intensified others provide an environment that fosters development of set of practices based on the social mammalian niche that children’s rapidly changing systems (Keating, 2016). Theories emerged over 30 million years ago (Konner, 2005). The of development that emphasize dynamism suggest that the human EDN includes responsiveness to young children’s experiences a child has early in life have significant long- needs, extensive positive touch, lengthy on-request breast- term effects. For example, relational developmental systems feeding, self-directed social play in nature, multiple respon- meta-theory considers change, process, and relationships as sive adult caregivers, and a positive climate of support. Thus, fundamental categories of development and self-organization (Overton & Molenaar, 2015). Similarly, evolutionary systems University of Notre Dame, IN, USA theory (Oyama, Griffiths, & Gray, 2001) identifies multiple Wellesley College, MA, USA extra-genetic inheritances that form part of human evolution- Beihang University, Beijing, China ary adaptation, such as culture and self-organization, and also University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany the particular developmental system, niche, or nest for the 5 University of Zurich, Switzerland young that optimizes normal development, which all animals University of Teacher Education Lucerne, Switzerland evolved to provide their young (Gottlieb, 2002). The charac- Corresponding Author: teristics of the human evolved developmental niche (EDN) Darcia Narvaez, Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, are commonly represented in nomadic foraging communities 390 Corbett Family Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA. Email: dnarvaez@nd.edu worldwide, the type of society that represents 95% of human Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open strong theoretical foundations in ethology exist for the pres- decreases social anxiety and increases openness in social ence of developmental niches, but regardless of the origin, interactions; Field, 2010). According to triune ethics meta- this study considers features of the purported evolved niche theory (TEM; Narvaez, 2014, 2016), three basic orienta- for young human beings. We developed a brief measure to tions that have their foundations in physiological and examine the EDN and its relation to child well-being and psychological development undergird sociomoral behavior. sociomoral development. When an orientation guides behavior, trumping other val- Narvaez and colleagues have been gathering information ues, it represents an ethic. First, self-protectionism emerges about the EDN and find that in industrialized societies from a routinely activated stress response, leading to a self- where empirical studies are usually conducted, each EDN guarding orientation in social situations. A self-protection- component has been related to the development of health ist ethic is facilitated by threat perception and is driven by and well-being (for EDN component reviews, see Narvaez, primitive survival systems. Behaviorally, it manifests as Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013a). For example, affec- social withdrawal or social opposition. Second, an engage- tionate touch moderates an infant’s stress response (Feldman, ment ethic involves face-to-face, flexible relational attun- Singer, & Zagoory, 2010) and increases oxytocin release ement. Behaviorally, it emerges from and is visible in which is associated with social affiliation (Feldman, 2012). mutually responsive social cooperation and play. Third, a In a longitudinal study of at-risk families, measures of posi- reflective imagination ethic uses executive functions to tive touch in the first year related positively to social engage- facilitate reasoning and imagine prosocial possibilities in ment at 18 months and negatively to externalizing behaviors social relations. Theoretically, an early life consistent with at ages 2 and 3; breastfeeding was linked to reduced aggres- the EDN fosters habitual use of relational attunement and sion and depression at age 2—even when controlling for reflective imagination—capacities associated with socio- maternal education and income (Narvaez, Gleason, et al., moral outcomes such as empathy, self-regulation, and con- 2013). Such findings support the idea that conformity to at cern after wrongdoing (Kochanska, 2002). In multiple least some aspects of the human EDN early in life is con- studies with adults, retrospective reports of EDN- nected to later healthy psychological outcomes. Using a sur- inconsistent care were related to self-protectionist ethics vey of the EDN components with a large sample (N=626) of (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), less prosocial behavior, American mothers of 3-year-olds, responsive parenting, free and greater aggression (Narvaez & Hardy, 2016; Narvaez, play with mother, closeness with caregivers, and affection- Thiel, Kurth, & Renfus, 2016). In contrast, reports of ate touch were significantly related to multiple child out- greater EDN-consistent childhood experience were related comes, such as empathy, self-regulation, and concern after to engagement and reflective imagination, and both were wrongdoing (Narvaez, Gleason, Lefever, Wang, & Cheng, related to prosocial action. The focus here is on measuring 2016). A similar but broader array of relationships among the provision of the EDN in early life where theoretically the EDN components and child outcomes was found when these contrasting ethical orientations are initiated. replicated with a sample of Chinese mothers (N=383; Early life orientations toward relational attunement or Narvaez, Wang, et al., 2013). For example, in China, breast- self-protection (opposition or withdrawal) reflect moral tem- feeding length was related to child empathy, inhibitory con- perament. We define moral temperament as an individual’s trol, and concern after wrongdoing. Play with adults other tendency to be open toward others or defensive in interac- than parents was related to these same outcomes in the tions with others. In prior studies with children, mothers’ Chinese sample but not in the American sample. In a related attitudes toward EDN-consistent caregiving were related to unpublished pilot study with a smaller sample of American their children’s moral temperament. Mothers with positive mothers (N=55), observed maternal responsiveness was attitudes toward EDN-consistent parenting behaviors, such linked to 3-year-old children’s cognitive development, abil- as positive touch, play, responsiveness, and the engagement ity to identify emotions, and inhibitory control. These stud- of multiple caregivers, were more likely to have children ies provide support for the impact of EDN-consistent with a moral temperament of openness or engagement caregiving on child development as well as similarities and toward others (e.g., social attunement). In contrast, mothers differences between cultures. whose attitudes were less EDN-consistent had children who The relations that have emerged between EDN compo- exhibited defensive moral temperament or an orientation nents and sociomoral outcomes, such as empathy and con- toward self-protectionism (e.g., social withdrawal; Gleason, cern after wrongdoing, raise the question of the Narvaez, Cheng, Wang, & Brooks, 2016). The study pro- mechanisms—for example, what processes are responsible vided support for the idea that parenting attitudes toward for the relation between affectionate touch and empathy? EDN-consistent care related to children’s sociomoral orien- Theoretically, EDN-consistent caregiving facilitates the tations. In the current study, we expanded on this work, spe- development of physiological