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Climate Change as a Wicked Problem: An Evaluation of the Institutional Context for Rural Water Management in Ghana

Climate Change as a Wicked Problem: An Evaluation of the Institutional Context for Rural Water... Understanding complexity suggests that some problems are more complex than others and defy conventional solutions. These wicked problems will not be solved by the same tools and processes that are complicit in creating them. Neither will they be resolved by approaches short on explicating the complex interconnections of the multiple causes, consequences, and cross-scale actors of the problem. Climate change is one such wicked problem confronting water management in Ghana with a dilemma. The physical consequences of climate change on Ghana’s water resources are progressively worsening. At the same time, existing institutional arrangements demonstrate weak capacities to tackle climate change–related complexities in water management. Therefore, it warrants a dynamic approach imbued with complex and adaptive systems thinking, which also capitalizes on instrumental gains from prior existing institutions. Adaptive Co-Management offers such an opportunity for Ghana to adapt its water management system to climate change. Keywords climate change, wicked problems, institutions, rural water management, Adaptive Co-Management Introduction address the dilemma. Using rural water management as a reference point, this article argues that climate change as a The concept of “wicked problem” is embedded with notions wicked problem in Ghana can be demonstrated in two ways: of complexity. In planning and management policy, the term (a) its sheer physical consequences on water resources and wicked problem is used to refer to adverse social and envi- (b) weaknesses in institutional capacity to adapt. But, instead ronmental situations that overwhelm existing practices and of a fatalist approach, appropriate social and ecological insti- persist even after the application of best-known practices tutional capacities can be developed for effective adaptation. (Ludwig, 2001; Ritchey, 2005-2011; Rittel & Webber, 1973). We propose adaptive co-management (ACM) as a useful The concept is applied in organizational decision making as institutional approach. a “force of fragmentation” whereby stakeholders polarize around their views of a problem, thereby undermining col- Complexity, Wicked Problems, laborative problem solving (Conklin, 2001). From an inter- and Climate Change ventionist perspective, “a do-nothing” approach is perhaps a reasonable option for a problem that defies best intervention Complexity implies degree of difficulty in defining causal practices. However, Brown, Harris, and Russell (2010) linkages of an event as well as determining the boundaries pointed out that wicked problems will not be solved by the of their effects to allow for management of them with any same tools and processes that have created them. This sug- meaningful degree of accuracy and confidence. Complexity is gests that action is incumbent, but action must implore determined by the degree of uncertainty and social disagree- mechanisms and paths different from those that have per- ment on a particular issue (Patton, 2011; Stacy, 1996; petuated the problem in the first place. Zimmerman, 2001). A problem at the far end of an uncertainty In Ghana, climate change is an emerging issue in the national discourse. Already it is known to present challenges University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada to current development efforts and environmental manage- Corresponding Author: ment capacities. This article examines the nature of climate Kenneth O. Mensah, School of Environmental Design and Rural change as a wicked problem in water resource management Development, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. East, Guelph, Ontario, in Ghana, and how social and institutional capacities influ- N1G 2W1, Canada ence an understanding of climate change and efforts to Email: mensahk@uoguelph.ca 2 SAGE Open and disagreement continuum is considered complex because Contributing factors to uncertainty include dynamism of it challenges existing capacities to predict outcomes and the drivers of change such as human behavior, ecological fac- solutions, and therefore heightens disagreement resulting in tors, and scale of interaction of the processes (Dolšak et al., stakeholder conflicts. Complexity can be judged by source 2003; Gunderson & Holling, 2002). The dynamism factor is and nature. When a problem is generated by multiple factors particularly informative for climate change adaptation because from multiple sources, it is difficult to target the linkages of it denotes transition of a system where internal and external the causal factors and therefore raises questions of complex- variables create constant changes in the social or ecological ity to the extent that identification of the problem, and hence domains, and a change in the critical variables of one domain its solution, becomes difficult. Complexity can also be of a requires institutional adjustments in the other to prevent col- technical and social nature. The technical side relates to lapse of the entire system (Gunderson & Holling, 2002). limitations of quality of information and deficiency in exist- It is within this context that the interconnections among ing knowledge systems that make diagnosis of a particular complexity, wicked problems, and climate change can be viv- situation problematic because of high degree of uncertainties idly drawn, in that climate change adaptation requires restruc- in the solutions offered. The social aspect focuses on inher- turing social and ecological institutions to adjust to rapid and ent difficulties in coordination of activities, information, and uncertain change as well as to take advantage of the opportuni- stakeholders across disciplines, sectors, and scales in a man- ties presented by such changes (Brown et al., 2010). For ner that minimizes conflicts and builds consensus around instance, Ludwig (2001) following Rittel and Weber’s defini- solutions for a situation (Patton, 2011). tion described climate change as one example of wicked prob- The term wicked problems was originally coined by Rittel lems noting, “Such problems have no definitive formulation, no and Weber (1973) as the opposite of “tame problems,” where stopping rule, and no test for a solution. There will likely never the latter can be resolved with traditional methods because it is be a final resolution of any of them. Each such problem is unique: easy to define cause-and-effect relationship of the problem as They defy classification” (p. 3). The author identified terminolo- well as the solutions. Conversely, wicked problems are social gies used to describe wicked problems in the ecological litera- planning problems that defy traditional methods because they ture including truly complex, complex all the way down, and are “ill-defined, ambiguous and associated with strong moral, postnormal, characterized by radical uncertainty and plurality political and professional issues” (Ritchey, 2005-2011, p. 1). of legitimate perspectives. Thus, climate change is intractable, They are complex, with linkages to other issues evolving in a and adaptation solutions are elusive, making climate change a dynamic social context, and tackling one often leads to unin- perfect fit for the complexity and wicked problems model. tended consequences of generating new sets of wicked prob- Indeed, current global discourses suggest that no single lems. They are strongly stakeholder dependent, often with phenomenon exhibits the characteristics of wicked problems little consensus about what the problem is, let alone how to like climate change. It attracts varying interests and perspec- resolve it (Ritchey, 2005-2008, p. 1; Rittel & Weber, 1973). tives constantly juggling for recognition and acceptance. For Thus, complexity and wicked problems are interconnected. instance, the Australian Public Service Commission on Wicked problems are inherently complex in their scale of Climate Change demonstrates two perspectives. First are cli- uncertainty and disagreement, as well as in their technical and mate change believers, but acknowledge global structural social nature; therefore, they are best tackled by interdisciplin- inequalities among nations and refer rich nations to the Kyoto ary approaches, coexistence of different knowledge systems, Protocol to mitigate their greenhouse gas emissions. Kyoto flexible governance, and participatory processes and practices urges that remedying climate change would require all gov- that allow for adaptive learning and ethics. ernments to formally agree on future emissions cuts and the The concept of wicked problems has been applied in mechanisms to achieve the set targets. The onus is on devel- complex and adaptive systems thinking to draw linkages oped countries to mitigate their emissions and also provide within social and ecological systems (SES). SES are dif- developing countries with financial and technological assis- ficult to manage both at the technical and social levels tance (Ayers & Dodman, 2010; Flamos & Begg, 2010; because often they involve multiple sources, multiple United Nation Framework Conventions on Climate Change actors, and their externalities jump scales for which cross- [UNFCCC], 1998). This position is frequently contested scale institutions are required. According to Walker et al. among UNFCCC parties. The second is the skeptical per- (2002), spective that questions the authenticity of climate change as a human-induced problem. They argue that in a worse-case sce- A fundamental difficulty in managing SES for long nario, the catastrophic consequences of climate change will be term, sustainable outcomes is that their great complex- moderated by technology and market forces. This could lose ity makes it difficult to forecast the future in any traction as skepticism about climate change wanes. A third meaningful way. Not only are forecasts uncertain, the view may be added, focusing on governance reforms with usual statistical approaches will likely underestimate emphasis on participation, ethics, and justice with decision the uncertainties. That is, even the uncertainties are making devolved to local levels where citizens’ involvement uncertain. (p. 2) is instrumental (Both ENDS, 2007; Brown et al., 2010). FitzGibbon and Mensah 3 These divergent views demonstrate a high degree of dis- sources. Primary data came from interviews with 18 key agreement on the fundamental causes of and solutions for informants from government, research, and civil society climate change, as well as a high degree of uncertainty about organizations whose work intersects with water resource our understanding of all the variables involved in climate management and environmental protection. Participants change processes. In addition, it points to the deficiency in responded to questions focused on the challenges of cli- our technical and social capabilities to be able to deal with a mate change in the water sector and the capacities of water phenomenon with multiple sources, actors, stakeholders, institutions to adapt. Responses were then triangulated cross-scale influences (externalities), and linkages (Australian with secondary sources including published government, Public Service Commission, 2007). This leaves the policy research, and newspaper reports for reliability and validity. maker with a dynamic, plural, and argumentative system of For analysis, we examined the extent to which the data policy definition—typical of many wicked policy problems— matched up to Rittel and Webber’s (1973) construct of and also leaves the policy maker with a problem in which wicked problems. Based on the findings, we suggest a complexity outweighs the capabilities of his or her current method with a greater capacity to handle complexity (i.e., repertoire of methodologies (Australian Public Service climate change). Commission, 2007). It reechoes Hamilton’s (1999) point that “the problem of climate change is intractable by our tradi- Climate Change Trends in Africa tional scientific methods” (quoted in Ludwig, 2001, p. 757). The futility of relying on those same tools and practices that In a certain ironic fashion, Africa, the smallest contributor to have augmented the creation of the climate change problem is greenhouse gas emissions, is expected to be one of the most being noted (Brown et al., 2010). vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Ayers & Current adaptation frameworks are not sophisticated Dodman, 2010; IPCC, 2007; Magadza, 2000; UNFCCC, enough to sufficiently integrate the biophysical and the 2006). Projections of multiple stresses, such as increasing sociopolitical issues across multiple scales (Brown et al., severity and frequency in water shortages, declining agricul- 2010; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], tural productivity, desert and coastal encroachments, as well 2007; United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate as low adaptive capacity, raise concerns of security, liveli- Change [UNFCCC], 2006). Yet, consensus coalesce around hoods, mass ecomigration, and development on the continent the notion that effective and practical adaptive management (Brown & Crawford, 2008; Sharma et al., 1996; UNFCCC, of climate change depends on understanding the scale of 2006). By 2020, it is expected that more than 250 million influences of the drivers of change (general and systemic, Africans would be exposed to increased water stress, lacking slow and fast) at work in the system (Pahl-Wostl, 2007; access to portable water or adequate sanitation because of Tschaket & Dietrich, 2010). As Wilbanks (1999) noted, climate change, resulting also in 50% reduction in rain-fed agricultural yields (IPCC, 2007). This is against the backdrop At least, it is clear that some of the driving forces oper- promise of universal access to safe and reliable water supply ate at a global scale while many of the phenomena that by the UN Water Decade (1980-1990). underlie environmental processes operate at a local It is believed that climate change has affected rainfall scale. Understanding climate change processes and regimes resulting in the commonly observed frequency and responses require attention to multiple scales and how severity of floods and drought on the continent (IPCC, 2001; they relate to one another. (p. 602) Leroux, 2001). In Africa, coastal area sea-level rise is expected to result in annual flooding and salinization of water The Australian Public Service Commission is apt in its sources, which will severely affect millions of people in low- observation that the practical challenges facing our capabilities lying areas (Bunce, Rosendo, & Brown, 2010; McGranahan, to address climate change are often philosophical (ideological) Balk, & Anderson, 2007). The cost of adaptation could and methodological, particularly as they relate to cross-scale amount to at least 5% to 10% of GDP (IPCC, 2007). This is a linkages, trust and social capital formation among institutions, hindrance to the realization of key millennium development governance reforms that encourage participation, equity and goals such as poverty reduction and ensuring environmental global justice, and creating spaces for social learning in an adap- sustainability (Ayers & Dodman, 2010; Both ENDS, 2007; tive manner. In addition, there is consensus that effects of cli- UNFCCC, 2006). Not surprising, IPCC (2007) identified mate change are so advanced that mitigation alone is too late to water security among key potential impacts of climate make any meaningful reversals to the damage already in motion, change in Africa, as well as concerns of low adaptive capac- hence the focus on adaptation (Lambrou & Piana, 2006). ity on the continent. Africa’s low adaptive capacity revolves around its capital base required for capacity building and sustainable development policy because vulnerability to cli- Method mate change depends on development indicators (Ayers & Our approach is diagnostic and prescriptive with a qualita- Dodman, 2010; Gyampoh, Amisah, Idinoba, & Nkem, 2009; tive analytical slant. We used primary and secondary data UNFCCC, 2006). 