Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

An Extension of the Integrated Model of Intercultural Communication Competence (IMICC) with Religiosity: An International Students’ Perspective:

An Extension of the Integrated Model of Intercultural Communication Competence (IMICC) with... This study aims to extend and further test the integrated model of intercultural communication competence (IMICC) on a cultural context of Malaysia. Since previous researchers have pointed out the need to address religion during intercultural encounters; this study adopted IMICC, expanded it with religiosity, and tested it in Malaysian context. International students from multiple countries were considered as respondents. In this study, direct effects of empathy, sensation seeking, and ethnocentrism on intercultural communication competence (ICC) were addressed. In addition, moderating effect of religiosity and mediating effects of attitude toward other cultures (ATOC) and motivation to engage in intercultural communication (MTEIIC) on ICC were also examined. The findings show that empathy, sensation seeking, and ATOC directly influenced ICC. Findings empirically justified the moderating effect of religiosity and mediating effect of ATOC. The inclusion of religiosity into IMICC adds valuable theoretical insights. This study reconfirms the culture-general nature of variables and IMICC. Keywords Intercultural communication competence, Religion, Extended IMICC, Religiosity, International students, Malaysia. variables (e.g., religion) have a strong impact on the ICC of Introduction individuals (Arasaratnam, 2016b). In addition, several The integrated model of intercultural communication com- researchers have noticed and addressed the importance of petence (IMICC) is one of the prominent contributions in religion in their discourses on ICC, such as in Malaysia literature of the culture-general models of intercultural com- (Nadeem et al., 2020c), Iran (Ameli & Molaei, 2012), and munication competence (ICC). An effort by Arasaratnam and Nigeria (Ajitoni, 2014). However, insufficient attention has Doerfel (2005) regarding the identification of various cul- been given to contextual variable, religion, in mainstream ture-general variables that have potential to influence ICC on discourses on ICC (Holmes & O’Neill, 2012; Wrench et al., diverse cultural contexts, leads to the development of IMICC 2006). For this reason, these iterations of IMICC have a (Arasaratnam, 2006). The most recent versions of IMICC dominant Western perspective and focus on their own cul- (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021) tural factors (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011). As the have discussed several factors that are important for predict- Malaysian context is being considered in the present study, ing ICC of the individuals who belong to different cultural religion is one of the factors that contribute to the ICC contexts. These factors include empathy, ethnocentrism, and (Mamman, 1995; Nadeem et al., 2020c) and intercultural sensation seeking as independent variables, motivation to scholars (Ameli & Molaei, 2012; Wrench et al., 2006) have engage in intercultural communication (MTEIIC), and atti- strongly suggested addressing religion in influencing ICC. tude toward other cultures (ATOC) as mediating variables Hence, the importance of religion cannot be ignored in the that influence ICC. In fact, few researcher (Arasaratnam et al., 2010a; Nadeem et al., 2020b) have made the call to National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, enhance and further explore IMICC on various cultural con- Pakistan texts (Arasaratnam, 2006). Furthermore, a key variable Corresponding Author: namely, religiosity was overlooked or was not taken into Muhammad Umar Nadeem, Department of Mass Communication, School consideration in the latest versions of IMICC. of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H), National University of Sciences Religion as a contextual variable has a unique importance and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan. in intercultural communication. It is argued that contextual Email: umarnadeem@s3h.nust.edu.pk Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open context of Malaysia, and it is crucial to examine the relation- of ICC that is demanded by the individuals during intercul- ship between religion and ICC empirically. Responding to tural communication to be competent in intercultural com- this call, this study re-examines and refines IMICC model munication (Lustig & Koester, 2003). In addition, there are (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021) certain requirements such as motivation, knowledge, skills, with religiosity (as a moderating variable) and aims to test it and attitudes that must be fulfilled by the individual to be in the Malaysian context (Nadeem et al., 2017). interculturally competent (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). Even though most conceptualizations of ICC have been In terms of IMICC, an effort initiated by Arasaratnam, dominated by the Western perspective (Arasaratnam & and her associates has contributed well toward