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This study aimed to examine associations between gross motor skills and executive functions (EF) in a large sample of Australian preschool-aged children. Of 566 children (mean age = 3.2 ± 0.4 years, 51.2% girls), locomotor, object control, and total skill competence were significantly associated with visual spatial working memory and inhibition (p < 0.05). Total skill competence was associated with shifting and locomotor skills were significantly associated with self-regulation (p < 0.05). Static balance was signif- icantly associated with inhibition and shifting (p < 0.05). In boys, an association between object control skills and visual spatial working memory was observed.Ingirls,anassociationbetween static balanceand visual spatial working memory, phonological working memory, and shifting was observed. The identi- fication of significant associations between gross motor skills and different EFs is an important con- tribution to the growing evidence on the relationship between motor skills and EFs in early childhood. Keywords Motor development, cognitive development, early childhood Corresponding author: Rachel A Jones, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia. Email: rachelj@uow.edu.au 2 Australasian Journal of Early Childhood 0(0) running kicking, catching, and balance skills). Introduction A relationship between gross motor skills and As children transition from preschool to primary cognitive skills can be explained by the co- school, the ability to sustain their focus towards activation of the prefrontal cortex and the learning, adhere to classroom rules, cooperate cerebellum during motor and cognitive tasks with peers, and become increasingly self- (Diamond, 2000). Additionally, the inter- directed is important. These skills are a part connectedness of motor and cognitive de- of self-regulation, enabled by executive func- velopment has underpinned fundamental the- tions (Hofmann et al., 2012). EF are core ories in child development. According to cognitive capacities for maintaining and work- Piaget’s “Cognitive Development Theory” ing with information, resisting distractions and (Piaget & Cook, 1952), actions created by the contrary impulses, and flexibly shifting atten- body enhance cognitive processes. The “Dy- tion towards goal-relevant tasks. There is evi- namic Systems Theory” (Thelen & Smith, 1994) dence that early self-regulation and EF predict proposes movement is the result of the interaction social, health, financial, and behavioral out- between sub-systems such as the cognitive, comes into adolescence and adulthood (Howard neurological, muscular, and skeletal. And the & Williams, 2018; McClelland et al., 2014; “Ecological Perspective” (Gibson, 1979)links Robson et al., 2020). Considered alongside cognitive and motor processes by proposing that longitudinal evidence that early growth in these infants act on information they perceive from the abilities is associated with improved outcomes environment. in later life (Moffitt et al., 2011), there is con- A systematic review found weak-to-strong siderable interest in early self-regulation and EF evidence for the relationship between motor intervention as a means to improve population skills and cognitive skills in children aged 4– outcomes. Yet the success of approaches to 16 years (van der Fels et al., 2015). These foster these abilities has been modest. correlations were mostly found for sub- Successful improvement in self-regulation categories of gross motor and cognitive skills. It and/or EF has often been short-term and only was recommended that future research examine for practiced abilities, with limited transfer to correlations between different subcategories of untrained abilities or long-term maintenance motor and cognitive skills as well as examining (Karch et al., 2013; Melby-Lervag & Hume, specific age categories as most included studies 2013Melby-Lervag & Hulme, 2013). It has were conducted using a wider age range of been suggested that this is due to an insufficient children. Additionally, most studies were con- understanding of the dynamic interactions ducted in children above the age of 5 years. between developmental factors during this Despite the early years being a critical time period of rapid change. A case in point is for the development of both gross motor skills physical approaches to fostering EF. Some (Payne & Isaacs, 2016) and EFs (Howard et al., studies have shown physical activity can in- 2015; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000), the re- fluence EF (Best, 2010; Lubans et al., 2016), lationship between gross motor skills and EFs however, there might be better results when and self-regulation in young children is an area physical activity is accompanied by cognitive that is underexplored. Few studies have exam- challenges such as thought, planning and/or ined the relationship between gross motor skills inhibitory control, and it involves more com- and EFs in preschool-aged children (ages 3– plex movement sequences (Mavilidi et al., 5 years) (Cook