4 SAGE Open availability and access, placing additional stresses on their Climate Change as a Wicked daily activities. As Gyampoh, Idinoba, and Amisah (2008, Problem in Water Management in p. 10) observe, “Whereas models and records of precipita- Ghana tion mainly focus on changing amounts of precipitation with Ghana is noted to share some notable developmental chal- climate change, knowledge of indigenous people also lenges with other African countries such as reliance on rain- emphasize changes in the regularity, length, intensity, and fed agriculture, vulnerability to drought and floods, poor timing of precipitation.” Brown and Crawford (2008) governance, and rapid population growth, which put undue observe that climate variability in combination with popula- pressure on the capacity of government to provide basic infra- tion growth will compound the adverse effects of inadequate structural services (Brown & Crawford, 2008). Climate change water supply in the country, particularly in the dry North, and and variability complicate these issues and undermine overall could lead to a 12-fold increase in the demand for irrigation development efforts in Ghana. As a wicked problem in the by 2050. The major dams that have been the mainstay of country’s water sector, climate change manifests in two dimen- urban water supply fluctuate in similar fashion to rivers, sions: first, the physical consequences of climate change on ponds, and creeks, which serve rural communities in corre- ecological resources (including water); second, climate spondence to climate variability (Gyampoh et al., 2009). change confronts existing water institutional arrangements The crisis could get worse, especially for rural water sys- with a dilemma exposing weaknesses in their capacity to tems, if effective adaptation mechanisms are not found soon tackle complexities associated with water management. (Environment Protection Agency [EPA], 2000; Ferguson & Rankin, 2005). Sea-level rise and coastal challenges. Climate change com- Physical Consequences pounds the adverse effects of inadequate water supply in Ghana is among countries where climate change is projected inland communities. Yet, sea-level change from that in 1990 to create water stress by 2025. As far as water resources indicates an average rise of 5.8, 16.5, and 34.5 cm by 2020, management and use are concerned, three climate change– 2050, and 2080. An estimated sea-level rise of 1 m by 2100 related issues are relevant: extreme events brought about by could inundate 1,120 km of lands and put 132,000 at risk changes in rainfall and temperature regimes, variability, and (EPA, 2000). It will worsen salt water intrusion into estuaries sea-level rise. As Table 1 shows, these climate change and aquifers, raised coastal water tables, and exacerbate issues, in turn, have negative repercussions on (a) the avail- coastal flooding and storm damage to coastal properties ability and quality of freshwater resources as hitherto peren- (EPA, 2000; Dankelman et al., 2008; Douglas et al., 2008). nial water sources dry up because of severe droughts and This will put two thirds of lands and residents living within pollutions of water bodies due to increased floods and salt the East Coast at risk. It will cost an estimated US$1.14 bil- intrusion; (b) security of human lives, property, and water lion to protect all shorelines at risk with populations greater infrastructure as increased droughts, floods, and storm surges than 10 persons/km with seawalls and US$590 million to destroy property, water supply, and hydro-generation infra- protect only the “important areas” (EPA, 2000). structure, which result in the displacement of thousands, Gender, water, and climate change adaptation. Women have deaths, service disruption, and social upheavals; (c) poor low adaptive capacities arising from ascribed social and eco- health conditions and increased risk of contracting water- nomic inequities inherent in traditional and nontraditional related diseases; and (d) reproduction of gender inequalities structures that manifest in distinct differences of unequal as women’s reproductive work and time allocated to com- access to property rights, information, education, unemploy- plete the tasks increase during changing climatic conditions. ment, and resources between men and women (Mensah- Rainfall-temperature regimes. Historical records across Kutin, 2008). Changing climatic conditions (e.g., droughts) Ghana suggest discernible future temperature increases and aggravate these gender relations by increasing women’s rainfall declines. Temperature is estimated to rise on aver- reproductive work and time allocated to complete water- age by 0.6°C, 2.0°C, and 3.9°C by the year 2020, 2050, and related tasks (Arku & Arku, 2010; Awumbila & Momsen, 2080, respectively. Rainfall is also predicted to decrease on 1995). The result is that in comparison with men, most average by 2.8%, 10.9%, and 18.6% by 2020, 2050, and women are less represented in productive activities, are 2080, respectively, in all agroecological zones. Upper sec- poorer, and participate less in the governance of natural tions of the Volta region and three northern regions suffer resources, including water (Gyimah & Thompson, 2008; drought once in every 3-year cycle (Arku, 1993). Climate Mensah-Kutin, 2008). Thus, climate change will exacerbate change remains an issue for the whole country, but climate the woes of women and poor people because their liveli- variability is a major challenge, especially for rural com- hoods depend on natural resources and economic sectors that munities that depend on natural resources and environmen- are susceptible to climate change. In this regard, Ghana’s cli- tal services (van der Geest, 2004). For rural residents mate change policy is criticized for taking a gender-neutral without piped water, irregularity and extremes in weather position, thereby worsening the vulnerability of these groups patterns (droughts and floods) directly affect water (Mensah-Kutin, 2008; Tutuah-Mensah, 2009). 5 Table 1. Physical Consequences of Climate Change on the Water Sector in Ghana Consequences Indicators Scarcity and poor quality of freshwater resources Security (life and water infrastructure) Health Gender Increasing or intense Drying of hitherto perennial rivers in the dry season Frequent floods and drought have potential negative impacts Poor health conditions and Women, children, and poor people extreme events, for that serve as rural water sources, for example, on life, properties, and expensive water infrastructures increased risk of contracting negatively impacted the most as example, flooding, -water shortage in March 2010 and August 2011 for domestic water supply, irrigation, and hydropower water-related diseases -they will have to spend more time traveling drought, temperatures, attributed to drying up of Daboase and Inchaban generation, for example, longer distances in search of good quality and gusty winds rivers that supply water to the twin cities of Sekondi -2007 floods affected about 332,600 people and caused water and Takoradi 56 deaths in the Upper East, Upper West, and Northern -their livelihoods depend on natural A general reduction in annual river flows in Ghana by regions and parts of Western region; polluted unprotected resources and economic sectors that are 15-20% for the year 2020 and 30-40% for the year water sources of rural residents susceptible to climate change 2050 -July 2011 flood destroyed lives and property in Eastern and Women’s reproductive work and time A reduction in groundwater recharge of 5-22% for Volta regions; polluted unprotected water sources of rural allocated to complete the tasks increase 2020 and 30-40% for 2050 residents during changing climatic conditions, for An increased irrigation water demand of 40-150% for -a 60% reduction in hydropower generation is expected in example, drought. 2020 and 150-1,200% for 2050 2020 Reproduction of gender inequality as By the year 2020, all river basins will be vulnerable, and -2006 drought led to power rationing because of low levels of comparatively most women than men will the whole country will face acute water shortage water in the Akosombo dam be less represented in productive activities, Pollution of water bodies because of increased -September 2011 angry mob in Tamale besieged VRA offices earn less money, and participate less in flooding, restricting their use and putting further to protest rampant power outages governance of water resources constraint on water availability to meet growing Dilemmas of managing the north–south divide of water demand supply; allocating water between energy in the south and agriculture in the north; management of regional water sources Variability Unpredictable weather, especially shifting temperature Same as above Same as above regimes, late start and shorter rainy season, for example, -In northern Ghana, there is two maxima high temperature months (January and March) instead of known single one, previously recorded in March -Previously, the rainy season started in April and ended around late September or early October. Recently, the rainy season started in June or July with extreme heavy rainfall in September to October, resulting in destructive floods or ending abruptly and resulting in drought conditions Sea-level rise Worsening salt water intrusion into estuaries and Two thirds of lands and residents living within the East Coast Increased consumption of saline Same as above aquifers, for example, at risk water because of dwindling -sea erosion at 3-5 m/year increases seepage into Raised coastal water tables, exacerbating coastal flooding and alternative sources water storm damage to coastal properties Forcible choice between -high tide increases salt water intrusion into Keseve It will cost an estimated US$1.14 billion to protect all unaffordable alternative sources Water and Daboase in Dangme East and Western shorelines at risk with populations greater than 10 persons/ and bad water, for example, region, respectively km -May to June 2009 residents of with seawalls and US$590 million to protect only the “important areas” Ada recorded high rates of heart-related diseases because of consumption of salinized water Note: VRA = Volta River Authority 6 SAGE Open MOWAC Ministry of Int. NGOs MOFEP local Internationa Ministry of Ministry of governmen Water Ghana Water national Environment, Water, Works Donor-funded Resources Company Ltd Science and National projects and Housing Commissi MOH Technology NGOs on Technical Assistant Teams Environmental Consultants/Contractors (“software” for drinking water) Protection NGOs in “hardware”, Regional CWSA building infrastructure Ghana Agency siting and building of Coordinating standards infrastructure Council board NGOs in “software”, WRIS (Hydrological Services community development Department, Water Research Institute, Regiona etc Ghana Meteorological Agency and IWRI Hydro-geologists for siting of infrastructure Tanker suppliers Spare parts sellers District Assembly District District Water and Sanitation Teams Unit Committee Members Community Water Legend Boards / WATSAN International actors Committees Private sector Nonprofit Major government agencies in water Users local opinion Government agencies in environment Users of small connected to leaders, local town water Community-based or ganizations District Water NGOs, traditional systems and informal water users System authorities, unit committee Decentralised government and community agencies Allied ministries Users of boreholes and hand dug wells Figure 1. Institutional and stakeholder arrangements in water management and supply Source: Modified from Birner, Schiffer, Asante, Gyasi, and McCarthy (2005). Note: CWSA = Community Water and Sanitation Agency; NGO = nongovernmental organization; WRIS = Water Resources Information Services; MOFEP= Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning; MOH = Ministry of Health; MOWAC = Ministry of Women and Children; WATSAN = Water and Sanitation Committees. Security concerns. Brown and Crawford (2008) identified Ghana faces and that, except in extreme scenarios, the effects climate change–related security challenges that Ghana will of climate change may only act as a catalyst to exacerbate a face, including managing the north–south divide of water