and psychological systems cifically wanting to examine connections between that are foundational for sociomoral functioning (e.g., parent-reported child experience of the EDN and children’s affectionate touch shapes the oxytocin system and adaptive moral temperament, as well as other measures of sociomoral vagus nerve activity while reducing cortisol release which development and well-being. Narvaez et al. 3 In prior studies of the EDN with child outcomes, mothers Educational Development (GED; 5.2%); some college, were questioned extensively about their general attitudes and associate’s, or technical degree (26.8%); bachelor’s degree behaviors. In this study, we sought to develop a way to mea- (37.5%); and master’s, professional, or doctorate degree sure a child’s EDN-consistent experience with only a few (29.5%). Annual household income ranged from less than questions and more proximally. We developed a measure that US$15,000 (3%), US$15,000 to US$30,000 (12.4%), could be used quickly and periodically with parents to mea- US$30,000 to US$50,000 (21.8%), US$50,000 to sure the child’s EDN-consistent experience over time. Based US$75,000 (23.5%), US$75,000 to US$100,000 (19.9%), to on success with a 11-item adult measure of EDN history that more than US$100,000 (19.5%). Participants completed the correlated with mental health, moral capacities, and moral ori- survey online and received a gift card. entation (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), we developed a proximal measure to be used by parents about a child’s recent Measures. Measures included reports on provision of the EDN experience, as a presumed snapshot of experience over EDN, responsivity, child mental health outcomes, and socio- the long term. We wanted to see whether a short measure of morality. Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) and reliabili- EDN-consistent experience could also capture relations ties are provided in Table 1. between reported childhood experience and child outcomes, as did research with the longer measures described earlier. Our Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report (EDNPR). The goal here was to validate the scores and the use of the scores to EDNPR is a six-item checklist about the child’s experience make predictions in three countries. Theoretically, we expected in the last week (6-point scale; 1= never; 6 = several times that scores on the new measure of EDN-consistent experience a day). It is based on the EDN History for adults (Narvaez, would be related to positive child outcomes. We also expected Wang, & Cheng, 2016), which contains 11 items, includ- that parents who reported their children’s recent experience as ing questions on breastfeeding and parental responsiveness EDN-consistent would have children with higher scores on eliminated here. We used six items appropriate for parents measures of psychological well-being (using measures of of preschoolers: positive and negative touch, indoor and out- well-being, happiness), sociomoral development (socializa- door free play, and family togetherness inside and outside the tion measures of self-regulation, empathy, conscience), and home (see supplemental materials for items). Responses were Social Thriving (social enjoyment, attunement, consideration, summed to create a composite. Questions represent a checklist imagination). If we found significant relationships between of a child’s overall environment (which can vary by calendar, scores on the new measure and positive child outcomes, it season, and life events), rather than a specific aspect, so 16 would demonstrate the construct validity of the measure. mothers provided test–retest reliability over a 2-week interval. Furthermore, we decided to take advantage of our data to explore their relation to negative outcomes. Although litera- Responsivity. For parental responsivity (Narvaez, Wang, ture explores the relationship between parental responsiveness et al., 2013), parents rated seven items (e.g., “I feel that and child outcomes, even mitigating negative child outcomes my child and I have warm, intimate times together”) on a (e.g., Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005), little work 6-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). addresses how a measure of the EDN might be related to nega- Responses were averaged. tive child outcomes, above and beyond responsive care. We thought that perhaps those with EDN-inconsistent experience Child well-being. Two measures assessed child well-being would be more likely to show psychopathology and self-pro- (Gleason et al., 2016). Thriving includes nine items (e.g., tective behaviors in social situations. Thus, we also explored “My child deals well with problems”) scored using a 6-point the relation between the EDN and negative child outcomes. In scale (1 = never to 6 = always). Happiness is a five-item both cases—positive and negative outcomes—we controlled frequency measure (e.g., “Dances spontaneously”) scored on for parent responsivity to find out whether our short measure a 6-point scale (1 = never to 6 = more than once a day). would provide predictive validity beyond parent responsivity. Child ill-being. Three measures assessed ill-being. Depres- sion (Gleason et al., 2016) included 10 items on frequency Study 1 of childhood depression symptoms (e.g., “How often does your child lack confidence?”) scored on a 6-point scale Method (1 = never to 6 = several times a day). The 14-item Preschool Participants and procedure. Participants were recruited from Anxiety Scale measured anxiety (Spence, Rapee, McDonald, online parenting blogs and regional daycares (574 U.S. par- & Ingram, 2001; e.g., “Is afraid of meeting or talking to unfa- ents [508 mothers] with 3- to 5-year-old children; 327 sons, miliar people”) on a 5-point scale (0 = not true at all to 1 “Other Sex”). Parental age ranged from 20 to 49 years 4 = very often true or not applicable). Misbehavior (Gleason (M = 32.85; M = 32.65). Education levels were et al., 2016) was measured with five frequency items (e.g., mothers fathers distributed across a wide spectrum: Participants completed “How often does your child misbehave?”) and was rated on some high school (1%); high school diploma/General a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = several times a day). 4 SAGE Open Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliability Coefficients for Predictors and Factors by Sample. United Sates Switzerland China (n = 451-574) (n = 80-96) (n = 365-382) Variable M (SD) α M (SD) α M (SD) α a b b b EDNPR 29.48 (3.43) .72 23.84 (9.37) .64 14.50 (4.51) .75 Responsivity 4.43 (0.53) .70 4.51 (0.41) .78 3.03 (0.38) .83 Moral Socialization variables Internalized conduct 4.32 (1.09) .86 3.06 (0.75) .84 4.13 (0.52) .61 Inhibitory control 4.97 (0.85) .83 — — 4.75 (0.79) .81 Concern after wrongdoing 5.16 (1.18) .88 3.46 (0.64) .70 5.21 (0.94) .82 Empathy 5.31 (0.60) .86 4.09 (0.54) .82 5.04 (0.68) .74 Social Maladaptation variables Depression 1.99 (0.68) .92 2.11 (0.75) .83 1.70 (0.65) .86 Anxiety 1.46 (0.51) .94 1.56 (0.44) .81 2.32 (0.91) .91 Misbehavior 2.69 (0.47) .75 2.08 (0.80) .67 2.24 (0.45) .81 Social opposition 2.63 (0.98) .92 2.27 (0.85) .88 1.98 (0.77) .89 c c c 1.84 (0.88) .70 1.81 (0.79) .76 Social distrust 3.08 (0.82) .42 Social withdrawal 2.43 (0.80) .91 2.22 (0.80) .87 2.15 (0.73) .90 Social Thriving variables Thriving 5.43 (0.51) .91 5.03 (0.54) .78 4.75 (0.78) .81 Happiness 5.35 (0.63) .72 4.21 (0.79) .74 4.50 (1.18) .62 Social attunement 5.16 (0.72) .88 4.18 (0.97) .88 3.88 (1.17) .94 Social enjoyment 5.61 (0.58) .93 5.09 (0.70) .89 4.67 (1.15) .97 Social consideration 5.00 (0.77) .84 3.99 (0.82) .71 3.64 (1.12) .91 Social imagination 4.97 (0.84) .81 4.46 (0.83) .78 3.87 (1.17) .94 Note. All reliability coefficients are Cronbach’s alpha, unless otherwise noted. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report. Composite score of EDNPR. Indicates test–retest reliability. Two-item measure, indicates bivariate correlation. Child Moral Socialization. Moral Socialization was mea- with social engagement: attunement, enjoyment, and consid- sured using 7-point Likert-type scales (1 = extremely untrue eration and one with imagination: social imagination. of your child to 7 = extremely true of your child). Because self-control is part of successful moral behavior, we mea- Analyses. A set of exploratory and confirmatory factor analy- sured self-regulation through (a) internalized conduct (nine ses identified three latent child outcome variables. We then items; Kochanska, 1994; e.g., “When unsupervised, is likely tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three factors to stop himself or herself on his or her own when just about using structural equation modeling (SEM; Figures 1-3). All to do something wrong”); (b) inhibitory control, using the models were analyzed using the lavaan package (Rosseel, Child Behavior Questionnaire subscale (CBQ; 13 items; 2012) in R (R Core Team, 2016). We utilized robust standard Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001; e.g., “Is good at error estimates, Yuan–Bentler corrections for model fit indi- following instructions”); and (c) concern after wrongdoing ces, and full-information maximum likelihood estimation to (eight items; Kochanska, 1994; e.g., “After having done deal with missing data (Yuan & Bentler, 2000). Furthermore, something naughty, asks to be forgiven”). We also measured we examined model fit based on three standard criteria: empathy (Kochanska, 1994; 13 items; e.g., “Will try to com- robust chi-square, comparative fit index (CFI), and bias- fort or reassure another in distress”). corrected 90% confidence interval (CI) of root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). Child moral temperament. The Child Triune Ethics Mea- sure (CTEM; Gleason et al., 2016) is a parent report of child moral temperament using a 6-point Likert-type scale Results (1 = never to 6 = several times a day). Its 53 items comprise Means and standard deviations are provided in the first col- seven subscales related to sociomoral capacities (Narvaez, umn of Table 1 (see supplemental materials for correlations). 2016). Three are associated with social self-protectionism: Previous work using data from 166 mothers of 3-year-old opposition, distrust, and withdrawal. Three are associated Narvaez et al. 5 Figure 1. U.S. Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (23) = 28.92, p = .18; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .033, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .04]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. Figure 2. U.S. Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (38) = 87.44, p < .001; CFI = .94; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. children (Narvaez, Gleason, et al., 2016) suggested that the retaining three factors, with three eigenvalues larger than 1. child outcomes loaded on three factors. For this study, both Therefore, three measurement models were created. First, parallel and exploratory factor analyses suggested three fac- Moral Socialization was a combination of internalized con- tors should be retained. Kaiser’s rule also pointed to duct, inhibitory control, concern after wrongdoing, and 6 SAGE Open Figure 3. U.S. Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 88.79, p < .001; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. empathy (see latent outcome in Figure 1). Within the mea- SEM models fit the data well (see Figures 1-3). As expected, surement model, we allowed for the residual covariances EDNPR positively predicted Moral Socialization (b = 0.17, between internalized conduct, concern after wrongdoing, p = .005) and Social Thriving (b = 0.22, p < .000). Both and inhibitory control, which created a saturated model. We models controlled for parents’ age, education, income, allowed these residuals to covary based on model modifica- responsivity, and child’s gender. Using the same controls, we tion indices. The same set of residual covariances was found that EDNPR also negatively predicted Social applied to Study 2 and Study 3 and were cross-validated (see Maladaptation (b = –0.11, p = .02). Study 2 and Study 3 results). We also explored the relation between EDN-consistent Discussion experience and negative outcomes. Social opposition, dis- trust, and withdrawal, along with anxiety, depression, and The EDNPR scores have good test–retest reliability and pre- misbehavior, loaded on Social Maladaptation (see latent out- dicted the positive child outcomes as expected. As hypothe- come in Figure 2). This model allowed for several residual sized, the EDNPR measure predicted both of the factors that covariances: social opposition with misbehavior, depression, emerged from the child outcome data: Moral Socialization and and distrust; depression with anxiety and misbehavior; and Social Thriving. Moral Socialization aligns with moral devel- misbehavior with withdrawal. Model fit was adequate: opment as previously studied longitudinally by Kochanska robust χ (3) = 2.53, p = .47; CFI = 1.00; and 90% CI (2002). We expected the relation between our brief measure of RMSEA = [.000, .070]. the EDNPR and Moral Socialization because of the theoretical Social Thriving included social attunement, social enjoy- connection between EDN-consistent care and healthy physio- ment, and social imagination, as well as consideration, thriv- logical systems that facilitate good self- and emotion regula- ing, and happiness (see latent outcome in Figure 3). A set of tion (Narvaez, Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013b). Social residuals was allowed to be covaried based on model modi- Thriving comprises outcomes of engaged social life (e.g., fication indices: well-being with happiness and consider- social attunement, thriving). The positive relation between ation with imagination and attunement. This model was EDNPR and Social Thriving is consistent with views of moral adequate: robust χ (6) = 3.45, p = .75; CFI = 1.00; and development that relate it to enjoyment of connections with 90% CI RMSEA = [.000, .037]. others. Specifically, Social Thriving includes social enjoy- Next, SEM models were fitted to test whether EDNPR ment, a component of what Darwin (1871/1981) identified as predicted each outcome while controlling for demographic humanity’s evolved moral sense. information. We used the latent child outcome measurement Social Maladaptation includes negative outcomes that model coefficients as constraints in SEM analyses. Both represent externalizing and internalizing tendencies that Narvaez et al. 7 overlap with protectionism in moral temperament. Scores on average (19.8%), to higher than the Swiss average (62.5%), the EDNPR were negatively related to maladaptation, even and one declined a response. Participants received an online when controlling for the effects of parental responsivity and gift card for participating. demographics. These results are consistent with work dem- onstrating relationships between negative attitudes toward Measures. The measures used in Study 1 were used in Study EDN-consistent care and negative child outcomes (Gleason 2; however, inhibitory control was removed from analyses et al., 2016). due to items that were culturally foreign (e.g., reference to All latent factors were predicted by EDNPR even after unfamiliar games) and due to severe missing data. The test– multiple controls. Interestingly, apart from the consistent retest reliability of EDNPR was assessed