et al., 2019; Houwen et al., 2015, 2018). The basis of complex move- 2017). Results of these studies are in- ment sequences lies in the development of consistent. Cook et al. (2019) reported a sig- gross motor skills (e.g., such as jumping, nificant association between gross motor skills Veldman et al. 3 and EFs inhibition and working memory, while arm participated in Jump Start, a multicompo- Houwen et al. (2017) only reported this asso- nent comprehensive physical activity program. ciation for working memory. This inconsistency Services randomized to the control arm main- may be explained by recruitment from different tained their usual practice, which provided access settings (countries and regions: urban vs. rural), to a state-wide Government funded program the small sample sizes (both <160 participants), known as Munch & Move. Munch & Move pro- including both typically developing participants motes healthy eating and physical activity in ECEC as well as those at risk of motor coordination services, and includes several resources and online difficulties, and using different measurement professional development (Hardy et al., 2010; instruments (objective measures vs. parental NSW Ministry of Health, 2018). The study was proxy-report) (Cook et al., 2019; Houwen et al., registered with the Australian New Zealand Clin- 2017). Although there is evidence for a re- ical Trials Registry (ACTRN12614000597695) lationship between visual-motor skills and self- and approved by the University of Wollongong regulation (Becker et al., 2014; MacDonald Human Research Ethics Committee (HE14/137). et al., 2016), no studies have examined the association between gross motor skills and self- Participants regulation. Research is needed to understand the rela- In total, 43 ECEC services were recruited into tionships between gross motor skills and EFs the Jump Start study: 22 services were ran- and self-regulation in preschool-aged children domized into the intervention arm and 21 to inform intervention and education design. As services were randomized into the control arm. sex differences have been observed in gross Children 3 years of age at the start of the in- motor skills (Barnett et al., 2016; Veldman et al., tervention and who attended the ECEC service 2018), it would be valuable to investigate at least 2 days a week were invited to participate. whether the association between gross motor Parents provided informed written consent and skills and EFs and self-regulation differs be- children provided verbal assent. Baseline data tween boys and girls. Thus, this study aimed to collection was conducted between February and build on the existing evidence base by firstly June 2015. Detailed information on recruitment examining the associations between gross motor and data collection procedures for Jump Start skills (locomotor skills, object control skills, and can be found elsewhere (Stanley et al., 2016), as balance) and EFs (working memory, inhibition, well as the outcomes for the 6-month data and shifting) as well as self-regulation in a large collection time point (Okely et al., 2020). Al- sample of Australian preschool-aged children. though the sample was large, it was not repre- Secondly, this study examined if these associ- sentative of Australia as the early childhood ations differed between boys and girls. education and care centers recruited for Jump Start were intentionally recruited from areas of disadvantage and as such had a higher pro- Methods portion of vulnerable children. This study used the baseline data collected for the Jump Start study (Stanley et al., 2016). Jump Gross motor skills Start was a two-arm, parallel group, 18-month randomized controlled trial aimed at increasing Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test physical activity in preschool-aged children of Gross Motor Development—2nd edition while attending ECEC services. The study was (TGMD-2) (Ulrich, 2000)and GetSkilled:Get conducted across the state of New South Wales, Active (GSGA) (NSW Department of Education Australia. Services randomized to the intervention and Training, 2000). Both tests are process-oriented, 4 Australasian Journal of Early Childhood 0(0) meaning assessment is based on the qualitative 2017) and the “Head, Toes, Knees, Should- execution of the skills rather than the outcome. ers” (HTKS) assessment (Ponitz et al., 2009). The TGMD-2 assesses 12 skills divided into The Early Years Toolbox (http://www. two subtests: six locomotor skills (run, gallop, eytoolbox.com.au/) consists of iPad-based as- hop, leap, horizontal jump, slide) and six object sessments that assess different aspects of EFs: control skills (strike a stationary ball, stationary inhibition (Go/No-Go), shifting (Card Sorting), dribble or bounce, kick, catch, overhand throw, visual-spatial working memory (Mr Ant), and underhand roll). The test is reliable and valid in phonological working memory (Not This). The children aged three through 10 years (Ulrich, toolbox has been validated for children aged 2000). Each skill was assessed on three to five three to 6 