number of existing problems. Worsening negative impacts of supply, allocating water between energy in the south and agri- frequent floods and drought life and property, and on expen- culture in the north, management of regional water sources, sive infrastructures for domestic water supply, irrigation, and and border issues. However, the authors maintain that climate hydropower generation in Ghana (Kankam-Yeboah, Amis- change is just one of the interrelated development issues that igo, & Obuobi, 2011), however, suggest that climate change FitzGibbon and Mensah 7 is a direct security threat. Furthermore, as far as water supply Despite all these initiatives, climate change represents a is concerned, there is little doubt that the impact of climate perplexing phenomenon for Ghana’s water management change and variability is both a direct and determining factor institutions. First, climate change is a relatively new area in in access to potable water. Therefore, social and institutional the national discourse and policy making, which suggests that reforms are needed to address the recalcitrant and complex the institutional memory, knowledge base, and institutional issues associated with climate change and related water collaboration required for effective adaptation actions are problems. not only underdeveloped but also not fully understood. In addition, climate change was originally not envisaged in the mandates of major water institutions such as the WRC and Social and Institutional Reforms in Ghana CWSA. As such the CWSA has continued to carry out its It is axiomatic among risk management practitioners that activities without recourse to climate change, whereas the resource availability and institutional capacities are key WRC is only recently making strides with the Climate determinants of the ease with which climate change–related Change Adaptation Project to make the connections between risks and vulnerabilities deteriorate into full-blown disaster. water resources management and climate change (WRC, In this regard, Ghana has undertaken several reform policies 2010). In addition, the nature and scale of the major causes, to build its social and institutional capacities, resulting in an important stakeholders, and regimes in climate change reso- elaborate political decentralization and water governance lutions operate beyond the national scale, thereby limiting structure (Figure 1). Since 1988, Ghana established political the ability of national institutional actors to adapt. Finally, and administrative institutions at three levels: district, subdis- linkages between some national institutions, such as CWSA trict, and community. In addition, it has privatized its water and EPA, and international donors and NGOs provide oppor- sector and established management, facilitation, and regula- tunities to access valuable resources to undertake water and/ tion agencies such as the Water Resources Commission or adaptation projects. However, overdependence on foreign (WRC), Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA), donors to undertake such a crucial national project raises Ghana Water Company, among other stakeholder agencies. In questions of sustainability and security in the water sector. particular, CWSA was established in 1998 with the mandate to For instance, more than 70% of CWSA operating budget facilitate water and sanitation facilities delivery and hygiene comes from foreign donors. education to rural communities (Odame-Ababio, 2003). Table 2 provides a comparative analysis of Ritter and CWSA fosters partnerships with foreign and local public, Weber’s (1973) characteristics of wicked problems and the private, and civil society organizations to streamline their extent of their manifestation in climate change vis-à-vis activities in the rural water sector. Current rural water supply water management in Ghana. It explicates the complex rela- coverage by CWSA stands at 63%. The activities of CWSA tionship between climate change and water resource man- are supposed to end at the regional level. Responsibility for agement in Ghana because of multiplicity of causal factors, water supply and capacity building at the district level rests actors and views involved, as well as scale concerns. with the District Assembly, which must liaise with subdistrict Institutional reforms (i.e., decentralization and water gover- entities such as Unit Committees, local water and sanitation nance) have the potential to improve our understanding of teams, and related stakeholders. Thus, Ghana’s water sector, the relationships between water supply and impacts of cli- especially rural water supply, demonstrates a mosaic of inter- mate change. However, the current practices exhibit low linked institutions from international through local-level adaptive capacities, which result from weak collaborative interspersed with private, nongovernmental organizations linkages among institutions, and do not foster the requisite (NGOs), and civil organizations (Mensah, 1998; Schiffer, learning to enable rural communities to effectively respond McCarthy, Birner, Waale, & Asante, 2008). and adapt their water resources to climate change (Mensah, On climate change, Ghana is active at the international 2012). Ghana, therefore, needs an approach that can reason- level as a party to the UNFCCC and signatory to the Kyoto ably respond to climate change and related complexities in Protocol. Internally, mainstreaming climate change into exist- water management. ing decentralized system and development policies, such as the Ghana Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy and mil- Responding to Complexity lennium development goals, are seen as the surest way to and Uncertainty, That Is, effectively cope (United Nations Development Programme, Wicked Problems 2008; Tutuah-Mensah, 2009). The creation of the EPA with the mandate for environmental sustainability is acknowl- edged as a notable climate change effort. Other responsibili- Stacy (1996) provided a useful model for responding to ties of EPA include research and development, rule making, complexity, that is, wicked problems (Figure 2). The zone of standard settings, and enforcement. In addition, it collabo- complexity is between the region of chaos (Zone 4) and the rates with other stakeholders to ensure sustainable water regions amenable to traditional management approaches resource management (Laube, 2007; Mensah, 1998). (Zones 1, 2, and 3). The complexity zone requires ingenuity 8 SAGE Open Table 2. Properties of Wicked Problems Rittel and Weber CC and water supply in Ghana There is no definitive formulation of a i. Disparate knowledge and opinions on whether observed changing weather wicked problem patterns are CC related or constitutive of the natural cycle, for example, significant knowledge exist in formal institutions (government agencies, NGOs, and research institutes) and educated urban residents about drivers of CC. Most laymen and rural residents are ignorant of drivers of CC or perceive it as an act of God (Gyampoh, Amisah, Idinoba, & Nkem, 2009; Mensah, 2012) ii. As a result of different experiences, perceptions and political interests of these multiple publics, water supply policies, institutions, and infrastructure to adapt to CC seem to be aiming at a moving target Wicked problems have no stopping i. CC and its impacts are progressively getting worse while uncertainty remains rule about how long it will linger on, for example, past climate records, and future predictions point to progressive deterioration with continuous scarcity and poor quality of freshwater resources ii. Majority of CC programs are donor funded. It is doubtful whether Ghana can self-generate satisfactory criteria and be able to sustain its adaptive capacities over a long uncertain period especially beyond the cycle of donor funding iii. Dire implications for rural communities because their adaptation capacity is threatened by a combination of poverty, disregard for traditional norms, poor education and knowledge flow, and dependence on charity, mainly NGOs Solutions to wicked problems are not Although the EPA, WRC, CWSA, among other public agencies, are mandated by true or false but good or bad law, their ability to determine the correctness of any water adaptation decision to implement against CC rarely gets past critical scrutiny or challenge by numerous stakeholder agencies such as NGOs involved in the environment and water sector There is no immediate and no Because the major drivers of CC operate at the global scale, it is impossible ultimate test of a solution to a for national and local actors to determine when desired results of a proposed wicked problem intervention to adapt water systems to CC has been achieved, especially taking into account the inability of any system to fully appraise all unintended consequences prior to or post intervention Every solution to a wicked problem CC-related droughts and floods create water shortages through drying up of local is a “one-shot operation” because streams and perennial rivers and disrupting water quality. Conventional solutions there is no opportunity to learn by have resorted to massive dam projects such as Akosombo, Kpong, Densu, and so trial and error; every attempt counts on. However, these projects have brought irreversible hardships to communities significantly that depend on these rivers for their livelihoods and water needs Wicked problems do not have CC–related water supply resolutions are politically shaped by varying experiences, an enumerable (or exhaustively ideologies, and power of stakeholders from international to local levels. Ghana describable) set of potential has no agreement criteria for judging successfully completed water adaptation solutions, and there is no well- programs against CC; whether to base judgment on international agencies described set of permissible and government list of funded programs or on dominant agreement among all operations that may be incorporated stakeholders is uncertain into the plan Every wicked problem is essentially By scale and intensity, CC is one of a kind, nothing close to known experiences unique of extreme environmental events (e.g., droughts or floods) related to water resources in Ghana. Therefore, it makes insufficient or inappropriate adaptive capacities crafted out of knowledge gained from traditional and formal institutional arrangements over the years because of the lack of understanding of the inherent complexities related to multiple causes and scale, and constant trajectory changes. The situation is exacerbated by disjointed collaboration among stakeholder institutions Every wicked problem can be The impacts of CC on water resources and supply reflect growing concerns about considered to be a symptom of their interconnections with other intractable national and global problems, for another problem example, an unjust global geopolitics, deteriorating social and ecological systems, poverty, misfit/incapable institutions and resource governance system, gender inequalities, and so on. Therefore, exclusive action on CC without attention to related problems will be ineffective. But Ghana lacks the ability to influence global action in any significant way. As such it can only adopt an incremental strategy within the country and regionally as in WRC’s adopted comanagement of international rivers and major internal watersheds (continued) FitzGibbon and Mensah 9 Table 2. (continued) Rittel and Weber CC and water supply in Ghana The existence of a discrepancy No meaningful locally designed water adaptation interventions against CC. representing a wicked problem can Agencies such as EPA, WRC, and NGOs all seem to tailor their strategies toward be explained in numerous ways. The internationally driven initiatives such as MDGs and so on. This is justified as being choice of explanation determines the part of the international community or determination to secure funding sources. nature of the problem’s resolution Traditional authority and informal knowledge are often sidelined by experts from state and formal agencies The planner has no right to be The precautionary principle is implied here, a key element of Ghana Water Policy. wrong (Planners are liable for the However, current Ghanaian practice places no liability on planners and policy consequences of the actions they makers for unintended mistakes after due diligence, probably justifiably so because generate) learning from experience and even mistakes (adaptive) is fundamental to building capacities against latent uncertainties of CC. Nonetheless, the principle compels planners and implementers in CC and water resources to ponder their actions carefully to minimize negative externalities of their actions on others Note: CC= climate change; NGO = nongovernmental organization; EPA = Environment Protection Agency; WRC = Water Resources Commission; CWSA = Community Water and Sanitation Agency. Resolution Mapping Processes (see Horn & Weber, 2007), General Morphological Analysis (Ritchey, 2005-2011), and ACM. This article focuses on ACM, not on the other two. ACM seeks to legitimize decision making in complex situations through effective collaboration, flexible gover- nance, and continuous learning informed by experience. Three phases of Stacy–Zimmerman’s model arranged back- ward (Table 3) fits the ACM idea of water management under complexity, although the first phase is a necessary condition for responding to severe consequences on water resources under changing climatic conditions as the Ghanaian scenario demonstrates. ACM may be useful for Ghana because it is a dynamic approach imbued with com- plex and adaptive systems thinking with internal capacity to minimize ineffectiveness and inefficiencies in existing social and institutional models, while capitalizing on oppor- tunities of instrumental gains from prior existing institu- tions. Particularly, ACM will help strengthen the capacities of rural water management systems to adapt to climate change because of its emphasis on equity and power bal- ance through stakeholder deliberative processes, strength- Figure 2. Ralph Stacy’s agreement and certainty matrix ening horizontal and cross-scale linkages, and creating Source: Adapted from Zimmerman (2001). space for iterative learning and opportunities for coexis- tence