based on the data of power of parental responsivity, the significance of controls 15 mothers and two fathers over a 2-week interval (r = .64). varied for each model. Gender was also predictive for Social Materials were translated into German by native speakers on Thriving and Moral Socialization. In both models, the out- the research team and underwent discursive validation in a come scores were higher for girls than boys. One interpreta- pretest involving six parents (two fathers). tion of these findings is that girls tend to mature more quickly and be more resilient to stressors than boys (Schore, 2017), Results and perhaps as a result, their scores on the Moral Socialization and Social Thriving measures were higher. The fact that Means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients are income was a significant predictor of Moral Socialization listed in Table 1 (see supplemental materials for correla- corresponds with research connecting socioeconomic status tions). We again fitted SEM models to examine the same (SES) and socioemotional development (Bradley & Corwyn, three measurement models of the outcomes variables, and 2002), suggesting differences in socialization or a poverty then the relationship between EDNPR and the outcomes (see deficit (more toxic stress) might influence factors of self- Figures 4-6). The Moral Socialization measurement model control, conscience, and empathy. Finally, for Social was saturated; however, as noted above, inhibitory control Maladaptation, only responsivity was predictive along with was not included. Social Thriving had the same factorial EDNPR, suggesting that EDNPR may be useful for predict- structure with similarly adequate fit indices as U.S. Social ing negative outcomes. Thriving, robust χ (6) = 2.62, p = .85, CFI = 1.00, 90% CI The new measure worked well with a U.S. sample, but RMSEA = [.000, .085]. Finally, the Social Maladaptation would it work with a sample from a different country? measure model fit the Swiss data well, robust χ (3) = .408, Although we expected EDN-consistent behavior to influence p = .94, CFI = 1.00, 90% RMSEA = [.001, .0001]. We sociomoral development regardless of the culture because therefore assumed cross-cultural configural measurement the basis of these behaviors is purported to be in human evo- invariance for the child outcome variables as shown in the lution, norms for behaviors such as touch, play, and together- same latent structures of the outcomes between countries. ness might differ cross-culturally. To investigate these Following the creation of the Swiss measurement models, questions, we collected the same variables in Switzerland. we tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three out- comes using SEM models. All models controlled for moth- er’s age, education, income, responsivity, and child’s gender. Study 2 All models fit the data well (see Figures 4-6). EDNPR significantly positively predicted Social Method Thriving (b = 0.51, p < .001), but did not predict Moral Participants and procedures. Participants were recruited from Socialization (b = 0.20, p = .11) or Social Maladaptation children’s hospitals, pediatricians’ practices, daycares, and (b = 0.01, p = .99). family counseling centers in Switzerland. Institutions dis- tributed flyers describing the study that contained a link to Discussion the online survey. In addition, a call for participants was pub- lished on the Facebook page of one of the universities host- The role of the EDNPR in predicting the two predicted sets ing the study. Eighty-four Swiss mothers and 12 Swiss of child outcomes was notably different in the Swiss sample fathers of 3- to 5-year-old children participated (52 sons). than in the U.S. sample and also for Social Maladaptation. Parental age ranged from 28 to 66 years (M = 36.3; EDN-consistent care appeared to be a good predictor of mothers M = 41.2). Education levels were distributed across a Social Thriving but had no bearing on Moral Socialization or fathers wide spectrum: finished compulsory school (2.1%), high Social Maladaptation. In the Swiss sample, other variables school diploma or apprenticeship (26%), teacher education had more relevance for predicting child outcomes: Low seminary (5.2%), applied science or bachelor’s degree parental responsivity was a significant predictor of Social (33.3%), and master’s or doctorate degree (33.4%). Annual Maladaptation; older mothers tended to report greater Social household income ranged from below the Swiss average of Maladaptation and lower Moral Socialization among their CHF 85,344 or US$86,363 (16.7%), equal to the Swiss children than did younger mothers, suggesting that 8 SAGE Open Figure 4. Swiss Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (14) = 13.99, p = .45; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .00, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .10]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. Figure 5. Swiss Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 38.51, p = .71; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .00, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .05]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. investigating parenting differences between the children of Moral Socialization was also predicted by gender of child older and younger mothers—or the perspectives of these (mothers reported higher Moral Socialization for girls than mothers themselves—might illuminate processes or mecha- boys), which is consistent with prior findings attributing nisms in children’s sociomoral development. more attention to and concern with the feelings of others Narvaez et al. 9 Figure 6. Swiss Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 44.89, p = .43; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .01, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .07]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. among girls than boys. The other behaviors associated with blur the distinction between good, appropriate, and bad and EDN-consistent caregiving (e.g., positive and negative inappropriate behavior and have influenced other responses. touch, family togetherness) did not contribute to variables Parents’ understanding of the core concepts of the EDN and dependent upon self-regulatory strategies. In contrast, EDN- the scales included in Moral Socialization, Social Thriving consistent caregiving did predict Social Thriving. Theorized and Social Maladaptation should be explored in more depth effects of EDN-consistent care relating to the establishment to delineate cultural differences. of healthy, robust physiological systems controlling self-reg- The Swiss sample was significantly smaller than the U.S. ulatory behaviors that comprise elements of Moral sample. In addition, almost two thirds of the sample had an Socialization were not found in this sample. Although empa- income higher than average, comparable with 20% of the thy was significantly correlated with EDNPR, concern after U.S. sample. Even so, the United States and Switzerland wrongdoing and internalized conduct were not, and in the share similarities as Western nations. The inconsistencies in models, EDNPR did not outweigh the prediction of child results between these two countries suggested that relation- gender, parent age, and education for Moral Socialization. ships between the EDNPR and sociomoral development These findings suggest that the benefits of the caregiving might be significantly different if tested in a third, more practices addressed in the EDNPR may vary by culture. diverse, culture. Consequently, Study 3 was conducted using Some of the survey items may have been interpreted dif- a sample from China. ferently by Swiss parents due to cultural norms. For