years and demonstrates good con- specific performance criteria. Trained data col- vergent validity with existing measures of EFs lectors demonstrated each skill and after such as the NIH Toolbox (inhibition, r (80) = a practice trial, the child was asked to perform 0.40, p < 0.001, shifting, r (80) = 0.45, p < the skill twice to the best of their ability. Per- 0.001, visual-spatial working memory, r (79) = formances were video captured after which 0.46, p < 0.001 and phonological working a blinded trained researcher scored all videos memory, r (79) = 0.42, p < 0.001) (Howard & according to the performance criteria. The child Melhuish, 2017). All assessments have built-in received a score of “1” if they correctly executed audio with instructions and practice embedded the performance criteria and a score of “0” if the in the application. Trained data collectors en- performance criteria were not executed cor- sured children understood the instructions, re- rectly. The total raw score was calculated as well mained on-task, and clarified instructions where as the raw score per subtest. For each subtests needed. The assessments were administered the maximum raw score is 48 points. Raw scores individually in a private area and each assess- were converted into standard scores per subtest ment lasted between five and 8 minutes. (range 1–20) as well as the gross motor quotient The Go/No-Go task evaluated the ability of (total skill competence; range 55–150). These children to inhibit behavioral reactions in re- standardized outcomes were used for data sponse to the “no-go” stimulus which was less analysis. frequently evaluated. During the task, children The GSGA tool was used to assess static were asked to “catch the fish” by tapping on the balance (NSW Department of Education and screen when they appeared (“go” response) and Training, 2000). Static balance was assessed “avoid the sharks” by not pressing anything on five performance criteria and similar to the when the sharks appear (“no-go” response). The TGMD-2, after demonstration, the child was task consisted of three mixed blocks of 25 asked to perform the skill twice to the best of stimuli, each consisting of 80% “go” trials. A their ability. Performances were video captured stimulus was presented for 1.50 s on the screen after which a blinded trained researcher scored followed by a 1.00 s inter-stimulus interval all videos according to the performance criteria. before the next stimulus. The inhibition task was The child received a score of “1” if they cor- scored according to the product of proportional rectly executed the performance criteria and go and no-go accuracy. a score of “0” if the performance criteria were The Card Sorting task evaluated a child’s not executed correctly. ability to disengage and re-direct attention (cognitive flexibility). During this task, children were presented with stimuli that varied in shape Executive function and self-regulation and color (red rabbit and a blue boat), one at EFs and self-regulation were assessed using the a time. Children were asked to sort the shapes Early Years Toolbox (Howard & Melhuish, into castles that were denoted by a blue rabbit Veldman et al. 5 and red boat. They were first asked to sort the amount of stimulus features that needed be shapes by one dimension (color; six trials), activated in mind increased with every level, known as the pre-switch phase, and then by and every level contained five trials. In level 1, another dimension (shape; six trials), known as for example, children were asked to find shapes the post-switch phase. After successful com- that were not green, whereas in level 4 children pletion of at least five pre-switch and post- were asked to find shapes that were not red, not switch trials, the next step was a border ver- blue, not a circle, and not big. After the auditory sion of the task (the border phase). In this phase instruction, played against a white screen, a 3- children had to flexibly switch between the second white screen delay was followed by a 4 × sorting dimensions depending on the presence 5 array of different colored and sized shapes or absence of a border around the stimulus. At with cartoon faces. This screen was displayed the start of each phase, there was a demonstra- until the child tapped on one of the characters. tion and two practice trials. Additionally, in- The task finished when a child was not able to structions were repeated at every trial. Scores complete at least three of the five trials within were given for every correct trial once the initial a level. The task was scored with each suc- switch was made. cessive level with at least three of the five trials The Mr. Ant task evaluated visual-spatial correct receiving 1 point, and all correct trials working memory, which is defined as the thereafter receiving 1/5 of a point. amount of visual information that can be acti- The HTKS assessment evaluated a child’s vated in the mind concurrently. The task as- behavioral self-regulation and required skills sessed visual-spatial working memory by such as listening and