and interaction among different knowledge systems, thereby giving legitimacy to decisions and actions. in innovation and a shift from past practices to create new modes of operating because the predictive power of tradi- ACM tional management approaches becomes ineffective here (Zimmerman, 2001). In elaborating on the model, the authors ACM is a successor to earlier approaches (resilience, adap- provide a typology for responding to different levels of tive, and later comanagement) that emphasized social and dilemma and complex scenarios, requiring changing ecological dynamism, network governance, resilience, and approaches in moving from agreement and certainty. Within capacity building process through learning from experiences this framework, specific tools or mechanisms can be applied (Berkes, 2009). ACM emerged in the late 1970s against the to respond to complex issues, including Mess Mapping and backdrop of failures in community-based sustainable 10 SAGE Open Table 3. Changing Management Approaches in Moving from Agreement and Certainty Possible approach Description Comments 1. Seek patterns Scan “chaotic and disorganized” systems for emerging Assumption here is that object of study is organizations and patterns approaching high-dimensional chaos. Task is to identify emerging patterns that might suggest emerging level of organization 2. Convene Bring representatives of various complex adaptive Insufficient involvement or direct control systems together in an attempt to facilitate self- to allow formal intervention. Action organization and emergence. Compare active limited to convening in hopes that convening with observation of entities coming interaction and change will emerge. together Less-structured intervention than above example 3. Examine and describe Observe interactions between complex adaptive The task here is to understand. Systems patterns systems that are beyond the leader’s ability to affect are sufficiently large or removed to or convene preclude any intervention 4. Convene and intervene Bring representatives of various CASs together to Primary step is to convene representatives facilitate self-organization and emergence. Use process of involved complex adaptive systems. tools to confront inherent paradoxes and to seek Secondary step is structured, planned change through leveraging Morgan’s 15% opportunity. “intervention” that actively attempts Compare approaches with and without goals to “move to a new attractor” (Per G. Morgan) Source: Adapted from Zimmerman, 2001. Note: CAS = Complex Adaptive Systems development that painted images of consensual communities such “we must focus on learning to live within systems, and stable environments (Leach, Mearns, & Scoones, 1997). rather than ‘controlling’ them” (Walker et al., 2002, p. 2). It is an integration of adaptive management and comanage- This is the basis of Gunderson and Holling’s (2002) “panachy” ment (Armitage, Berkes, & Doubleday, 2007; Berkes, 2007; concept (a hierarchy of nested adaptive cycles across time Plummer & FitzGibbon, 2007). Consequently, it combines and space). It is also the basis of their indictment against iterative learning in adaptive management with the central “development experts”: (a) ignorance of the key drivers of element of linkages in collaborative management where rights change in a dynamic system, and the distinctly different scales and responsibilities are jointly shared (Berkes, 2007; Dolšak of time and space they operate therefore exposing conventional et al., 2003). Scalar issues are important to ACM as it draws ecological management practices to self-destructive- the linkages between stakeholder networks and access to controlled ecological interventions along with the sociocul- political, technical, social, and economic resources (adaptive tural structures that support it and (b) ignorance of the con- capacities) of local communities and households. The local nectedness and linkages in ecology and society, as well as scale is viewed as the place where “issues of management knowledge systems. Armitage et al. (2007) concluded, performance are felt most directly” but emphasize “a flexible system for environment and resource management that oper- Complex systems thinking offers a way of examining, ates across multiple levels and with a range of local and non- describing, interpreting, and cognitively structuring not local organizations and actors” (Armitage et al., 2007, p. 5). only ecological systems but also increasingly linked There is no single all-encompassing definition of ACM. socio-ecological systems. Specifically, complex systems However, learning by doing, integrating multiple knowledge thinking highlights the dynamic, nonlinear relationships systems, emphasizing flexibility of management structures, among coupled social and ecological phenomena that and advancing collaboration through power sharing at mul- result in discontinuities, surprises, system flips, and the tiple scales remain central (Plummer & FitzGibbon, 2007). potential for multiple equilibrium states. (p. 7) Climate change adaptation involves SES and therefore fits the complexity or adaptive systems framework. The tran- What Should ACM for Ghana Look Like? sitional nature of global climate system implies that adaptation is not geared toward a predictable end state. Rather, it is about The underpinning tenets of ACM are informative for Ghana a newly configured system, which is just one of potential mul- because climate change is a young and understudied sub- tiple end states (Gunderson & Holling, 2002; Walker et al., ject in the country. Therefore, the full extent of intricate 2002). This suggests an element of path dependence or contin- interconnections of climate change with other sectors and gency in the possible outcomes of the adaptive approach. As ecological resources (including water), and associated FitzGibbon and Mensah 11 impacts on their vulnerabilities are not well understood. and that new knowledge was adjusted to local conditions in Ghana’s environmental and water agencies should work both Sweden and Tanzania. with the assumption that climate change is exacerbating water vulnerabilities and pushing water resources manage- We must acknowledge the importance of ethics and ment capacities to their tether. The major task is to encourage social justice in environmental problems. They cannot formal research and traditional learning institutions to iden- be resolved without the participation of those most tify emerging patterns and their levels of operation and a affected. In fact, a satisfactory resolution may well disaggregated impact assessment on people (Table 3, Phase hinge on special sorts of local knowledge and institu- 1). It is especially relevant for rural water supply because tions that will only become available if local people are rural communities in Ghana lag behind in most capitals and welcomed as active and influential participants. hence their low adaptive capacities. Perhaps, if room is made for them at the table, a new A typical ACM for Ghana must specifically emphasize science that incorporates traditional knowledge and continuous learning in an iterative manner within networks values will emerge. (Berkes & Folke, 1998, quoted in and continuous information sharing and education as its over- Ludwig, 2001, p. 763) riding objective for local management institutions (Pahl- Wostl, 2007; Tschakert & Dietrich, 2010). The effects of Conflicts over control of resources and decision-making climate change will linger for a while. Therefore, institutional authority have been observed between decentralized bodies strategies that have proved capable of coping with extreme and traditional authorities and also between local decentral- climatic events must be identified and incorporated into ized units and community water organizations (Anani, 1999; regional and national adaptation plans until more adaptable Jackson & Gariba, 2002). Such conflicts must be addressed ones are found. In addition, formal education must incorpo- swiftly, and the boundaries of authority of these institutions rate lessons on mitigation and adaptation because today’s stu- must be addressed clearly and responsibly. This will require dents are future policy makers. Extension workers must be collaboration at all levels where trust and respect are pursued informed and motivated to educate local people but must be (building social capital). This framework will focus on bring- willing to be receptive to local wisdom and practices. Cultural ing in vulnerable groups—poor and women—by deliberately and religious groups must be targeted for education because targeting them and creating space for them to participate in people with formal education and nontraditional beliefs tend decision making. It will require different negotiation skills to flout traditional ecological norms that have been the main- among facilitators, policy makers, and implementers to stay of rural water management (Appiah-Opoku & Hyma, bridge the gap between local authorities and government 1999; Gyampoh et al., 2009; Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro, 2007). institutions over control of water resources. Within this con- Local communication systems (e.g., community radios) must text, blanket cash-and-carry approaches for accessing water use local dialect to reach their communities to be abreast with will be reevaluated based on specific community context new and tested ideas as well as improve their technical capaci- allowing each community to come up with an arrangement ties. In this regard, Ada Community Radio is worth mention- suitable to its needs. This will minimize conflict endemic in ing in the way it interacts with and helps educate and mobilize the current arrangement. Finally, climate and water policies local people about environment and climate change issues in must be linked with broad social and economic activities of the Dangme East District (Larweh, 2006; Mensah, 2012). rural people. As Brown and Crawford (2008) suggested, This approach has proved useful not only in bonding but also Ghana needs holistic adaptation measures that address the in bridging cross-scale linkages among nations (Pahl-Wostl, full range of development problems it faces that are tangen- 2007; Stringer et al., 2006). NGOs, Civil Society Organizations tially related to climate change, not just those that arise as a (CSOs), and international aid agencies must be given easy result of climate change. Collectively, these will help over- access to institutional information and local communities to come the observation that because climate change transcend help in capacity building. the local scale the tools to equip adaptive learning in Africa In addition, emphasis should be placed on institutional are sparse, as a result of communication deficiencies which bricolage, with recognition of informal knowledge as a legit- make it difficult to integrate science information into climate imate source of information for climate and water manage- policy and practice; and lack of learning tools that encourage ment issues because they have been useful for generations in adaptation process, including experimentation and innovation helping local communities adjust to environmental distur- in building resilience in complex high risk socio-ecological bances. This will require codification of some sort to pre- systems (Tschakert & Dietrich, 2010). serve them for future generations similar to the Peoples Biodiversity Register in India (Gadgil, Seshagiri Rao, Conclusion Utkarsh, Pramod, & Chatre, 2000) or perhaps mainstream them into national adaptation plans. For instance, Tengo and While the preceding discussion indicates that climate change Belfrage (2004) found examples of how old practices served is a wicked problem defying easy solutions, the vulnerability as a source of adaptation for dealing with new conditions, of people is a matter of degree based on specific contexts. 12 SAGE Open Some nations, regions, groups, and individuals are better able Arku, F. S. (1993). Drought and rainfall variability in Ghana from to ameliorate their exposures to climate change, whereas in 1969 to 1992 (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of others vulnerability can easily deteriorate into disasters. Bergen, Norway. 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Information flow and acquisition of knowledge in water African Studies Centre. governance in the upper east region of Ghana [IFPRI Discus- Walker, B., Carpenter, S., Anderies, J., Abel, N., Cumming, G., sion Paper 00820]. Washington, DC: Environment and Produc- Janssen, M., & . . .Pritchard, R. (2002). Resilience manage- tion Technology Division. ment in social-ecological systems: A working hypothesis for a Sharma, N. P., Damhaug, T., Gilgan-Hunt, E., Grey, D., Okaru, V., participatory approach. Conservation Ecology, 6, 14. Retrieved & Rothberg, D. (1996). African water resources: Challenges from http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss1/art14 and opportunities for sustainable development (World Bank Water Resources Commission. (2010). Newsletter of the climate Tech. Paper No. 331). Washington, DC. change adaptation project. Climate Adapt, 2(1), 1-2. Stacy, R. (1996). Strategic management and organisational dynam- Wilbanks, T. J. (1999). Global change in local places: How scale ics (2nd ed.). London, England: Pitman. matters. Climate Change, 43, 601-623. Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Fraser, E., Hubacek, K., Prell, C., & Zimmerman, B. (2001). Edgeware-Aides: Ralph Stacy’s agreement Reed, M. S. (2006). Unpacking “participation” in the adaptive man- and certainty matrix. Toronto, Canada: York University. agement of social–ecological systems: A critical review. Ecology & Society, 11, 39. Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/ Bios vol11/iss2/art39/ Tengo, M., & Belfrage, K. (2004). Local management practices for John FitzGibbon is a professor in the School of Environmental dealing with change and uncertainty: A cross-scale compari- Design and Rural Development and a director of the Rural Studies son of cases in Sweden and Tanzania. Ecology & Society, 9, 4. Program, University of Guelph. His major interests and works Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss3/ include source water protection, environmental management, art4/ community-based natural resource management, environmental Tschakert, P., & Dietrich, K. A. (2010). Anticipatory learning for farm planning, and nutrient management planning. climate change adaptation and resilience. Ecology & Society, 15, 11. Retrieved from www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss2/ Kenneth O. Mensah is a PhD candidate in rural studies, School of art11/ Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Tutuah-Mensah, A. A. (2009, October 19-21). Implications of cli- Guelph. His interests are in planning and policy of urban–rural mate change on gender. Paper presented at the three day sci- systems, environment and water resources management, gender, ence policy dialogue at Centre for African Wetlands, University international development, and participatory governance with areal of Ghana, Legon. focus on sub-Saharan Africa. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