developing a Doerfel, 2005; Gudykunst, 2005; Kim, 2002; Ting-Toomey, comprehensive model that is free from any cultural stand- 1993), several other scholars have pointed other cultural points (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005). In the past, existing contexts of competence such as that of Malaysia (Dalib models, theories, and approaches were having some cultural et al., 2017), Korea (Yum, 2012), and China (Yeh, 2010). bias elements that limits their universal application Arasaratnam (2016b) pointed out that contextual variables (Arasaratnam, 2007). Finally, the first version of IMICC was matter in conceptualizing ICC. In the context of West, reli- officially introduced by Arasaratnam (2006) that was having gion does not appear as an important contributor to ICC as multiple culture-general factors that can impact ICC of the compared to the other contexts such as Malaysia (Nadeem individual from diverse cultures. Over the years, several et al., 2020c), Iran (Ameli & Molaei, 2012), and Nigeria variables were added and eliminated from IMICC and were (Ajitoni, 2014). In the West, religion might not influence addressed on the cultural contexts of America, Australia, and communication of individuals because it is considered as a Malaysia (Arasaratnam, 2006; Arasaratnam & Banerjee, “private matter.” However, in countries like Malaysia, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). Until now, around seven communication is highly influenced by religion because versions of IMICC are available in the literature of ICC and individuals do not consider religion as a “personal matter” further suggested to keep refining and addressing IMICC (Mamman, 1995). Furthermore, religion has a strong influ- throughout the world (Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). ence on the Malaysian culture (Mahmud et al., 2010) Therefore, the current study has followed the same line and because Islam is the dominant creed in Malaysia and their adopted the latest version of IMICC extended with religios- interaction with strangers is based on the philosophy of ity and aims to address on the Malaysian context. The factors Islam. Therefore, it is crucial to examine religiosity (com- associated with IMICC are empathy, sensation seeking, eth- mitment of an individual toward specific religion) influenc- nocentrism, MTEIIC, and ATOC (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, ing ICC in Malaysian context. 2011: Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). The mentioned factors of At this stage, the importance of context and contextual IMICC have tendency to impact ICC, directly, or indirectly. variables cannot be ignored. The recent versions of IMICC The following sub-sections discuss each factor associated (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021) with the most recent version of IMICC individually. have not considered religiosity, possibly due to the influence of Western perspective. For that reason, this study incorpo- Empathy rated the suggestions of earlier researcher and further extended IMICC with religiosity (moderating variable). As it Empathy is conceptualized by several researchers in the con- is claimed that IMICC can translate well apart from different text of ICC such as Bennett (1979), who defined empathy as cultural contexts, therefore, this study further tested the “intellectual and emotional participation in another person’s extended version of IMICC on international students from experience” (p. 418). In the context of intercultural research, Malaysia, and to reconfirm and validate culture-general Van Oudenhoven and Benet-Martínez (2015) defined cul- nature of variables and IMICC. tural empathy as “the ability to empathize with the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals from a different cul- tural background” (p. 51). Among the different independent Literature Review variables concerning ICC, empathy is one of the most popu- lar. Empathy is an important factor that influences ICC. Intercultural Communication Competence Empathy serves as the key contributor to communication ICC is defined as “the appropriate and effective management competence by enhancing prediction, adaptation, and under- of interaction between people who, to some degree or standing (Redmond, 1989). Empathy, a skill in which an another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, individual communicates in an appropriate manner with oth- and behavioral orientations to the world” (Spitzberg & ers, and it is important in intercultural and interpersonal Chagnon, 2009, p. 7). In a similar vein, Deardorff (2004) interactions (Redmond & Bunyi, 1993). referred ICC as “the ability to communicate effectively and In addition, empathy is a predictor of intercultural effec- appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s inter- tiveness that leads to ICC. Kim (1986) discovered that empa- cultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p. 184). The thy is the utmost key predilection for effective cross-cultural appropriate and effective behaviors are the core conception communication. Another study by Matveev and Nelson Nadeem 3 (2004) on the team performances exposed that