remembering in- asking children to remember the spatial location structions, initiating and stopping actions, and of stickers on a cartoon ant. During this task, sustaining attention (Ponitz et al., 2009). The children were presented with an image of HTKS assessment has demonstrated to be a cartoon ant, which had colored stickers on a valid measure of cognitive flexibility, different spatial locations of his body for working memory, and inhibitory control, and 5 seconds. Following a blank screen for 4 sec- predictorofacademicoutcomes(McClelland onds, Mr. Ant reappeared without any colored et al., 2014). The assessment consisted of stickers, children were asked to reapply the a structured observationduringwhich chil- stickers by tapping on the recalled locations. dren were required to perform the opposite of The number of stickers increased with in- a dominant response to different oral com- creasing level of difficulty, starting with one mands (head, toes, knees, shoulders). Trained sticker and reaching a maximum of eight data collectors administered the assessment stickers. Per level, the child had three trials. The individually in a quiet space. The assessment task finished when a child was not able to started with a demonstration of the oral perform one of the three trials correctly. The task commands and asking children to copy the was scored on successful completion of each command. For example, “First, I want you to successive level, with at least two trials correct copy what I do. Touch your head.” Following receiving 1 point, and all correct trials thereafter practicing commands, children were asked to receiving 1/3 of a point. “Do the opposite of what I say” (head vs. toes, The Not This task evaluated a child’s ability knees vs. shoulders). During the first assess- to carry out auditory instructions with increasing ment phase, the data collector gave 10 com- difficulty. During the task, children were asked mands (head or toes) which were each scored to identify characters that did not match the a “2” when the child performed the command phonological description regarding a particular correctly (opposite), a “1” when the child self- color, shape, size, or combination of these. The corrected, or a “0” when the child did not 6 Australasian Journal of Early Childhood 0(0) perform the command correctly (not the op- memory, phonological working memory, and posite). The overall score for the assessment inhibition tasks. Children scored between the th th ranged between 0 and 60. 60 and 79 quintile on the shifting task. The average score for self-regulation was 2.5 ± 6.4. Sex differences were observed for visual-spatial Demographics working memory in which boys outperformed Data on the children’s date of birth and sex were girls (p < 0.05). collected via the consent form. The date of birth Table 2 reports on the outcomes of the linear was used to calculate the child’s age at the time regression models. The total skill competence, of baseline data collection. locomotor subtest, and object control subtest were all significantly associated with visual spatial working memory and inhibition (all p < Data analysis 0.05). Additionally, the total skill competence was associated with shifting and the locomotor SPSS version 21 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, subtest was significantly associated with self- USA) and STATA version 13 (StataCorp, Col- regulation. Static balance was significantly as- lege Station, TX, USA) were used to conduct sociated with inhibition and shifting (p < 0.05). statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were When examining sex differences, several completed in SPSS. Associations between gross associations were found for either boys or girls motor skills and EFs and self-regulation were (see Supplementary Table 1). An association examined using linear regression procedures in between object control skills and visual spatial STATA accounting for clustering of ECEC working memory was only observed in boys. services (unit of recruitment). Regression An association between static balance and visual models were adjusted for sex and age. The spatial working memory, phonological working significance level was set at p < 0.05. memory, and shifting was only observed in girls. Results Discussion The Jump Start study recruited 658 children at This study reports on the association between baseline (78% recruitment rate). A total of 566 gross motor skills and EFs and self-regulation in children (mean age = 3.2 ± 0.4 years, 51.2% preschool-aged children. It extends current ev- girls) across 43 ECEC services had complete idence by reporting the association between data on all relevant measurements of gross gross motor skills and self-regulation, as well as motor skills, EFs, self-regulation, and socio- sex differences, aspects which have not pre- demographic variables, and were therefore in- viously been investigated. Furthermore, this cluded in this study. Descriptive statistics can be study includes an extended gross motor skills found in Table 1. Overall, children had a total battery