Climate Change as a Wicked Problem: An Evaluation of the Institutional Context for Rural Water Management in Ghana

SAGE Open , Volume 2 (2): 1 – May 25, 2012

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Abstract

Understanding complexity suggests that some problems are more complex than others and defy conventional solutions. These wicked problems will not be solved by the same tools and processes that are complicit in creating them. Neither will they be resolved by approaches short on explicating the complex interconnections of the multiple causes, consequences, and cross-scale actors of the problem. Climate change is one such wicked problem confronting water management in Ghana with a dilemma. The physical consequences of climate change on Ghana’s water resources are progressively worsening. At the same time, existing institutional arrangements demonstrate weak capacities to tackle climate change–related complexities in water management. Therefore, it warrants a dynamic approach imbued with complex and adaptive systems thinking, which also capitalizes on instrumental gains from prior existing institutions. Adaptive Co-Management offers such an opportunity for Ghana to adapt its water management system to climate change. Keywords climate change, wicked problems, institutions, rural water management, Adaptive Co-Management Introduction address the dilemma. Using rural water management as a reference point, this article argues that climate change as a The concept of “wicked problem” is embedded with notions wicked problem in Ghana can be demonstrated in two ways: of complexity. In planning and management policy, the term (a) its sheer physical consequences on water resources and wicked problem is used to refer to adverse social and envi- (b) weaknesses in institutional capacity to adapt. But, instead ronmental situations that overwhelm existing practices and of a fatalist approach, appropriate social and ecological insti- persist even after the application of best-known practices tutional capacities can be developed for effective adaptation. (Ludwig, 2001; Ritchey, 2005-2011; Rittel & Webber, 1973). We propose adaptive co-management (ACM) as a useful The concept is applied in organizational decision making as institutional approach. a “force of fragmentation” whereby stakeholders polarize around their views of a problem, thereby undermining col- Complexity, Wicked Problems, laborative problem solving (Conklin, 2001). From an inter- and Climate Change ventionist perspective, “a do-nothing” approach is perhaps a reasonable option for a problem that defies best intervention Complexity implies degree of difficulty in defining causal practices. However, Brown, Harris, and Russell (2010) linkages of an event as well as determining the boundaries pointed out that wicked problems will not be solved by the of their effects to allow for management of them with any same tools and processes that have created them. This sug- meaningful degree of accuracy and confidence. Complexity is gests that action is incumbent, but action must implore determined by the degree of uncertainty and social disagree- mechanisms and paths different from those that have per- ment on a particular issue (Patton, 2011; Stacy, 1996; petuated the problem in the first place. Zimmerman, 2001). A problem at the far end of an uncertainty In Ghana, climate change is an emerging issue in the national discourse. Already it is known to present challenges University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada to current development efforts and environmental manage- Corresponding Author: ment capacities. This article examines the nature of climate Kenneth O. Mensah, School of Environmental Design and Rural change as a wicked problem in water resource management Development, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. East, Guelph, Ontario, in Ghana, and how social and institutional capacities influ- N1G 2W1, Canada ence an understanding of climate change and efforts to Email: mensahk@uoguelph.ca 2 SAGE Open and disagreement continuum is considered complex because Contributing factors to uncertainty include dynamism of it challenges existing capacities to predict outcomes and the drivers of change such as human behavior, ecological fac- solutions, and therefore heightens disagreement resulting in tors, and scale of interaction of the processes (Dolšak et al., stakeholder conflicts. Complexity can be judged by source 2003; Gunderson & Holling, 2002). The dynamism factor is and nature. When a problem is generated by multiple factors particularly informative for climate change adaptation because from multiple sources, it is difficult to target the linkages of it denotes transition of a system where internal and external the causal factors and therefore raises questions of complex- variables create constant changes in the social or ecological ity to the extent that identification of the problem, and hence domains, and a change in the critical variables of one domain its solution, becomes difficult. Complexity can also be of a requires institutional adjustments in the other to prevent col- technical and social nature. The technical side relates to lapse of the entire system (Gunderson & Holling, 2002). limitations of quality of information and deficiency in exist- It is within this context that the interconnections among ing knowledge systems that make diagnosis of a particular complexity, wicked problems, and climate change can be viv- situation problematic because of high degree of uncertainties idly drawn, in that climate change adaptation requires restruc- in the solutions offered. The social aspect focuses on inher- turing social and ecological institutions to adjust to rapid and ent difficulties in coordination of activities, information, and uncertain change as well as to take advantage of the opportuni- stakeholders across disciplines, sectors, and scales in a man- ties presented by such changes (Brown et al., 2010). For ner that minimizes conflicts and builds consensus around instance, Ludwig (2001) following Rittel and Weber’s defini- solutions for a situation (Patton, 2011). tion described climate change as one example of wicked prob- The term wicked problems was originally coined by Rittel lems noting, “Such problems have no definitive formulation, no and Weber (1973) as the opposite of “tame problems,” where stopping rule, and no test for a solution. There will likely never the latter can be resolved with traditional methods because it is be a final resolution of any of them. Each such problem is unique: easy to define cause-and-effect relationship of the problem as They defy classification” (p. 3). The author identified terminolo- well as the solutions. Conversely, wicked problems are social gies used to describe wicked problems in the ecological litera- planning problems that defy traditional methods because they ture including truly complex, complex all the way down, and are “ill-defined, ambiguous and associated with strong moral, postnormal, characterized by radical uncertainty and plurality political and professional issues” (Ritchey, 2005-2011, p. 1). of legitimate perspectives. Thus, climate change is intractable, They are complex, with linkages to other issues evolving in a and adaptation solutions are elusive, making climate change a dynamic social context, and tackling one often leads to unin- perfect fit for the complexity and wicked problems model. tended consequences of generating new sets of wicked prob- Indeed, current global discourses suggest that no single lems. They are strongly stakeholder dependent, often with phenomenon exhibits the characteristics of wicked problems little consensus about what the problem is, let alone how to like climate change. It attracts varying interests and perspec- resolve it (Ritchey, 2005-2008, p. 1; Rittel & Weber, 1973). tives constantly juggling for recognition and acceptance. For Thus, complexity and wicked problems are interconnected. instance, the Australian Public Service Commission on Wicked problems are inherently complex in their scale of Climate Change demonstrates two perspectives. First are cli- uncertainty and disagreement, as well as in their technical and mate change believers, but acknowledge global structural social nature; therefore, they are best tackled by interdisciplin- inequalities among nations and refer rich nations to the Kyoto ary approaches, coexistence of different knowledge systems, Protocol to mitigate their greenhouse gas emissions. Kyoto flexible governance, and participatory processes and practices urges that remedying climate change would require all gov- that allow for adaptive learning and ethics. ernments to formally agree on future emissions cuts and the The concept of wicked problems has been applied in mechanisms to achieve the set targets. The onus is on devel- complex and adaptive systems thinking to draw linkages oped countries to mitigate their emissions and also provide within social and ecological systems (SES). SES are dif- developing countries with financial and technological assis- ficult to manage both at the technical and social levels tance (Ayers & Dodman, 2010; Flamos & Begg, 2010; because often they involve multiple sources, multiple United Nation Framework Conventions on Climate Change actors, and their externalities jump scales for which cross- [UNFCCC], 1998). This position is frequently contested scale institutions are required. According to Walker et al. among UNFCCC parties. The second is the skeptical per- (2002), spective that questions the authenticity of climate change as a human-induced problem. They argue that in a worse-case sce- A fundamental difficulty in managing SES for long nario, the catastrophic consequences of climate change will be term, sustainable outcomes is that their great complex- moderated by technology and market forces. This could lose ity makes it difficult to forecast the future in any traction as skepticism about climate change wanes. A third meaningful way. Not only are forecasts uncertain, the view may be added, focusing on governance reforms with usual statistical approaches will likely underestimate emphasis on participation, ethics, and justice with decision the uncertainties. That is, even the uncertainties are making devolved to local levels where citizens’ involvement uncertain. (p. 2) is instrumental (Both ENDS, 2007; Brown et al., 2010). FitzGibbon and Mensah 3 These divergent views demonstrate a high degree of dis- sources. Primary data came from interviews with 18 key agreement on the fundamental causes of and solutions for informants from government, research, and civil society climate change, as well as a high degree of uncertainty about organizations whose work intersects with water resource our understanding of all the variables involved in climate management and environmental protection. Participants change processes. In addition, it points to the deficiency in responded to questions focused on the challenges of cli- our technical and social capabilities to be able to deal with a mate change in the water sector and the capacities of water phenomenon with multiple sources, actors, stakeholders, institutions to adapt. Responses were then triangulated cross-scale influences (externalities), and linkages (Australian with secondary sources including published government, Public Service Commission, 2007). This leaves the policy research, and newspaper reports for reliability and validity. maker with a dynamic, plural, and argumentative system of For analysis, we examined the extent to which the data policy definition—typical of many wicked policy problems— matched up to Rittel and Webber’s (1973) construct of and also leaves the policy maker with a problem in which wicked problems. Based on the findings, we suggest a complexity outweighs the capabilities of his or her current method with a greater capacity to handle complexity (i.e., repertoire of methodologies (Australian Public Service climate change). Commission, 2007). It reechoes Hamilton’s (1999) point that “the problem of climate change is intractable by our tradi- Climate Change Trends in Africa tional scientific methods” (quoted in Ludwig, 2001, p. 757). The futility of relying on those same tools and practices that In a certain ironic fashion, Africa, the smallest contributor to have augmented the creation of the climate change problem is greenhouse gas emissions, is expected to be one of the most being noted (Brown et al., 2010). vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Ayers & Current adaptation frameworks are not sophisticated Dodman, 2010; IPCC, 2007; Magadza, 2000; UNFCCC, enough to sufficiently integrate the biophysical and the 2006). Projections of multiple stresses, such as increasing sociopolitical issues across multiple scales (Brown et al., severity and frequency in water shortages, declining agricul- 2010; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], tural productivity, desert and coastal encroachments, as well 2007; United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate as low adaptive capacity, raise concerns of security, liveli- Change [UNFCCC], 2006). Yet, consensus coalesce around hoods, mass ecomigration, and development on the continent the notion that effective and practical adaptive management (Brown & Crawford, 2008; Sharma et al., 1996; UNFCCC, of climate change