empathy and Ethnocentrism other contributors assist as key players in effective team Ethnocentrism is frequently noticed as perceiving an indi- involvement in cross-cultural interactions. Gibson and vidual’s personal culture as dominant among all others as Zhong (2005) examined the ICC in healthcare regarding the well as assessing different cultures grounded in personal patient-doctor communication. The finding showed that standards. Neuliep and McCroskey (1997) referred to eth- there was a significant association among empathy and ICC nocentrism as “ethnocentric groups see themselves as in medical providers. On the other hand, there was a strong virtuous and superior while outgroups are contemptible, positive relationship between empathy and ICC in the per- immoral, inferior, and weak” (p. 386). Gudykunst and Kim ceptions of patients. Results also revealed that in a healthcare (2003) explained that “ethnocentrism leads us to see our environment, empathy is a primary component of ICC. own culture’s ways of doing things as right and all others as Previous studies found that empathy had a direct relationship wrong” (p. 4). The researchers additionally claimed that with ICC. Another study indicated that empathy is the main extreme thresholds of ethnocentrism might cause an indi- influencer of ICC (Arasaratnam et al., 2010a). It is strongly vidual to misrepresent the denotation of the performance of recommended to further explore the association between somebody who belongs to a diverse culture because we empathy and ICC in future studies (Nadeem et al., 2018). mostly assess these deeds grounded to the viewpoint of our A potential contributor, empathy, has been addressed in personal culture, possibly contributing to ineffective com- the framework of ICC by several researchers and revealed munication. Ethnocentrism denotes the perception of the empathy as the most promising indicator in predicting ICC individual about perceiving other individuals based on (Deardorff et al., 2017; Gibson & Zhong, 2005; Matveev & one’s own cultural values and norms and considering one’s Nelson, 2004). As the previous literature on empathy in rela- own culture superior to others. tion to ICC is subjected to the Western point of view Research suggested that ethnocentrism influences inter- (Arasaratnam, 2016a; Arasaratnam et al., 2010b). In addi- cultural interaction through emotions, cultural values, and tion, Deardorff et al. (2017) and Dunne (2013) argued that actions presented in the interaction (Neuliep et al., 2001). empathy needs more attention by researchers to recognize its The association among intercultural communication and eth- relationship with ICC. An association between empathy of nocentrism, exists when lower in intercultural communica- individual and ICC must be empirically addressed with pre- tion and higher in ethnocentrism (Bennett & Bennett, 2004). vailing factors of IMICC. Therefore, this study incorporated In the same vein, ethnocentrism appears as a wall of intercul- empathy in the IMICC and targets to further test IMICC on a tural communication (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Ethnocentrism cultural context of Malaysia. is a variable that had a negative relationship with ICC as well as weakened the relationship between other variables that Sensation Seeking contribute to ICC (Arasaratnam, 2007). On the contrary, var- ious studies found that ethnocentrism fails to impact ICC of A personality variable sensation seeking is usually con- the students (Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). nected with the risky behaviors of the individuals such as, thrill seeking, novelty thirst, and other risky activities (Zuckerman, 1983, 1994). Sensation seekers are mostly Attitude Toward Other Cultures found of looking for new/unique experiences and having a need of adventurous activities (Zuckerman, 1994). Apart ATOC is described as an optimistic, non-ethnocentric char- from various risky behaviors (Hoyle et al., 2002) they are acter of individuals that belong to different cultures also found of finding new ways to communicate with cul- (Arasaratnam, 2006). ATOC also explicates the openness of turally different others (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2007, an individual concerning other worldviews and cultures. The 2011). Furthermore, to be effective in intercultural interac- description of ATOC by Arasaratnam (2006) regards the con- tions; sensation seekers are susceptible to such behaviors cept as “positive ATOC and is not ethnocentric” (p. 5). and ATOC that are promising for intercultural interaction. A Nadeem et al. (2020b) found that individuals ATOC is hav- study by Nadeem et al. (2020a) found that the international ing a strong influence on their ICC on an Asian context of students of Malaysia hold sensation seeking trait that fur- Malaysia. Research by Lu and Hsu (2008) deduced that ther influences their positive ATOC and it enables them to a friendly communication with positive ATOC helps to be effective in intercultural interaction. Another study by minimize communication anxiety of overseas residents. Fatemi et al. (2016) on the students in Iran examined the Additionally, it