which is inclusive of stationary motor skill competence score of 79.7 ± 6.8. This was skills (e.g., static balance). The study published rated as poor (Ulrich, 2000). The standard by Cook et al. (2019) is the most similar to this scores for the locomotion (6.7 ± 1.6) and object study: they used the same test battery for EFs control subtest (6.5 ± 1.3) were rated as below and gross motor skills and also reported asso- average. Sex differences were observed for the ciations between gross motor skills subsets total skill competence and object control subtest (locomotor skills and object control skills) with boys outperforming girls (p < 0.05). For (Cook et al., 2019). Thus, Cook et al.’s (2019) EFs, on average children scored between the study will be used as the primary source of th th 40 and 59 quintile on visual-spatial working comparison. However, given the dearth of Veldman et al. 7 Table 1. Sample Characteristics. All (n = 566) Girls (n = 290) Boys (n = 276) mean ± SD mean ± SD mean ± SD P value Age, years 3.23 ± 0.35 3.46 ± 0.36 3.34 ± 0.33 <0.001 Gross motor skills - Total skill competence (range 55–150) 79.71 ± 6.79 78.66 ± 7.04 80.82 ± 6.34 <0.001 - Locomotion (range 1–10) 6.74 ± 1.59 6.71 ± 1.59 6.77 ± 1.59 0.648 - Object manipulation (range 1–10) 6.50 ± 1.26 6.18 ± 1.41 6.84 ± 0.99 <0.001 - Static balance (range 0–5) 1.23 ± 1.91 1.24 ± 1.97 1.22 ± 1.85 0.881 Executive functions - Visual-spatial working memory 0.83 ± 0.77 0.74 ± 0.75 0.92 ± 0.78 0.004 - Phonological working memory 1.16 ± 0.73 1.17 ± 0.72 1.15 ± 0.74 0.700 - Inhibition 0.36 ± 0.22 0.37 ± 0.21 0.35 ± 0.22 0.228 - Shifting 2.64 ± 3.11 2.67 ± 2.97 2.62 ± 3.25 0.850 - Self-regulation 2.48 ± 6.43 2.41 ± 6.15 2.54 ± 6.73 0.806 Independent Samples t test. literature, where appropriate, studies involving positive association may be attributed to the older children will also be discussed. type of assessments used. The assessment of Overall, the reported associations between gross motor skills involves children watching an gross motor skills and executive functions, for expert perform a single skill. Following the example,, between total skill competence and demonstration children are immediately asked visual spatial working memory, inhibition, and to perform the skill to the best of their ability, shifting, can be explained by several factors. thus it is likely that the information about how to First, brain development and architecture may perform the skill is retained in the child’s visual- be a contributing factor. It is well established spatial working memory. Similarly, children are that there is co-activation between a number of asked to watch a demonstration of how to different parts of the brain (e.g., cerebellum, complete the working memory assessment prior basal ganglia, and prefrontal cortex) whilst to the assessment. The amount and type of in- performing EFs and gross motor skills formation provided to the children during these (Diamond, 2000; 2007). Second, it has been assessments aligns with the capacity of working suggested that gross motors skills and EFs have memory for children at this age (i.e., two or three a similar developmental pathway in which early instructions at any given time). Furthermore, childhood has been highlighted as a critical working memory is known to be enhanced by time. Children are not born with EFs nor gross face-to-face instruction (Gade et al., 2017). motor skills: children need to be provided with A positive association between inhibition opportunities to develop these skills and both and gross motor skills (total skill competence need to be learnt (Howard et al., 2015; Payne & and all subtests) was reported in the current Isaacs, 2016; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). study, whereas the study by Cook et al. (2019) The positive association between gross only reported this association for locomotor motor skills and the working memory EF re- skills. Evidence suggests that EFs, including ported in the current study, has also been re- that of inhibition, mature significantly between ported in previous studies among preschool- the ages of three and 5 year (Shonkoff & aged children (Cook et al., 2019; Houwen Phillips, 2000). At 5 years, typically de- et al., 2017; van der Fels et al., 2015). This veloping children have the ability to inhibit 8 Australasian Journal of Early Childhood 0(0) Table 2. Associations Between Gross Motor Skills and Executive Functions. Visual-spatial working memory a b Model 1 Model 2 Gross motor skills B SEBp value B SEBp value Total skill competence 0.026 0.004 0.000 0.022 0.004 <0.001 Locomotion 0.115 0.019 0.000 0.094 0.020 <0.001 Object manipulation 0.066 0.022 0.005 0.063 0.025 0.014 Static balance 0.062 0.015 0.000 0.033 0.016 0.053 Phonological working memory a a Model 1 Model 2 Gross motor skills B SEBp value B SEBp value Total skill competence 0.001 0.004 0.026 0.009 0.005 0.063 Locomotion 0.049 0.017 0.007 0.036 0.019 0.060 Object manipulation 0.015 0.019 0.432 0.027 0.022 0.241 Static balance 0.047 0.019 0.018 0.029 0.019 0.126 Inhibition a b Model 1 Model 2 