depends on understanding the scale of 2006). By 2020, it is expected that more than 250 million influences of the drivers of change (general and systemic, Africans would be exposed to increased water stress, lacking slow and fast) at work in the system (Pahl-Wostl, 2007; access to portable water or adequate sanitation because of Tschaket & Dietrich, 2010). As Wilbanks (1999) noted, climate change, resulting also in 50% reduction in rain-fed agricultural yields (IPCC, 2007). This is against the backdrop At least, it is clear that some of the driving forces oper- promise of universal access to safe and reliable water supply ate at a global scale while many of the phenomena that by the UN Water Decade (1980-1990). underlie environmental processes operate at a local It is believed that climate change has affected rainfall scale. Understanding climate change processes and regimes resulting in the commonly observed frequency and responses require attention to multiple scales and how severity of floods and drought on the continent (IPCC, 2001; they relate to one another. (p. 602) Leroux, 2001). In Africa, coastal area sea-level rise is expected to result in annual flooding and salinization of water The Australian Public Service Commission is apt in its sources, which will severely affect millions of people in low- observation that the practical challenges facing our capabilities lying areas (Bunce, Rosendo, & Brown, 2010; McGranahan, to address climate change are often philosophical (ideological) Balk, & Anderson, 2007). The cost of adaptation could and methodological, particularly as they relate to cross-scale amount to at least 5% to 10% of GDP (IPCC, 2007). This is a linkages, trust and social capital formation among institutions, hindrance to the realization of key millennium development governance reforms that encourage participation, equity and goals such as poverty reduction and ensuring environmental global justice, and creating spaces for social learning in an adap- sustainability (Ayers & Dodman, 2010; Both ENDS, 2007; tive manner. In addition, there is consensus that effects of cli- UNFCCC, 2006). Not surprising, IPCC (2007) identified mate change are so advanced that mitigation alone is too late to water security among key potential impacts of climate make any meaningful reversals to the damage already in motion, change in Africa, as well as concerns of low adaptive capac- hence the focus on adaptation (Lambrou & Piana, 2006). ity on the continent. Africa’s low adaptive capacity revolves around its capital base required for capacity building and sustainable development policy because vulnerability to cli- Method mate change depends on development indicators (Ayers & Our approach is diagnostic and prescriptive with a qualita- Dodman, 2010; Gyampoh, Amisah, Idinoba, & Nkem, 2009; tive analytical slant. We used primary and secondary data UNFCCC, 2006). 4 SAGE Open availability and access, placing additional stresses on their Climate Change as a Wicked daily activities. As Gyampoh, Idinoba, and Amisah (2008, Problem in Water Management in p. 10) observe, “Whereas models and records of precipita- Ghana tion mainly focus on changing amounts of precipitation with Ghana is noted to share some notable developmental chal- climate change, knowledge of indigenous people also lenges with other African countries such as reliance on rain- emphasize changes in the regularity, length, intensity, and fed agriculture, vulnerability to drought and floods, poor timing of precipitation.” Brown and Crawford (2008) governance, and rapid population growth, which put undue observe that climate variability in combination with popula- pressure on the capacity of government to provide basic infra- tion growth will compound the adverse effects of inadequate structural services (Brown & Crawford, 2008). Climate change water supply in the country, particularly in the dry North, and and variability complicate these issues and undermine overall could lead to a 12-fold increase in the demand for irrigation development efforts in Ghana. As a wicked problem in the by 2050. The major dams that have been the mainstay of country’s water sector, climate change manifests in two dimen- urban water supply fluctuate in similar fashion to rivers, sions: first, the physical consequences of climate change on ponds, and creeks, which serve rural communities in corre- ecological resources (including water); second, climate spondence to climate variability (Gyampoh et al., 2009). change confronts existing water institutional arrangements The crisis could get worse, especially for rural water sys- with a dilemma exposing weaknesses in their capacity to tems, if effective adaptation mechanisms are not found soon tackle complexities associated with water management. (Environment Protection Agency [EPA], 2000; Ferguson & Rankin, 2005). Sea-level rise and coastal challenges. Climate change com- Physical Consequences pounds the adverse effects of inadequate water supply in Ghana is among countries where climate change is projected inland communities. Yet, sea-level change from that in 1990 to create water stress by 2025. As far as water resources indicates an average rise of 5.8, 16.5, and 34.5 cm by 2020, management and use are concerned, three climate change– 2050, and 2080. An estimated sea-level rise of 1 m by 2100 related issues are relevant: extreme events brought about by could inundate 1,120 km of lands and put 132,000 at risk changes in rainfall and temperature regimes, variability, and (EPA, 2000). It will worsen salt water intrusion into estuaries sea-level rise. As Table 1 shows, these climate change and aquifers, raised coastal water tables, and exacerbate issues, in turn, have negative repercussions on (a) the avail- coastal flooding and storm damage to coastal properties ability and quality of freshwater resources as hitherto peren- (EPA, 2000; Dankelman et al., 2008; Douglas et al., 2008). nial water sources dry up because of severe droughts and This will put two thirds of lands and residents living within pollutions of water bodies due to increased floods and salt the East Coast at risk. It will cost an estimated US$1.14 bil- intrusion; (b) security of human lives, property, and water lion to protect all shorelines at risk with populations greater infrastructure as increased droughts, floods, and storm surges than 10 persons/km with seawalls and US$590 million to destroy property, water supply, and hydro-generation infra- protect only the “important areas” (EPA, 2000). structure, which result in the displacement of thousands, Gender, water, and climate change adaptation. Women have deaths, service disruption, and social upheavals; (c) poor low adaptive capacities arising from ascribed social and eco- health conditions and increased risk of contracting water- nomic inequities inherent in traditional and nontraditional related diseases; and (d) reproduction of gender inequalities structures that manifest in distinct differences of unequal as women’s reproductive work and time allocated to com- access to property rights, information, education, unemploy- plete the tasks increase during changing climatic conditions. ment, and resources between men and women (Mensah- Rainfall-temperature regimes. Historical records across Kutin, 2008). Changing climatic conditions (e.g., droughts) Ghana suggest discernible future temperature increases and aggravate these gender relations by increasing women’s rainfall declines. Temperature is estimated to rise on aver- reproductive work and time allocated to complete water- age by 0.6°C, 2.0°C, and 3.9°C by the year 2020, 2050, and related tasks (Arku & Arku, 2010; Awumbila & Momsen, 2080, respectively. Rainfall is also predicted to decrease on 1995). The result is that in comparison with men, most average by 2.8%, 10.9%, and 18.6% by 2020, 2050, and women are less represented in productive activities, are 2080, respectively, in all agroecological zones. Upper sec- poorer, and participate less in the governance of natural tions of the Volta region and three northern regions suffer resources, including water (Gyimah & Thompson, 2008; drought once in every 3-year cycle (Arku, 1993). Climate Mensah-Kutin, 2008). Thus, climate change will exacerbate change remains an issue for the whole country, but climate the woes of women and poor people because their liveli- variability is a major challenge, especially for rural com- hoods depend on natural resources and economic sectors that munities that depend on natural resources and environmen- are susceptible to climate change. In this regard, Ghana’s cli- tal services (van der Geest, 2004). For rural residents mate change policy is criticized for taking a gender-neutral without piped water, irregularity and extremes in weather position, thereby worsening the vulnerability of these groups patterns (droughts and floods) directly affect water (Mensah-Kutin, 2008; Tutuah-Mensah, 2009). 5 Table 1. Physical Consequences of Climate Change on the Water Sector in Ghana Consequences Indicators Scarcity and poor quality of freshwater resources Security (life and water infrastructure) Health Gender Increasing or intense Drying of hitherto perennial rivers in the dry season Frequent floods and drought have potential negative impacts Poor health conditions and Women, children, and poor people extreme events, for that serve as rural water sources, for example, on life, properties, and expensive water infrastructures increased risk of contracting negatively impacted the most as example, flooding, -water shortage in March 2010 and August 2011 for domestic water supply, irrigation, and hydropower water-related diseases -they will have to spend more time traveling drought, temperatures, attributed to drying up of Daboase and Inchaban generation, for example, longer distances in search of good quality and gusty winds rivers that supply water to the twin cities of Sekondi -2007 floods affected about 332,600 people and caused water and Takoradi 56 deaths in the Upper East, Upper West, and Northern -their livelihoods depend on natural A general reduction in annual river flows in Ghana by regions and parts of Western region; polluted unprotected resources and economic sectors that are 15-20% for the year 2020 and 30-40% for the year water sources of rural residents susceptible to climate change 2050 -July 2011 flood destroyed lives and property in Eastern and Women’s reproductive work and time A reduction in groundwater recharge of 5-22% for Volta regions; polluted unprotected water sources of rural allocated to complete the tasks increase 2020 and 30-40% for 2050 residents during changing climatic conditions, for An increased irrigation water demand of 40-150% for -a 60% reduction in hydropower generation is expected in example, drought. 2020 and 150-1,200% for 2050 2020 Reproduction of gender inequality as By the year 2020, all river basins will be vulnerable, and -2006 drought led to power rationing because of low levels of comparatively most women than men will the whole country will face acute water shortage water in the Akosombo dam be less represented in productive activities, Pollution of water bodies because of increased -September 2011 angry mob in Tamale besieged VRA offices earn less money, and participate less in flooding, restricting their use and putting further to protest rampant power outages governance of water resources constraint on water availability to meet growing Dilemmas of managing the north–south divide of water demand supply; allocating water between energy in the south and agriculture in the north; management of regional water sources Variability Unpredictable weather, especially shifting temperature Same as above Same as above regimes, late start and shorter rainy season, for example, -In northern Ghana, there is two maxima high temperature months (January and March) instead of known single one, previously recorded in March -Previously, the rainy season started in April and ended around late September or early October. Recently, the rainy season started in June or July with extreme heavy rainfall in September to October, resulting in destructive floods or ending abruptly and resulting in drought conditions Sea-level rise Worsening salt water intrusion into estuaries and Two thirds of lands and residents living within the East Coast Increased consumption of saline Same as above aquifers, for example, at risk water because of dwindling -sea erosion at 3-5 m/year increases seepage into Raised coastal water tables, exacerbating coastal flooding and alternative sources water storm damage to coastal properties Forcible choice between -high tide increases salt water intrusion into Keseve It will cost an estimated US$1.14 billion to protect all unaffordable alternative sources Water and Daboase in Dangme East and Western shorelines at risk with populations greater than 10 persons/ and bad water, for example, region, respectively km -May to June 2009 residents of with seawalls and US$590 million to protect only the “important areas” Ada recorded high rates of heart-related diseases because of consumption of salinized water Note: VRA = Volta River Authority 6 SAGE Open MOWAC Ministry of Int. NGOs MOFEP local Internationa Ministry of Ministry of governmen Water Ghana Water national Environment, Water, Works Donor-funded Resources Company Ltd Science and National projects and Housing Commissi MOH Technology NGOs on Technical Assistant Teams Environmental Consultants/Contractors (“software” for drinking water) Protection NGOs in “hardware”, Regional CWSA building infrastructure Ghana Agency siting and building of Coordinating standards infrastructure Council board NGOs in “software”, WRIS (Hydrological Services community development Department, Water Research Institute, Regiona etc Ghana Meteorological Agency and IWRI Hydro-geologists for siting of infrastructure Tanker suppliers Spare parts sellers District Assembly District District Water and Sanitation Teams Unit Committee Members Community Water Legend Boards / WATSAN International actors Committees Private sector Nonprofit Major government agencies in water Users local opinion Government agencies in environment Users of small connected to leaders, local town water Community-based or ganizations District Water NGOs, traditional systems and informal water