turns into the improvement of willingness for association among sensation seeking and the willingness to communication and intercultural relationships. Arasaratnam communicate in intercultural situations. The findings indi- and Doerfel (2005) addressed five key influencers that con- cated that sensation seeking positively affects the commu- tribute to ICC. ATOC is one of the five significant predictors nication with people of different cultural backgrounds. with the tendency to influence ICC of the individual (Nadeem Recently, Nadeem et al. (2021) witnessed that sensation et al., 2019). Arasaratnam (2006) found that these variables seeking is one of the significant indicators of ICC. had a positive association with ICC. Findings indicated a 4 SAGE Open positive association between ICC and positive ATOC. The gender (Mokhlis, 2009), and religion refers to the specific ATOC is termed as the global attitudes in the initial research belief or faith of the individual. Besides, Worthington et al. on the factors contributing to ICC. Later, the term changed (2003) defined religiosity as the “the degree to which a per- into positive ATOC. son adheres to his or her religious values, beliefs, and prac- tices, and uses them in daily living. The supposition is that a highly religious person will evaluate the world through reli- Motivation to Engage in Intercultural gious schemas and thus will integrate his or her religion into Communication much of his or her life” (p. 85). Intercultural interaction has a significant relationship with MTEIIC is usually denoted as the combination of such feel- the religion of the foreigners in Malaysia, whether their ing that further push the individuals to participate in intercul- upbringings are totally different from each other (Mamman, tural interaction (Deardorff, 2004). Arasaratnam (2006) 1995). However, in the West, intercultural effectiveness does defined MTEIIC “as the desire to engage in intercultural not have any emotional effect on the religion of the individ- interactions for the purpose of understanding and learning ual because in that context, religion is always a private mat- about other cultures” (p. 94). Arasaratnam and Doerfel ter of life (Mamman, 1995). On the other hand, in Malaysia (2005) specified that knowledge, MTEIIC, and skills are the religion is not considered as a private matter, it always influ- key factors of ICC. Gudykunst (1995) categorized six rea- ences one’s daily life matters. Ajitoni (2014) examined the sons that lead to intercultural adjustment, MTEIIC being one relationship between religion and ICC in Nigerian school of the reasons. He also asserted that these variables are the students. The findings indicated that religion positively competitors in the model of ICC. Yashima (2002) examined influences the student’s ICC in the context of their class- MTEIIC in learning the second language in the Japanese rooms. It is depicted that from an empirical standpoint, reli- context. Results indicated that MTEIIC influences individu- gion has a strong and positive influence on ICC in an al’s willingness to communicate during intercultural inter- educational setting. actions. Hence, MTEIIC is a predictor of willingness to Ameli and Molaei (2012) claimed that religion have a communicate as well as intensity of communication in a sec- strong influence on effective communication between two ond language (MacIntyre & Clement, 1996). A study by different groups. They found that two religious groups were Arasaratnam (2006) on the testing of a culture-general model more inclined towards their similarities instead of dissimi- of ICC showed that a significant relationship exists between larities. The researchers concluded that religion has the MTEIIC and ICC. Another study about the contact seeking potential to influence effective intercultural interactions. A behaviors to form an intercultural friendship by Arasaratnam study regarding the evaluation of ICC by Holmes and O’Neill and Banerjee (2007) noticed the presence of significant asso- (2012) recommended to further explore the relationship ciation among MTEIIC and intercultural friendship. Results between belief system and religious identities on ICC. also indicated that when individuals have high levels of Wrench et al. (2006) also addressed the relationship between MTEIIC, they tend to have more intercultural friends. religious fundamentalism and ICC and found religion was These discussed variables are the part of IMICC. As dis- the contributor to intercultural communication. The research- cussed earlier, the previous section suggests extending and ers firmly suggested that religion is the strongest contributor testing of IMICC on diverse cultural perspectives. Therefore, of intercultural communication, and it must be addressed in this study expanded IMICC with religiosity and addressed upcoming studies. They also suggested that new scholars on the cultural context of Malaysia. The following section empirically examine religion and ICC. It indicates the lack of entails a review and importance of religiosity besides its research practice regarding the relationship between religion introduction in IMICC. and ICC which requires serious