exam- ple, the term “misbehavior” in English was translated as Study 3 “bad behavior.” Three participants explicitly complained about the use of the term “bad” in describing young chil- Method dren’s behavior. Two argued that “bad” was abstract and Participants and procedure. Parents of 382 children (188 boys, might describe various kinds of behavior and added that “bad 191 girls, three nonresponse) from six preschools in Beijing, behavior” was seen from the adult’s point of view, not the China, participated. Parental age ranged from 21 to 45 years child’s. The third argued that “bad” had a negative connota- (M = 33.49; M = 34.07). Children ranged in age tion, but that a child’s exploration of boundaries and of his or mothers fathers from 3 to 5 years. Education levels were no formal education her own sense of self was something he or she could not see (0.5%), technical secondary school (7.3%), high school as negative or bad. These statements express an attitude of (5.8%), associate’s degree (17.8%), bachelor’s degree critical reflection and a hesitation to negatively label behav- (33.8%), master’s degree or doctorate (30.3%), other ior not desirable from an adult point of view. The latter might 10 SAGE Open Figure 7. China Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (23) = 42.67, p = .006; CFI = .94; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.03, .07]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. certificate (0.8%), and missing (3.7%). Annual household Thriving had the same factorial structure with similarly ade- income (converted to American dollars) was distributed: less quate fit indices as United States, χ (6) = 20.09, p = .003, than US$15,000 (2.4%), US$15,000 to US$45,000 (7.5%), CFI = .987, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .12]. Again, we assume US$45,000 to US$80,000 (13.1%), US$80,000 to cross-cultural configural measurement invariance for the US$120,000 (17.7%), US$120,000 to US$160,000 (17.7%), child outcome variables based on good model fit of the con- and more than US$160,000 (41.6%). firmatory factor analysis (CFA) models and the exact same Participants received packets from their children’s pre- latent structure between countries. school teachers that included a cover letter explaining the We tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three study, a consent form, and the study measures. Those who outcomes using SEM, controlling for the same variables as returned the materials were given a book as a gift. previously. All models fit the data well (see Figures 7-9). The China data suggested that EDNPR positively predicted Measures. The same measures and composites used in Study Moral Socialization (b = 0.14, p = .02) and Social Thriving 1 were used in this study. Native speakers of Chinese on the (b = 0.13, p = .03), but did not predict Social Maladaptation research team translated the materials. The test–retest reli- (b = –0.02, p = .80). ability of EDNPR was assessed based on the data of 43 mothers over a 2-week interval (r = .75). Discussion The measure worked well in predicting positive outcomes. Results The links that emerged between EDNPR and responsivity and both Moral Socialization and Social Thriving were con- Means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients are sistent with prior research in China. In Chinese families, listed in the third column of Table 1 (see Supplemental parental warmth was related to preschoolers’ social cogni- Materials for correlations). As in the first two studies, we tion (Li & Sang, 2006), and parental responsivity was related conducted SEM to examine the relationship between the to child empathy and sociability (Liu et al., 2010). The fact EDNPR measure and the child outcomes (see Figures 7-9). that the EDNPR predicted Moral Socialization and Social The Moral Socialization measurement model was saturated Thriving beyond responsivity suggests that other EDN- when fitted to the China data. Social Maladaptation also had consistent components might also be important for socio- good fit indices, χ (3) = 2.84, p = .42, CFI = 1.00, 90% CI moral development. RMSEA = [.00, .09] with the same factorial structure. Social Narvaez et al. 11 Figure 8. China Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 54.92, p = .125; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .025, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .04]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. Figure 9. China Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates. Note. Standardized solutions. Robust χ (44) = 42.67, p = .006; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .045, 90% CI RMSEA = [.03, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval. *p < .05. **p < .01. For Social Thriving, EDNPR was predictive along with also facilitate mothers’ perceptions of their children as happy, responsivity, but parental education and income also pre- thriving, and attuned to others if their lives are less stressful dicted Social Thriving. Again, this enjoyment of others than those of their lower SES counterparts. appears to be partly a function of those parenting practices Social Maladaptation was predicted only by responsivity. thought to be characteristic of the EDN over and above One interpretation of these findings is related to the collec- mothers’ responsiveness to their children. Higher SES might tivistic and communal orientation of Chinese culture in 12 SAGE Open comparison particularly with U.S. culture. This difference at least in comparison with responsivity. The fact that gender relates to a system of values and self-construal in which was also predictive of Moral Socialization in the U.S. and Chinese citizens are less likely to focus on individual emo- Swiss samples but not in the Chinese sample raises the ques- tions or to centralize them in their lives (Ryder et al., 2008). tion of whether parents manifest gender differences in their Some collectivist cultures, like traditional Chinese culture, expectations for processes such as self-regulation and empa- discourage expression of negative emotion (Triandis, thy in these Western cultures but not in China. McCusker, & Hui, 1990). Similarly, cultural rules about behavior might disallow showing opposition, distrust, or EDN Provision Related to Social Thriving withdrawal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of psy- chopathology, a widely acknowledged key finding is that The fact that EDNPR scores predicted Social Thriving Chinese individuals are more likely to exhibit somatic symp- beyond responsivity alone in all three samples is consistent toms rather than psychological symptoms of depression with work in anthropology, in that societies that provide (Ryder, Yang, & Heine, 2002). Moreover, it is well docu- EDN-consistent care (nomadic foragers) are also described mented that the Chinese stigmatize mental illnesses (Ryder as socially thriving (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005; Konner, 2005). et al., 2008). These cultural factors might have influenced The co-occurrence of EDN provision and Social Thriving is mothers’ responses to the variables relating to psychopathol- also evident in accounts of contemporary hunter-gatherer ogy and misbehavior in particular. However, such an expla- groups (Narvaez, Valentino, Fuentes, McKenna, & Gray, nation does not account for the fact that parental responsivity 2014). In these contexts, “children are not ‘parented’ or was negatively associated with Social Maladaptation, as in ‘reared’ so much as supported as they actively develop as both of the other samples. This issue could be explored in individuals within the community” (Gleason & Narvaez, future studies that explicitly address cultural differences. 