users System authorities, unit committee Decentralised government and community agencies Allied ministries Users of boreholes and hand dug wells Figure 1. Institutional and stakeholder arrangements in water management and supply Source: Modified from Birner, Schiffer, Asante, Gyasi, and McCarthy (2005). Note: CWSA = Community Water and Sanitation Agency; NGO = nongovernmental organization; WRIS = Water Resources Information Services; MOFEP= Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning; MOH = Ministry of Health; MOWAC = Ministry of Women and Children; WATSAN = Water and Sanitation Committees. Security concerns. Brown and Crawford (2008) identified Ghana faces and that, except in extreme scenarios, the effects climate change–related security challenges that Ghana will of climate change may only act as a catalyst to exacerbate a face, including managing the north–south divide of water number of existing problems. Worsening negative impacts of supply, allocating water between energy in the south and agri- frequent floods and drought life and property, and on expen- culture in the north, management of regional water sources, sive infrastructures for domestic water supply, irrigation, and and border issues. However, the authors maintain that climate hydropower generation in Ghana (Kankam-Yeboah, Amis- change is just one of the interrelated development issues that igo, & Obuobi, 2011), however, suggest that climate change FitzGibbon and Mensah 7 is a direct security threat. Furthermore, as far as water supply Despite all these initiatives, climate change represents a is concerned, there is little doubt that the impact of climate perplexing phenomenon for Ghana’s water management change and variability is both a direct and determining factor institutions. First, climate change is a relatively new area in in access to potable water. Therefore, social and institutional the national discourse and policy making, which suggests that reforms are needed to address the recalcitrant and complex the institutional memory, knowledge base, and institutional issues associated with climate change and related water collaboration required for effective adaptation actions are problems. not only underdeveloped but also not fully understood. In addition, climate change was originally not envisaged in the mandates of major water institutions such as the WRC and Social and Institutional Reforms in Ghana CWSA. As such the CWSA has continued to carry out its It is axiomatic among risk management practitioners that activities without recourse to climate change, whereas the resource availability and institutional capacities are key WRC is only recently making strides with the Climate determinants of the ease with which climate change–related Change Adaptation Project to make the connections between risks and vulnerabilities deteriorate into full-blown disaster. water resources management and climate change (WRC, In this regard, Ghana has undertaken several reform policies 2010). In addition, the nature and scale of the major causes, to build its social and institutional capacities, resulting in an important stakeholders, and regimes in climate change reso- elaborate political decentralization and water governance lutions operate beyond the national scale, thereby limiting structure (Figure 1). Since 1988, Ghana established political the ability of national institutional actors to adapt. Finally, and administrative institutions at three levels: district, subdis- linkages between some national institutions, such as CWSA trict, and community. In addition, it has privatized its water and EPA, and international donors and NGOs provide oppor- sector and established management, facilitation, and regula- tunities to access valuable resources to undertake water and/ tion agencies such as the Water Resources Commission or adaptation projects. However, overdependence on foreign (WRC), Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA), donors to undertake such a crucial national project raises Ghana Water Company, among other stakeholder agencies. In questions of sustainability and security in the water sector. particular, CWSA was established in 1998 with the mandate to For instance, more than 70% of CWSA operating budget facilitate water and sanitation facilities delivery and hygiene comes from foreign donors. education to rural communities (Odame-Ababio, 2003). Table 2 provides a comparative analysis of Ritter and CWSA fosters partnerships with foreign and local public, Weber’s (1973) characteristics of wicked problems and the private, and civil society organizations to streamline their extent of their manifestation in climate change vis-à-vis activities in the rural water sector. Current rural water supply water management in Ghana. It explicates the complex rela- coverage by CWSA stands at 63%. The activities of CWSA tionship between climate change and water resource man- are supposed to end at the regional level. Responsibility for agement in Ghana because of multiplicity of causal factors, water supply and capacity building at the district level rests actors and views involved, as well as scale concerns. with the District Assembly, which must liaise with subdistrict Institutional reforms (i.e., decentralization and water gover- entities such as Unit Committees, local water and sanitation nance) have the potential to improve our understanding of teams, and related stakeholders. Thus, Ghana’s water sector, the relationships between water supply and impacts of cli- especially rural water supply, demonstrates a mosaic of inter- mate change. However, the current practices exhibit low linked institutions from international through local-level adaptive capacities, which result from weak collaborative interspersed with private, nongovernmental organizations linkages among institutions, and do not foster the requisite (NGOs), and civil organizations (Mensah, 1998; Schiffer, learning to enable rural communities to effectively respond McCarthy, Birner, Waale, & Asante, 2008). and adapt their water resources to climate change (Mensah, On climate change, Ghana is active at the international 2012). Ghana, therefore, needs an approach that can reason- level as a party to the UNFCCC and signatory to the Kyoto ably respond to climate change and related complexities in Protocol. Internally, mainstreaming climate change into exist- water management. ing decentralized system and development policies, such as the Ghana Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy and mil- Responding to Complexity lennium development goals, are seen as the surest way to and Uncertainty, That Is, effectively cope (United Nations Development Programme, Wicked Problems 2008; Tutuah-Mensah, 2009). The creation of the EPA with the mandate for environmental sustainability is acknowl- edged as a notable climate change effort. Other responsibili- Stacy (1996) provided a useful model for responding to ties of EPA include research and development, rule making, complexity, that is, wicked problems (Figure 2). The zone of standard settings, and enforcement. In addition, it collabo- complexity is between the region of chaos (Zone 4) and the rates with other stakeholders to ensure sustainable water regions amenable to traditional management approaches resource management (Laube, 2007; Mensah, 1998). (Zones 1, 2, and 3). The complexity zone requires ingenuity 8 SAGE Open Table 2. Properties of Wicked Problems Rittel and Weber CC and water supply in Ghana There is no definitive formulation of a i. Disparate knowledge and opinions on whether observed changing weather wicked problem patterns are CC related or constitutive of the natural cycle, for example, significant knowledge exist in formal institutions (government agencies, NGOs, and research institutes) and educated urban residents about drivers of CC. Most laymen and rural residents are ignorant of drivers of CC or perceive it as an act of God (Gyampoh, Amisah, Idinoba, & Nkem, 2009; Mensah, 2012) ii. As a result of different experiences, perceptions and political interests of these multiple publics, water supply policies, institutions, and infrastructure to adapt to CC seem to be aiming at a moving target Wicked problems have no stopping i. CC and its impacts are progressively getting worse while uncertainty remains rule about how long it will linger on, for example, past climate records, and future predictions point to progressive deterioration with continuous scarcity and poor quality of freshwater resources ii. Majority of CC programs are donor funded. It is doubtful whether Ghana can self-generate satisfactory criteria and be able to sustain its adaptive capacities over a long uncertain period especially beyond the cycle of donor funding iii. Dire implications for rural communities because their adaptation capacity is threatened by a combination of poverty, disregard for traditional norms, poor education and knowledge flow, and dependence on charity, mainly NGOs Solutions to wicked problems are not Although the EPA, WRC, CWSA, among other public agencies, are mandated by true or false but good or bad law, their ability to determine the correctness of any water adaptation decision to implement against CC rarely gets past critical scrutiny or challenge by numerous stakeholder agencies such as NGOs involved in the environment and water sector There is no immediate and no Because the major drivers of CC operate at the global scale, it is impossible ultimate test of a solution to a for national and local actors to determine when desired results of a proposed wicked problem intervention to adapt water systems to CC has been achieved, especially taking into account the inability of any system to fully appraise all unintended consequences prior to or post intervention Every solution to a wicked problem CC-related droughts and floods create water shortages through drying up of local is a “one-shot operation” because streams and perennial rivers and disrupting water quality. Conventional solutions there is no opportunity to learn by have resorted to massive dam projects such as Akosombo, Kpong, Densu, and so trial and error; every attempt counts on. However, these projects have brought irreversible hardships to communities significantly that depend on these rivers for their livelihoods and water needs Wicked problems do not have CC–related water supply resolutions are politically shaped by varying experiences, an enumerable (or exhaustively ideologies, and power of stakeholders from international to local levels. Ghana describable) set of potential has no agreement criteria for judging successfully completed water adaptation solutions, and there is no well- programs against CC; whether to base judgment on international agencies described set of permissible and government list of funded programs or on dominant agreement among all operations that may be incorporated stakeholders is uncertain into the plan Every wicked problem is essentially By scale and intensity, CC is one of a kind, nothing close to known experiences unique of extreme environmental events (e.g., droughts or floods) related to water resources in Ghana. Therefore, it makes insufficient or inappropriate adaptive capacities crafted out of knowledge gained from traditional and formal institutional arrangements over the years because of the lack of understanding of the inherent complexities related to multiple causes and scale, and constant trajectory changes. The situation is exacerbated by disjointed collaboration among stakeholder institutions Every wicked problem can be The impacts of CC on water resources and supply reflect growing concerns about considered to be a symptom of their interconnections with other intractable national and global problems, for another problem example, an unjust global geopolitics, deteriorating social and ecological systems, poverty, misfit/incapable institutions and resource governance system, gender inequalities, and so on. Therefore, exclusive action on CC without attention to related problems will be ineffective. But Ghana lacks the ability to influence global action in any significant way. As such it can only adopt an incremental strategy within the country and regionally as in WRC’s adopted comanagement of international rivers and major internal watersheds (continued) FitzGibbon and Mensah 9 Table 2. (continued) Rittel and Weber CC and water supply in Ghana The existence of a discrepancy No meaningful locally designed water adaptation interventions against CC. representing a wicked problem can Agencies such as EPA, WRC, and NGOs all seem to tailor their strategies toward be explained in numerous ways. The internationally driven initiatives such as MDGs and so on. This is justified as being choice of explanation determines the part of the international community or determination to secure funding sources. nature of the problem’s resolution Traditional authority and informal knowledge are often sidelined by experts from state and formal agencies The planner has no right to be The precautionary principle is implied here, a key element of Ghana Water Policy. wrong (Planners are liable for the However, current Ghanaian practice places no liability on planners and policy consequences of the actions they makers for unintended mistakes after due diligence, probably justifiably so because generate) learning from experience and even mistakes (adaptive) is fundamental to building capacities against latent uncertainties of CC. Nonetheless, the principle compels planners and implementers in CC and water resources to ponder their actions carefully to minimize negative externalities of their actions on others Note: CC= climate change; NGO = nongovernmental organization; EPA = Environment Protection Agency; WRC = Water Resources Commission; CWSA = Community Water and Sanitation Agency. Resolution Mapping Processes (see Horn & Weber, 2007), General Morphological Analysis (Ritchey, 2005-2011), and ACM. This article focuses on ACM, not on the other two. ACM seeks to legitimize decision making in complex situations through effective collaboration, flexible gover- nance, and continuous learning informed by experience. Three phases of Stacy–Zimmerman’s model arranged back- ward (Table 3) fits the ACM idea of water management under complexity, although the first phase is a necessary