attention. It is noted that religiosity is a potential moderator and has Religiosity the tendency to strengthen or weaken the relationship Mokhlis (2008) referred to religiosity as “the degree to between variables. Furthermore, it is evident that religiosity which beliefs in specific religious values and ideals are held has an influence on ICC (Ajitoni, 2014; Wrench et al., 2006). and practiced by an individual” (p. 122). Johnson et al. Hence, religiosity is introduced as a moderating variable in (2001) described religiosity as “the extent to which an indi- the IMICC. It is proposed that religiosity can strengthen or vidual is committed to the religion he or she professes and weaken the relationship between exogenous variables (eth- its teachings, such as the individual’s attitudes and behav- nocentrism, empathy, sensation seeking, MTEIIC, and iors reflect this commitment” (p. 25). Religiosity is consid- ATOC) and endogenous variable (ICC) of the extended ver- ered to have the role of religion in intercultural interactions sion of IMICC (see, Figure 1) because the findings of the because religiosity deals with the behavior or practice of relationship between the mentioned variables are not consis- individual according to a specific religion. Religion is usu- tent in past studies and these relationships are primarily ally considered as a demographic variable like age and endorsed in Western cultural contexts. Nadeem 5 Figure 1. Extended version of IMICC. Various countries were represented by the respondents Methodology such as Egypt, Iran, Libya, Oman, Sudan, Uzbekistan, and so Respondents on. Most of the respondents who participated in the survey were males and a minimal participation from the females The population of the current study were the international was witnessed, and their age ranged from 15 to 60, respec- students, and the samples were drawn from a single univer- tively. The international students were enrolled in undergrad- sity. Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) is a public sector uate and postgraduate programs, and they were living in university that is situated in Sintok, Kedah which is the rural Malaysia from 1 to 2 years (72%), less than 1 year (16%), area of Malaysia. The university is known as an eminent and 3 to 4 years (12%). Most importantly, the religious affili- management university of Malaysia. UUM hosts more than ation of the respondents indicated that 74.7% respondents two-thousand international students from different cultural were Muslims, 13.7% were Christians, while 11.7% belonged backgrounds in its campus. It ensures that a great cultural to Others (i.e., Buddhists, Hindus, Atheists). It reveals that diversity in UUM campus where students from different most international students were Muslims and stayed in cultural backgrounds can interact with each other regularly. Malaysia for less than 2 years. International students enrolled at a university were consid- ered as the potential respondents instead of national stu- dents, due to multiple reasons. Firstly, the model of the Measurements current study is culture-general and for this reason, a sample Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was considered for this of culturally diverse people is required to address and vali- study to confirm the validity of data and test the hypotheses. date the model. Secondly, a high cultural diversity is wit- The agreements of respondents were captured using a five- nessed among international students at the campus. Thirdly, point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) international students can better resonate with and explain regarding factors influencing ICC. intercultural experiences as compared to domestic students. Fourthly, most of the international students in Malaysia Empathy. Respondents’ empathy was measured through have come from the developing countries where dominant adopting the 18 items (such as, “I enjoy other people’s sto- religion is Islam, and they hold a perception or belief that ries” and “I sympathize with others”) Likert type scale devel- Malaysia is a Muslim country and its easy to resonate with oped by Van Oudenhoven and Van Der Zee (2002). Malaysian culture. Based on these discussed requirements, the current study has considered international student sample. Sensation seeking. Sensation seeking was measured by The respondents were identified and approached through adopting Hoyle et al.’s (2002) Brief Sensation Seeking (BSS) random sampling. 