Gross motor skills B SEBp value B SEBp value Total skill competence 0.006 0.001 0.000 0.006 0.001 <0.001 Locomotion 0.034 0.005 0.000 0.027 0.005 <0.001 Object manipulation 0.006 0.007 0.380 0.014 0.006 0.031 Static balance 0.022 0.005 0.000 0.012 0.004 0.009 Shifting a a Model 1 Model 2 Gross motor skills B SEBp value B SEBp value Total skill competence 0.038 0.016 0.020 0.035 0.017 0.047 Locomotion 0.172 0.071 0.019 0.128 0.076 0.098 Object manipulation 0.096 0.094 0.312 0.136 0.098 0.172 Static balance 0.238 0.065 0.001 0.180 0.067 0.010 Self-regulation a b Model 1 Model 2 Gross motor skills B SEBp value B SEBp value Total skill competence 0.099 0.038 0.013 0.081 0.042 0.060 Locomotion 0.575 0.181 0.003 0.418 0.191 0.034 Object manipulation 0.033 0.265 0.902 0.116 0.262 0.659 Static balance 0.132 0.131 0.316 1.118 0.117 0.316 Model 1 was adjusted for clustering effects. Model 2 was adjusted for clustering effects, child age and sex. responses that are inappropriate and to execute ability by staying on task and without multi-step instructions. They also have the distraction. ability to wait until they are called for their turn For shifting, associations were found with the and to ignore distractions and stay on task. As total skill competence and static balance but not suggested by Cook et al. (2019), inhibition for locomotor skills or object control skills. Cook would be expressed during the assessment of et al. (2019) suggested an absence of an asso- gross motor skills, as children need to wait their ciation may be because of the type of test battery turn, complete the skill to the best of their used to assess the gross motor skills: TGMD-2 Veldman et al. 9 does not specifically include extensive shifting their balance-related skills. These observations processes as skills are tested separately and with might be important for future interventions as a break between skills. For static balance children they could influence the development of EF and were asked to shift between balancing on the left self-regulation. and right without a pause which might explain It is plausible to suggest that these results the association found. Additionally, the EF of may be informed by the target population (i.e., shifting is thought to be developed later in children from areas of disadvantage), however, childhood compared to the processes of working a number of studies have shown that area of memory and inhibition, thus the association may disadvantages does not influence EF outcomes not be identified in preschool-aged children and gross motor skill outcomes. Howard and (Garon et al., 2008) colleagues (2019) explored differences between For self-regulation, an association with gross young children’s EF from a high-income country motor skills was only observed for locomotor (Australia) and a low-income country (South skills. This is surprising as object control skills Africa). Their results showed that the most highly are related to active play and activities related to disadvantaged South African children out- social interactions with peers (Westendorp et al., performed middle- and high- socio-economic 2014). When playing a ball game and thereby status Australian preschools on two of three performing object control skills, children have EFs. Similarly, Tomaz and collegaues (2019) have more opportunities to practice their social skills shown that children from low-income countries as they need to adhere to rules and problem have comparable gross motor skills as those from solve in order to behavior in a socially ac- high income countries (Tomaz et al., 2019). ceptable manner. However, given the limited There are several strengths of this study. and inconsistent evidence among young chil- Valid tools were used to assess gross motor dren, additional studies are needed before final skills, EFs, and self-regulation and the chosen conclusions can be ascertained. tools allowed for the examination of different Interestingly in this study, when examining components of gross motor skills (e.g., object sex differences, the association between object control and locomotor, balance) and EFs (e.g., control skills and visual-spatial working mem- working memory, inhibition, and shifting). ory was only present for boys. Looking at the Another strength of this study is the large two variables individually, boys scored signif- sample size, although not representative and icantly higher than girls. Sex differences were small age range of children. These results should also observed in the association between static be considered in light of limitations associated balance and visual-spatial working memory, with cross sectional data, that is, causal path- shifting, and phonological working memory. ways cannot be determined. Furthermore, de- The sex differences in both object control skills finitive conclusions are difficult in the absence and balance skills have been observed in pre- of comparative studies both in preschool-aged vious studies, where boys seem to consistently children and those in older children. outperform girls in object control skills but