condition for responding to severe consequences on water resources under changing climatic conditions as the Ghanaian scenario demonstrates. ACM may be useful for Ghana because it is a dynamic approach imbued with com- plex and adaptive systems thinking with internal capacity to minimize ineffectiveness and inefficiencies in existing social and institutional models, while capitalizing on oppor- tunities of instrumental gains from prior existing institu- tions. Particularly, ACM will help strengthen the capacities of rural water management systems to adapt to climate change because of its emphasis on equity and power bal- ance through stakeholder deliberative processes, strength- Figure 2. Ralph Stacy’s agreement and certainty matrix ening horizontal and cross-scale linkages, and creating Source: Adapted from Zimmerman (2001). space for iterative learning and opportunities for coexis- tence and interaction among different knowledge systems, thereby giving legitimacy to decisions and actions. in innovation and a shift from past practices to create new modes of operating because the predictive power of tradi- ACM tional management approaches becomes ineffective here (Zimmerman, 2001). In elaborating on the model, the authors ACM is a successor to earlier approaches (resilience, adap- provide a typology for responding to different levels of tive, and later comanagement) that emphasized social and dilemma and complex scenarios, requiring changing ecological dynamism, network governance, resilience, and approaches in moving from agreement and certainty. Within capacity building process through learning from experiences this framework, specific tools or mechanisms can be applied (Berkes, 2009). ACM emerged in the late 1970s against the to respond to complex issues, including Mess Mapping and backdrop of failures in community-based sustainable 10 SAGE Open Table 3. Changing Management Approaches in Moving from Agreement and Certainty Possible approach Description Comments 1. Seek patterns Scan “chaotic and disorganized” systems for emerging Assumption here is that object of study is organizations and patterns approaching high-dimensional chaos. Task is to identify emerging patterns that might suggest emerging level of organization 2. Convene Bring representatives of various complex adaptive Insufficient involvement or direct control systems together in an attempt to facilitate self- to allow formal intervention. Action organization and emergence. Compare active limited to convening in hopes that convening with observation of entities coming interaction and change will emerge. together Less-structured intervention than above example 3. Examine and describe Observe interactions between complex adaptive The task here is to understand. Systems patterns systems that are beyond the leader’s ability to affect are sufficiently large or removed to or convene preclude any intervention 4. Convene and intervene Bring representatives of various CASs together to Primary step is to convene representatives facilitate self-organization and emergence. Use process of involved complex adaptive systems. tools to confront inherent paradoxes and to seek Secondary step is structured, planned change through leveraging Morgan’s 15% opportunity. “intervention” that actively attempts Compare approaches with and without goals to “move to a new attractor” (Per G. Morgan) Source: Adapted from Zimmerman, 2001. Note: CAS = Complex Adaptive Systems development that painted images of consensual communities such “we must focus on learning to live within systems, and stable environments (Leach, Mearns, & Scoones, 1997). rather than ‘controlling’ them” (Walker et al., 2002, p. 2). It is an integration of adaptive management and comanage- This is the basis of Gunderson and Holling’s (2002) “panachy” ment (Armitage, Berkes, & Doubleday, 2007; Berkes, 2007; concept (a hierarchy of nested adaptive cycles across time Plummer & FitzGibbon, 2007). Consequently, it combines and space). It is also the basis of their indictment against iterative learning in adaptive management with the central “development experts”: (a) ignorance of the key drivers of element of linkages in collaborative management where rights change in a dynamic system, and the distinctly different scales and responsibilities are jointly shared (Berkes, 2007; Dolšak of time and space they operate therefore exposing conventional et al., 2003). Scalar issues are important to ACM as it draws ecological management practices to self-destructive- the linkages between stakeholder networks and access to controlled ecological interventions along with the sociocul- political, technical, social, and economic resources (adaptive tural structures that support it and (b) ignorance of the con- capacities) of local communities and households. The local nectedness and linkages in ecology and society, as well as scale is viewed as the place where “issues of management knowledge systems. Armitage et al. (2007) concluded, performance are felt most directly” but emphasize “a flexible system for environment and resource management that oper- Complex systems thinking offers a way of examining, ates across multiple levels and with a range of local and non- describing, interpreting, and cognitively structuring not local organizations and actors” (Armitage et al., 2007, p. 5). only ecological systems but also increasingly linked There is no single all-encompassing definition of ACM. socio-ecological systems. Specifically, complex systems However, learning by doing, integrating multiple knowledge thinking highlights the dynamic, nonlinear relationships systems, emphasizing flexibility of management structures, among coupled social and ecological phenomena that and advancing collaboration through power sharing at mul- result in discontinuities, surprises, system flips, and the tiple scales remain central (Plummer & FitzGibbon, 2007). potential for multiple equilibrium states. (p. 7) Climate change adaptation involves SES and therefore fits the complexity or adaptive systems framework. The tran- What Should ACM for Ghana Look Like? sitional nature of global climate system implies that adaptation is not geared toward a predictable end state. Rather, it is about The underpinning tenets of ACM are informative for Ghana a newly configured system, which is just one of potential mul- because climate change is a young and understudied sub- tiple end states (Gunderson & Holling, 2002; Walker et al., ject in the country. Therefore, the full extent of intricate 2002). This suggests an element of path dependence or contin- interconnections of climate change with other sectors and gency in the possible outcomes of the adaptive approach. As ecological resources (including water), and associated FitzGibbon and Mensah 11 impacts on their vulnerabilities are not well understood. and that new knowledge was adjusted to local conditions in Ghana’s environmental and water agencies should work both Sweden and Tanzania. with the assumption that climate change is exacerbating water vulnerabilities and pushing water resources manage- We must acknowledge the importance of ethics and ment capacities to their tether. The major task is to encourage social justice in environmental problems. They cannot formal research and traditional learning institutions to iden- be resolved without the participation of those most tify emerging patterns and their levels of operation and a affected. In fact, a satisfactory resolution may well disaggregated impact assessment on people (Table 3, Phase hinge on special sorts of local knowledge and institu- 1). It is especially relevant for rural water supply because tions that will only become available if local people are rural communities in Ghana lag behind in most capitals and welcomed as active and influential participants. hence their low adaptive capacities. Perhaps, if room is made for them at the table, a new A typical ACM for Ghana must specifically emphasize science that incorporates traditional knowledge and continuous learning in an iterative manner within networks values will emerge. (Berkes & Folke, 1998, quoted in and continuous information sharing and education as its over- Ludwig, 2001, p. 763) riding objective for local management institutions (Pahl- Wostl, 2007; Tschakert & Dietrich, 2010). The effects of Conflicts over control of resources and decision-making climate change will linger for a while. Therefore, institutional authority have been observed between decentralized bodies strategies that have proved capable of coping with extreme and traditional authorities and also between local decentral- climatic events must be identified and incorporated into ized units and community water organizations (Anani, 1999; regional and national adaptation plans until more adaptable Jackson & Gariba, 2002). Such conflicts must be addressed ones are found. In addition, formal education must incorpo- swiftly, and the boundaries of authority of these institutions rate lessons on mitigation and adaptation because today’s stu- must be addressed clearly and responsibly. This will require dents are future policy makers. Extension workers must be collaboration at all levels where trust and respect are pursued informed and motivated to educate local people but must be (building social capital). This framework will focus on bring- willing to be receptive to local wisdom and practices. Cultural ing in vulnerable groups—poor and women—by deliberately and religious groups must be targeted for education because targeting them and creating space for them to participate in people with formal education and nontraditional beliefs tend decision making. It will require different negotiation skills to flout traditional ecological norms that have been the main- among facilitators, policy makers, and implementers to stay of rural water management (Appiah-Opoku & Hyma, bridge the gap between local authorities and government 1999; Gyampoh et al., 2009; Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro, 2007). institutions over control of water resources. Within this con- Local communication systems (e.g., community radios) must text, blanket cash-and-carry approaches for accessing water use local dialect to reach their communities to be abreast with will be reevaluated based on specific community context new and tested ideas as well as improve their technical capaci- allowing each community to come up with an arrangement ties. In this regard, Ada Community Radio is worth mention- suitable to its needs. This will minimize conflict endemic in ing in the way it interacts with and helps educate and mobilize the current arrangement. Finally, climate and water policies local people about environment and climate change issues in must be linked with broad social and economic activities of the Dangme East District (Larweh, 2006; Mensah, 2012). rural people. As Brown and Crawford (2008) suggested, This approach has proved useful not only in bonding but also Ghana needs holistic adaptation measures that address the in bridging cross-scale linkages among nations (Pahl-Wostl, full range of development problems it faces that are tangen- 2007; Stringer et al., 2006). NGOs, Civil Society Organizations tially related to climate change, not just those that arise as a (CSOs), and international aid agencies must be given easy result of climate change. Collectively, these will help over- access to institutional information and local communities to come the observation that because climate change transcend help in capacity building. the local scale the tools to equip adaptive learning in Africa In addition, emphasis should be placed on institutional are sparse, as a result of communication deficiencies which bricolage, with recognition of informal knowledge as a legit- make it difficult to integrate science information into climate imate source of information for climate and water manage- policy and practice; and lack of learning tools that encourage ment issues because they have been useful for generations in adaptation process, including experimentation and innovation helping local communities adjust to environmental distur- in building resilience in complex high risk socio-ecological bances. 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London, England: Pitman. matters. Climate Change, 43, 601-623. Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J., Fraser, E., Hubacek, K., Prell, C., & Zimmerman, B. (2001). Edgeware-Aides: Ralph Stacy’s agreement Reed, M. S. (2006). Unpacking “participation” in the adaptive man- and certainty matrix. Toronto, Canada: York University. agement of social–ecological systems: A critical review. Ecology & Society, 11, 39. Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/ Bios vol11/iss2/art39/ Tengo, M., & Belfrage, K. (2004). Local management practices for John FitzGibbon is a professor in the School of Environmental dealing with change and uncertainty: A cross-scale compari- Design and Rural Development and a director of the Rural Studies son of cases in Sweden and Tanzania. Ecology & Society, 9, 4. Program, University of Guelph. His major interests and works Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss3/ include source water protection, environmental management, art4/ community-based natural resource management, environmental Tschakert, P., & Dietrich, K. A. (2010). Anticipatory learning for farm planning, and nutrient management planning. climate change adaptation and resilience. Ecology & Society, 15, 11. Retrieved from www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss2/ Kenneth O. Mensah is a PhD candidate in rural studies, School of art11/ Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Tutuah-Mensah, A. A. (2009, October 19-21). Implications of cli- Guelph. His interests are in planning and policy of urban–rural mate change on gender. Paper presented at the three day sci- systems, environment and water resources management, gender, ence policy dialogue at Centre for African Wetlands, University international development, and participatory governance with areal of Ghana, Legon. focus on sub-Saharan Africa.

Journal

SAGE OpenSAGE

Published: May 25, 2012

Keywords: climate change; wicked problems; institutions; rural water management; Adaptive Co-Management

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