6 SAGE Open scale comprising 8 items (e.g., “I prefer friends who are excit- statistically significant and the lower and upper bound, which ingly unpredictable” and “I like to do frightening things”). did not straddle at zero. Thus, the mediating effect of ATOC was established between ethnocentrism, sensation seeking, and Ethnocentrism. A scale developed by Neuliep (2002) and empathy with ICC. On the other side, findings show that the Neuliep et al. (2001) was considered in this study to measure standardized indirect estimates of ethnocentrism (β = .000, ethnocentrism through 22 items (for instance, “I do not trust p > .05), sensation seeking (β = .007, p > .05), and empathy people who are different” and “I apply my values when judg- (β = .002, p > .05) were statistically insignificant while the ing people who are different”). lower and upper bound straddles at zero. Therefore, it was the indication of no mediating effect of MTEIIC between ethno- Attitude toward other cultures. ATOC was measured through centrism, sensation seeking, and empathy with ICC. adopting the 8 items scale (such as, “People of other cultures The hierarchical regression technique was utilized to are equal in intelligence to people in my own group” and address the moderating effect of religiosity (Baron & Kenny, “People of other cultures should be treated the same as people 1986; Frazier et al., 2004), three steps were employed for the of my own culture”) developed by Remmers et al. (1965). determination of variance in the specific variable by other variables when they entered the regression analysis in a spe- Motivation to engage in intercultural communication. MTE- cific manner (Cramer, 2003). The significant interaction IIC was measured by adopting the MTEIIC scale developed term indicated the existence of moderation (Baron & Kenny, by Arasaratnam (2006) through its seven items (for instance, 1986). The interaction term of Sensation Seeking × Religiosity “I would seek out friendships with people from different cul- (β = .095, p < .05), Ethnocentrism × Religiosity (β = .109, tures in order to learn about their culture” and “I enjoy initi- p < .05), and A TOC × Religiosity (β = .105, p < .05) indicated ating conversations with someone from a different culture”). a significant relationship with ICC. However, other interaction terms like, Empathy × Religiosity and MTEIIC × Religiosity Religiosity. The religiosity of the individuals was mea- leading to ICC remained statistically insignificant. For that sured by adopting the Religious Commitment Inventory reason, moderating effect of religiosity could not be estab- (RCI) developed by Worthington et al. (2003, 2012). This lished in these mentioned two paths. The following section scale comprised of 10 items (e.g., “Religious beliefs influ- involves a thorough discussion on the significant and insig- ence all my dealings in life” and “I enjoy spending time with nificant paths (direct, indirect, and interaction effects) of the others of my religious affiliation”). extended version of IMICC. Intercultural communication competence. ICC was mea- Discussion sured with 15 items (such as, “Most of my close friends are from other cultures” and “I feel that people from other cul- The current study targeted to extend IMICC with religiosity tures have many valuable things to teach me”) which were and to further test IMICC on the context of Malaysia. The developed by Arasaratnam (2009). factors associated with IMICC are empathy, ethnocentrism, sensation seeking, ATOC, MTEIIC, and ICC. This study considered the fresh version of IMICC and expanded it with Results religiosity as the moderating variable. In terms of testing The relationship among exogenous and endogenous vari- IMICC in a Malaysian context, the findings supported most ables; and the results of five direct effects were assessed of the established paths. Such as, ATOC, sensation seeking, through regression analysis. A direct statistically significant and empathy were witnessed as direct predictors of ICC. relationship was found between ATOC (β = .180, p < .05), ATOC established a mediating effect on the relationship sensation seeking (β = .165, p < .05), and empathy (β = .260, between exogenous (ethnocentrism, sensation seeking, p < .05) with ICC. On the contrary, MTEIIC (β = .012, empathy) and endogenous (ICC) variables. However, this p > .05) and ethnocentrism (β = .003, p > .05) did not have a cultural context has not confirmed other established paths of statistically significant relationship with ICC. IMICC such as, influence of ethnocentrism on ICC besides For indirect effects, an approach by Preacher and Hayes the direct and indirect effect of MTEIIC on ICC. (2004) was considered to look for the indirect effect (Preacher Due to certain reasons, other established paths like & Hayes, 2008) of the empathy, sensation seeking, and ethno- MTEIIC contributing ICC and mediating effect of MTEIIC centrism on the ICC through the mediating variables, ATOC on ICC, did not appear significant in this study. International and MTEIIC on ICC. For the determination of significant students may have come to Malaysia with the perception that mediation, it is necessary that indirect effect must be statisti- Malaysia would be culturally close to their home countries, cally significant and zero should not straddle between upper perhaps, based on the religion. However, when they are and lower bounds. The results show that the standardized indi- exposed to Malaysia, they found that they are sharing a simi- rect effects of ethnocentrism (β = .023, p < .05), sensation seek- lar religion but a different culture where they are not only ing (β = .052, p < .05), and empathy (β = .061, p < .05) were dependent on the Malaysians but also on other members of Nadeem 7 different cultures. The dissimilarity of cultural norms, val- interaction with high levels of religiosity contributes to the