girls Given the interest in the importance of EFs in perform better at balance skills compared to early childhood (Robson et al., 2020) and the boys (Barnett et al., 2016). The latter, however, ongoing support for the promotion and de- needs more research to be confirmed. The sex velopment of gross motors skills in young differences in object control skills can likely be children (Veldman et al., 2016), this study is explained by sociological factors. Compared to timely. The identification of a number of sig- girls, boys receive greater support and encour- nificant associations between different compo- agement to develop their object control skills nents of gross motor skills and different EFs is whereas girls are more encouraged to develop paramount as these relationships are important 10 Australasian Journal of Early Childhood 0(0) for holistic child development and the findings the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. provide a sound foundation for future research. Future studies should be of high methodological Ethics approval and consent to quality, incorporating a large representative participate sample size and utilize valid and comprehensive The Jump Start study procedures have been approved methods of measurement for both EF and gross by the University of Wollongong Human Research motor skills. Further cross sectional and lon- Ethics Committee (HE14/137) and registered with the gitudinal studies would be beneficial to examine Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry the relationship between gross motor skills and (ACTRN12614000597695). All corresponding au- EFs and self-regulation and how this relation- thors and data collectors who were involved with the ship differs by sex and develops across time. It data were included in the ethics application. A signed may also be important to consider the associ- consent from parents/caregivers and educators was ations with fine motor skills (Cameron et al., required prior to participation in the study. 2012)and influence of environmental factors (Smits-Engelsman & Hill, 2012) to acquire ORCID iDs a comprehensive understanding of the associ- Sanne LC Veldman https://orcid.org/0000-0003- ations between skill development and EFs. 4876-1637 Steven J Howard https://orcid.org/0000-0002- Acknowledgements 1258-3210 Rachel A Jones https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5384-1941 We thank the ECEC centers, families and children involved in the study. We also thank Penny Cross, the Supplemental Material study data manager, for cleaning the data prior to analyses. Supplemental material for this article is available online. Authors’ contributions References SV, AO, and RJ were responsible for the initiation, conceptualization and design of the current study. SV Barnett, L. M., Lai, S. K., Veldman, S. L., Hardy, drafted the initial manuscript and MH and RJ assisted. L. L., Cliff, D. P., Morgan, P. J., Zask, A., Lubans, All authors were responsible for critically revising the D. R., Shultz, S. P., Ridgers, N. D., Rush, E., manuscript for important intellectual content. All Brown, H. L., & Okely, A. D. (2016). Correlates authors approved the final manuscript. of gross motor competence in children and ado- lescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Declaration of conflicting interests Sports Medicine, 46(11), 1663–1688. https://doi. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of in- org/10.1007/s40279-016-0495-z terest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or Becker, D. R., Miao, A., Duncan, R., & McClelland, publication of this article. M. M. (2014). Behavioral self-regulation and executive function both predict visuomotor skills Funding and early academic achievement. Early Childhood The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following fi- Research Quarterly, 29(4), 411–424. https://doi. nancial support for the research, authorship, and/or org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.04.014 publication of this article: This study is supported by Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on a National health and Medical Research Council children’s executive function: Contributions of (NHMRC) Project Grant [2014–2017; ID1062433]. experimental research on aerobic exercise. De- ADO was supported by a National Heart Foundation velopmental Review, 30(4), 331–551. https://doi. of Australia Career Development Fellowship [CR11S org/10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001, http://www.ncbi. 6099]. The funding body played no role in the study design; data collection, analysis, and interpretation; in nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21818169 Veldman et al. 11 Cameron, C. E., Brock, L. L., Murrah, W. M., Bell, L. H., confounding variables? Human Movement Sci- Worzalla,S.L., Grissmer,D., &Morrison, F. 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Australasian Journal of Early Childhood – SAGE
Published: Sep 1, 2023
Keywords: Motor development; cognitive development; early childhood
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