2014, p. 339). The mechanisms by which practices such as touch, play, and family togetherness influence developmen- tal outcomes cannot be determined by our data, but the find- General Discussion ings suggest that EDN-consistent care might be characteristic We were interested in testing and validating a brief measure of a social context in which children grow up to take pleasure of recent experience (as a proxy for ongoing experience) in their interactions with others. consistent with the EDN. Theoretically, measuring the provi- In contrast to the important constructs of resilience and sion of the EDN is an indicator of early life experience that is adaptation, social thriving is not typically examined in devel- species-typical. By examining the relation between EDN opmental research. Examination of EDN-consistent care provision and sociomoral development in three cultures, we might provide clues as to how to optimize development hoped to illuminate the extent to which this short measure of (Narvaez & Gleason, 2013), at least with respect to social EDN-consistent care was predictive of positive child out- engagement within communities. However, Social Thriving, comes and to examine its construct validity. Generally, the or pleasure in interactions with others, might by necessity ENDPR scores were significantly related to positive child precede what Darwin (1871/1981) described as humanity’s outcomes even after controlling for parental responsivity and moral sense—a connection to others that elicits, reinforces, other demographic variables, except for Swiss Moral and supports moral behavior. Darwin emphasized social Socialization, which could be due to its very small sample pleasure, which includes capacities for being-with others size. Therefore construct validity of EDNPR is largely sup- (e.g., being emotionally present, instead of caught up in com- ported across two countries (United States, China), with petition or fear). Our measure of Social Thriving resonates methodological issues making validity in Switzerland with this idea, as well as with Aristotle’s claim that social- unverifiable. fittedness reflects flexible relational attunement (Narvaez, 2016). Nevertheless, both Darwin and Aristotle noted that those who display virtuous character also exercise self-regu- EDN Provision Related to Moral Socialization lation (Nussbaum, 1988) and self-control, as included our For Moral Socialization, EDNPR scores and responsivity Moral Socialization variable. were predictors in the United States and China, but neither predicted Moral Socialization in the Swiss model. This latter EDN Provision Related to Social Maladaptation finding is puzzling, given that responsive care facilitates development of multiple physiological systems underlying We explored whether EDNPR would be predictive of nega- self-regulatory capacities such as the stress response (Lupien, tive child outcomes. It was negatively predictive of Social McEwen, Gunnar, & Heim, 2009). The effects of EDNPR on Maladaptation only in the United States, although responsiv- Moral Socialization were also small in the U.S. and China ity was predictive in every model. This finding suggests that samples. These estimates suggest that the elements of EDN- the EDNPR may not be as useful for predicting negative as consistent care that we measured in the EDNPR have signifi- for predicting positive outcomes. In other words, absence of cant but modest influence on children’s Moral Socialization, EDN-consistent care, at least the elements measured by the Narvaez et al. 13 EDNPR, is not typically detrimental to average trouble-free data might have attenuated the effects on developmental development (except perhaps in the United States). One way outcomes. to conceptualize the role of these caregiving practices is by providing the difference between healthy, adequate care and Future Directions care that facilitates Social Thriving and perhaps some pro- motion of sociomoral development. Again, this interpreta- A short parenting report like the EDNPR allows for longitu- tion supports the idea that caregiving practices consistent dinal data collection to measure the flux in experience. The with the EDN might help optimize development, even as the findings presented here suggest that the EDNPR might allow adaptability of the human species might mean that missing for analysis of the concurrent and predictive relations these EDN-consistent components does not compromise between EDN-consistent experience and reports of child out- average development. comes. In-depth analysis of family dynamics through obser- vation would also be helpful for interpretation and might help illuminate ways in which parenting practices promote Parental Responsivity developmental optimization specifically in relation to chil- As expected, parental responsivity was predictive in nearly dren’s social engagement. every model. These findings are consistent with a plethora of The correspondence in the directions of effects between research connecting parent responsivity to children’s devel- the EDNPR and parental responsivity for some developmen- opmental outcomes. When relationships between scores on tal outcomes raises the question of whether and how EDN- the EDNPR and the outcome variables were significant, they consistent parenting might be related to attachment. Because were in the same direction as responsivity, which could be secure attachment has been related to higher Moral interpreted as providing modest concurrent validity of the Socialization and lower Social Maladaptation (Sroufe et al., EDNPR measure. 2005), attachment security could be examined for its relation In summary, the EDNPR allowed for the assessment of to experiences measured by the EDNPR. Attachment secu- children’s experience beyond parental responsivity alone. rity is consistently correlated with parental responsiveness, The findings suggest that measuring the EDN proximally relating to greater social skills and emotional and behavioral might be beneficial for predicting children’s positive out- self-regulation longitudinally (Allen & Fonagy, 2002; comes, at least in relation to Social Thriving and to some Fonagy, Steele, Moran, Steele, & Higgitt, 1991; Kochanska, extent Moral Socialization. While research on children’s 2002; Sroufe et al., 2005). resilience has provided an optimistic story regarding our Trevarthen (2005) provides an interesting framework for species’ adaptability, consideration of the contexts and how attachment and EDN-consistent parenting might be practices that promote not just healthy adaptation, but related. He suggests that typical measures of attachment, actual Social Thriving, is a worthy goal. The results pre- based on Bowlby’s definition of warmth attachment (which sented here are promising for a short measure of the EDN, includes soothability and deactivation of defensive emotions although further attention must be paid to the different and behaviors), are not measuring optimal attachment. ways in which culture might influence these processes. Instead, optimal attachment, which Trevarthen calls compan- Finally, the inconsistency in the predictive power of the ionship attachment, involves togetherness in play, intention, other control variables raises interesting questions about interests, and affective appraisals—behaviors reminiscent of how demographic characteristics such as child gender, EDN-consistent caregiving. Care that fosters companionship parental age, income, and education might influence devel- attachment might reflect the evolved nest as provided in opmental outcomes. hunter-gatherer groups described by anthropologists (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005). Perhaps responsivity fosters warmth attach- ment, whereas other EDN-consistent