ues, and traditions might have reduced their motivation level competency of international students during intercultural to interact with culturally different individuals in Malaysia. interactions. It indicates that international students have kept In addition, previous studies on the context of Malaysia their predispositions regarding superiority of culture on have also found that international student are not motivated lower levels and possess higher levels of religiosity during for intercultural interactions (Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). intercultural communication. The studies highlighted that the international students of Other proposed paths regarding interaction effect of religi- Malaysia belong to developing nations where English is con- osity, with empathy and MTEIIC, could not significantly sidered as a second language. Furthermore, they tend to affect ICC. For MTEIIC, it was obvious, because international experience numerous challenges: culture, adjustment, food, students possess lower levels of MTEIIC in dealing with ICC. accommodation, confidence, etc. in Malaysia. All discussed For this reason, the interaction effect of MTEIIC and religios- factors might have reduced the motivation of international ity could not significantly contribute to ICC. On the other side, students to communicate with culturally different people. On it is worthy to discuss why interaction effect of religiosity with the other side, the prior testing of IMICC was done in west- empathy could not be established significantly. The findings ern cultural contexts where students are already motivated revealed that religiosity dampen the direct influence of empa- for intercultural interactions. As far as Malaysian context is thy on ICC. Nonetheless, it provides new insights into interna- concerned, the findings of this study indicated MTEIIC lacks tional students’ levels of empathy not significantly interacting to establish a direct and indirect effect on ICC. It can be con- with their levels of religiosity to further impact ICC. Even cluded as context played a crucial role in establishing influ- though empathy is witnessed as a direct influencer on ICC in ence of MTEIIC on ICC. the extended version of IMICC, still findings of expanded ver- Likewise, ethnocentrism also failed to contribute to ICC. sion of IMICC are conspicuous. For a reason, international students during their experiences The extended version of IMICC has contributed well to abroad usually have lower levels of ethnocentrism and are the existing body of knowledge by providing a novel mecha- high sensation seekers for seeking intercultural contact. The nism to examine systematic influence of various factors on findings of this study have supported this claim and found ICC. The factors of this study influenced ICC directly international students are high sensation seekers and scored (ATOC, sensation seeking, and empathy), indirectly (ATOC), lower on ethnocentrism in communicating with individuals and through interaction (ATOC, ethnocentrism, and sensa- of other cultures. The discussed reasons have confirmed the tion seeking with religiosity). This study has not only causes behind the study’s findings not supporting the estab- enriched the IMICC in terms of adding a predictor, but it has lished paths of IMICC in the Malaysian context. also enhanced the explanatory or predictive power of IMICC. In the extended version of IMICC, two variables played a For instance, empathy in IMICC showed that the interna- key role in terms of contributing towards the current body of tional students of Malaysia possess empathetic attitudes that knowledge. First, empathy in the model has led to notewor- lead them to be competent in intercultural interactions. In thy findings in comparison to former versions of IMICC. The terms of religiosity, it is observed as the strongest predictor findings revealed that an individuals’ empathy carries a in a context of Malaysia. Furthermore, interaction of religi- direct significant impact on ICC. Previous versions of IMICC osity with sensation seeking, ethnocentrism, and ATOC of have found inconsistencies regarding relationship between international students played a key role in turning them into empathy and ICC, prevails when mediated by ATOC. being interculturally competent. To sum up, the extended However, this study witnessed that empathy is a key player version of IMICC can predict ICC better than former ver- in determining ICC. In addition, the association among sions of IMICC in the cultural context of Malaysia. empathy and ICC also exists in presence of mediating vari- The current study faces several limitations. First, the able ATOC. Despite of different cultural context (Malaysia) responses of the international students may change with the of this study, still findings indicated novel results. Second, passage of time as it is normally witnessed in social sciences the important addition to IMICC was religiosity. This study research. Second, in this study, most of the international stu- witnessed unique findings regarding this addition. The inter- dents were the Muslims and were sampled from the specific action effect of religiosity with