practices promote com- Limitations panionship attachment. Theoretically, the measure of Social This study has several limitations. Theoretically, we mea- Thriving presented here might be an indicator of this form of sured features of humanity’s purported EDN but only within optimal attachment. Examination of this possibility might industrialized societies. Ideally, the comparison of EDN- illuminate the study of developmental optimization. related experience would involve indigenous cultures and possibly cross-species (mammals) comparisons. There were Declaration of Conflicting Interests methodological weaknesses as well. First, all data were The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect obtained through parental report. Correlations that emerged to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. could be owing to the common source of information. Future studies should use observation to corroborate both EDN pro- Funding vision (what children are experiencing) and child outcomes. Second, the methodological differences, small sample size, The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The and the lower reliability of the EDNPR measure in the Swiss 14 SAGE Open author(s) received funding from the Institute for Educational Cognitive Development, 17, 1287-1300. doi:10.1016/S0885- Initiatives and the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies at 2014(02)00120-X the University of Notre Dame. Hewlett, B. S., & Lamb, M. E. (2005). Hunter-gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perspectives. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine. doi:10.4324/9780203789445 Supplemental Material Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation Supplemental material for this article is available online. modeling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53-60. doi:10.12691/ jbms-1-5-2 Notes Keating, D. P. (2016). Transformative role of epigenetics in child 1. For this measure, we cut down the number of items from 29 to development research: Commentary on the special section. 14, considering item content as well as statistical information, Child Development, 87, 135-142. doi:10.1111/cdev.12488 and achieved similar reliability. Kochanska, G. (1994). Beyond cognition: Expanding the search for 2. The response scale for the Evolved Developmental Niche the early roots of internalization and conscience. Developmental Provision Report was translated conceptually rather than liter- Psychology, 30, 20-22. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.20 ally because of cultural preferences. Kochanska, G. (2002). Mutually responsive orientation between mothers and their young children: A context for the early devel- ORCID iD opment of conscience. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 191-195. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00198 Darcia Narvaez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8633-8998 Konner, M. (2005). Hunter-gatherer infancy and childhood: The !Kung and others. In B. Hewlett & M. Lamb (Eds.), Hunter- References gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural Allen, J. G., & Fonagy, P. (2002). The development of mentalizing perspectives (pp. 19-64). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. and its role in psychopathology and psychotherapy (Technical Li, Y., & Sang, B. (2006). Mothers’ parenting style and the devel- Report 02-0048). Topeka, KS: Menninger Clinic. opment of children’s theory of mind. Chinese Mental Health Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and Journal, 20(1), 5-9. child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371- Liu, G., Wang, H., Zhang, J., Lian, G., Huang, X., & Shi, S. (2010). 399. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233 Relation of gender and family environment to social-ability Darwin, C. (1981). The descent of man. Princeton, NJ: Princeton development in children aged 30-36 months in urban China. University Press. (Original work published 1871) Chinese Mental Health Journal, 24, 295-299. Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans. Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Hormones and Behavior, 61, 380-391. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour Feldman, R., Singer, M., & Zagoory, O. (2010). Touch attenu- and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434-445. ates infants’ physiological reactivity to stress. Developmental doi:10.1038/nrn2639 Science, 13, 271-278. Narvaez, D. (2014). Neurobiology and the development of human Field, T. (2010). Touch for socioemotional and physical well-being: morality: Evolution, culture and wisdom. New York, NY: A review. Developmental Review, 30, 367-383. doi:10.1016/j. W.W. Norton. dr.2011.01.001 Narvaez, D. (2016). Embodied morality: Protectionism, engage- Fonagy, P., Steele, H., Moran, G., Steele, M., & Higgitt, A. ment and imagination. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. (1991). The capacity for understanding mental states: The doi:10.1057%2F978-1-137-55399-7 reflective self in parent and child and its significance for Narvaez, D., & Gleason, T. (2013). Developmental optimization. security of attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 13, In D. Narvaez, J. Panksepp, A. Schore, & T. Gleason (Eds.), 200-217. doi:10.1002/1097-0355(199123)12:3<201::AID- Evolution, early experience and human development: From IMHJ2280120307>3.0.CO;2- research to practice and policy (pp. 307-325). New York, Gleason, T., & Narvaez, D. (2014). Child environments and flour- NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso ishing. In D. Narvaez, K. Valentino, A. Fuentes, J. McKenna, %2F9780199755059.003.0018 & P. Gray (Eds.), Ancestral landscapes in human evolution: Narvaez, D., Gleason, T., Lefever, J. B., Wang, L., & Cheng, Culture, childrearing and social wellbeing (pp. 335-348). A. (2016). Early experience and ethical orientation. In New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof D. Narvaez (Ed.), Embodied morality: Protectionism, engage- :oso/9780199964253.003.0025 ment and imagination (pp. 73-98). New York, NY: Palgrave Gleason, T., Narvaez, D., Cheng, A., Wang, L., & Brooks, J. (2016). Macmillan. Well-being and sociomoral development in preschoolers: The Narvaez, D., Gleason, T., Wang, L., Brooks, J., Lefever, J., Cheng, role of maternal parenting attitudes consistent with the Evolved A. & Centers for the Prevention of Child Neglect. (2013). Developmental Niche. In D. Narvaez, J. Braungart-Rieker, The Evolved Development Niche: Longitudinal effects of L. Miller, L. Gettler, & P. Hastings (Eds.), Contexts for young caregiving practices on early childhood psychosocial devel- child flourishing: Evolution, family and society (pp. 166-184). opment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 759-773. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof: doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.003 oso/9780190237790.003.0008 Narvaez, D., & Hardy, S. (2016). Measuring triune eth- Gottlieb, G. (2002). On the epigenetic evolution of species- ics orientations. In D. Narvaez (Ed.), Embodied moral- specific perception: The developmental manifold concept. ity: Protectionism, engagement and imagination (pp. Narvaez et al. 15 47-72). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057 Ryder, A. G., Yang, J., Zhu, X., Yao, S., Yi, J., Heine, S. J., & %2F978-1-137-55399-7_3 Bagby, R. M. (2008). The cultural shaping of depression: Narvaez, D., Panksepp, J., Schore, A., & Gleason, T. (Eds.). Somatic symptoms in China, psychological symptoms in North (2013a). Evolution, early experience and human develop- America? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 300-313. ment: From research to practice and policy. New York, NY: doi:10.1037/0021-843x.117.2.300 Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso Schore, A. N. (2017). All our sons: The developmental neurobi- %2F9780199755059.001.0001 ology and neuroendocrinology of boys at risk. Infant Mental Narvaez, D., Panksepp, J., Schore, A., & Gleason, T. (2013b). The Health Journal, 38, 15-52. doi:10.1002/imhj.21616 value of using an evolutionary framework for gauging chil- Spence, S. H., Rapee, R., McDonald, C., & Ingram, M. (2001). dren’s well-being. In Evolution, early experience and human The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. development: From research to practice and policy (pp. 3-30). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1293-1316. doi:10.1016/ New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof: s0005-7967(00)00098-x oso/9780199755059.003.0001 Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). Narvaez, D., Thiel, A., Kurth, A., & Renfus, K. (2016). Past moral The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and action and ethical orientation. In D. Narvaez (Ed.), Embodied adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York, NY: Guilford. morality: Protectionism, engagement and imagination (pp. 99- Trevarthen, C. (2005). Stepping away from the mirror: Pride and 118). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/978- shame in adventures of companionship—Reflections on the 1-137-55399-7_5 nature and emotional needs of infant intersubjectivity. In C. S. Narvaez, D., Valentino, K., Fuentes, A., McKenna, J., & Carter, L. Ahnert, K. E. Grossmann, S. B. Hrdy, M. E. Lamb, Gray, P. (2014). Ancestral landscapes in human evolu- S. W. Porges, & N. Sachser (Eds.), Attachment and bonding: A tion: Culture, childrearing and social wellbeing. New new synthesis (pp. 55-84). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof: Triandis, H., McCusker, C., & Hui, C. (1990). Multimethod probes oso/9780199964253.001.0001 of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality Narvaez, D., Wang, L., & Cheng, A. (2016). Evolved Developmental and Social Psychology, 59, 1006-1020. doi:10.1037/0022- Niche History: Relation to adult psychopathology and moral- 3514.59.5.1006 ity. Applied Developmental Science, 4, 294-309. doi:10.1080/1 Yuan, K.-H., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Three likelihood-based 0888691.2015.1128835 methods for mean and covariance structure analysis with non- Narvaez, D., Wang, L., Gleason, T., Cheng, A., Lefever, J., & normal missing data. Sociological Methodology, 30, 165-200. Deng, L. (2013). The evolved developmental niche and socio- doi:10.1111/0081-1750.00078 moral outcomes in Chinese three-year-olds. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10, 106-127. doi:10.1080/1740 Author Biographies 5629.2012.761606 Darcia Narvaez is professor of psychology at the University of Nussbaum, M. C. (1988). Non-relative virtues: An Aristotelian Notre Dame who studies lifespan flourishing and moral develop- approach. In P. A. French, T. E. Uehling, & H. K. ment. She is a fellow of the American Psychological Association Wettstein (Eds.), Ethical theory: Character and vir- and the American Educational Research Association. Her book, tue, Vol. XIII: Midwest studies in philosophy (pp. 32- Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality: Evolution, 53). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Culture and Wisdom won the APA’s William James book award doi:10.1093/0198287976.003.0019 and the Expanded Reason Award for research. Overton, W. F., & Molenaar, P. C. (2015). Concepts, theory, and method in developmental science: A view of the issues. In Ryan Woodbury is currently a research and data analyst at the W. F. Overton & P. Molenaar (Eds.), Theory and method, Institute for Educational Initiatives at the University of Notre Vol. 1: Handbook of child psychology and developmen- Dame. He focuses on K-12 education evaluation and improvement. tal science (7th ed., pp. 2-8). New York, NY: John Wiley. He has interests in character education programs and works with doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy101 community- and school-based organizations to support school lead- Oyama, S., Griffiths, P. E., & Gray, R. D. (2001). Cycles of contin- ers, teachers, and students. gency: Developmental systems and evolution. Cambridge, MA: Ying Cheng is an associate professor of Psychology and fellow of MIT Press. the Institute for Educational Initiatives at University of Notre Dame. R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statisti- She primarily works on methodological issues in psychological and cal computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical educational measurement and has won multiple awards including Computing. Available from http://www.R-project.org the NSF CAREER award. She is currently the editor of British Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equa- Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology (BJMSP) and a tion modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1-36. fellow of Society of Multivariate and Experimental Psychology. doi:10.18637/jss.v048.i02 Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Lijuan Wang is an associate professor in Quantitative Psychology Investigations of temperament at 3-7 years: The Children’s at University of Notre Dame. Her research interests are mainly in Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394-1408. developing and applying quantitative methods to better address doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00355 research questions in developmental psychology, family research, Ryder, A. G., Yang, J., & Heine, S. J. (2002). Somatization vs. psy- and health sciences. chologization of emotional distress: A paradigmatic example for cultural psychopathology. Online Readings in Psychology Angela Kurth is a doctoral candidate in the department of and Culture, 10(2). doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1080 Psychology at University of Notre Dame. She studies emotion 16 SAGE Open regulation and moral development in the context of parent-child the University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany, as a Guest Professor. relationships. Her research and teaching focus on socio-moral development across the lifespan; moral emotions; school bullying and its moral Tracy Gleason is a professor of Psychology at Wellesley College. dimensions; teacher professional ethos; teacher professional Her research concerns young children’s peer relationships, particu- development. larly with imaginary companions, as well as the parenting practices and social environments that promote prosocial behavior and moral Markus Christen is a researcher at the University of Zurich. His development. research interests include empirical ethics (developing and apply- ing measures for moral competences and moral reasoning), neuro- Lifang Deng is professor in Psychology at Beihang University. ethics (ethical issues of brain interventions), and ethics & technol- Her current research interests are in psychological measurement ogy (normative issues of artificial intelligence, big data and and psychological intervention, Aerospace Psychology, and I/O cybersecurity). Psychology. Eveline Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger currently works at the Catherine Näpflin, is researcher and PhD Student at University of Interdisciplinary Center for Integration and Migration Research at Teacher Education in Lucerne, Switzerland.

Journal

SAGE Open – SAGE

Published: Apr 2, 2019

Keywords: evolved developmental niche; sociality; Moral Socialization; China; Switzerland; preschool; parenting; Social Maladaptation; moral development; well-being

There are no references for this article.