ATOC, ethnocentrism, and university located in the rural area of Malaysia. Therefore, sensation seeking had a strong impact on ICC. These signifi- the perspective of international students regarding ICC from cant interaction effects revealed religiosity as a potential urban areas of Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur and Penang) might moderator in terms of ICC and have strengthen the relation- be slightly different to this study. Third, there is a possibility ship of ATOC, ethnocentrism, and sensation seeking with that students have not shared their original stances and ICC. This direction can be interpreted as international stu- response about ICC from the fear of being judged. Lastly, as dents’ ATOC, sensation seeking, and ethnocentrism interac- this study has not considered experimental research deign, tion with their religiosity, bearing a strong impact on their therefore, a transparent cause and effect might not be estab- ICC. Most interestingly, lower levels of ethnocentrism lished in this regard. 8 SAGE Open Funding Conclusion The author received no financial support for the research, author- This study has extended IMICC with religiosity and tested it ship, and/or publication of this article. in the context of Malaysia. The expanded version of IMICC is tested by incorporating SEM technique through multivari- Ethics Statement ate analysis. The findings of present study have validated This research was in accordance with the ethical standards of the most of existing relationships (for instance, empathy, sensa- Department of Communication, School of Multimedia Technology tion seeking, and ATOC leading to ICC) dominated by and Communication (SMMTC), Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). Western point of view. However, two paths (ethnocentrism and MTEIIC leading to ICC) were not supported by the find- ORCID iD ings, possibly due to composition of diverse respondents and Muhammad Umar Nadeem https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6613- different context. Furthermore, mediating effect of ATOC is established by findings. However, the mediating effect of MTEIIC could not established in this study. Still, findings References are considered as a significant contribution. An introduction of religiosity in IMICC provides the novel findings and inter- Ajitoni, S. (2014). Enhancing Nigerian students’ intercultural com- petence and achievement in social studies through outdoor action of religiosity with other factors results in strengthen- activities. Journal of Language and Cultural Education, 2(2), ing their relationship with ICC. Finally, it can be interpreted 204–217. as the overall findings of the study supported many paths Ameli, S. R., & Molaei, H. (2012). Religious affiliation and intercul- except a few and reconfirmed that IMICC and associated tural sensitivity: Interculturality between Shia & Sunni Muslims variables are having a culture-general nature. in Iran. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(1), It is the initial attempt in which the factors of IMICC are 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.007 considered in influencing ICC, particularly in Malaysian Arasaratnam, L. A. (2006). Further testing of a new model of context. The interaction of religiosity with other contributing intercultural communication competence. Communication factors to ICC is investigated in this research. Even though Research Reports, 23(2), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/ this association is seen as an important aspect of this study, the path from religiosity to ICC is still in its early phases. The Arasaratnam, L. A. (2007). Research in intercultural communi- cation competence: Past perspectives and future directions. direct association between religiosity and ICC would be an Journal of International Communication, 13(2), 66–73. https:// important path that must be explored in future research on doi.org/10.1080/13216597.2007.9674715 multiple cultural perspectives to validate findings of this Arasaratnam, L. A. (2009). The development of a new instru- study. The findings of current study, however, are promising ment of intercultural communication competence. Journal of apart from two insignificant paths. This exception must be Intercultural Communication, 20, 2–22. considered in future research of ICC on other cultural con- Arasaratnam, L. A. (2016a). An exploration of the relationship texts. The extended version of IMICC is not limited to the between intercultural communication competence and bilin- setting of Malaysia. This model can be adapted for other con- gualism. Communication Research Reports, 33(3), 231–238. texts where religion is a crucial element behind intercultural https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2016.1186628 interactions. It can also be adopted by Western researchers Arasaratnam, L. A. (2016b). Intercultural competence. Oxford for the determination of religion in terms of ICC in various Research Encyclopedia of Communication (pp. 01–23). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228 Western contexts. There will be significant findings when 613.013.68 this model is adapted for multicultural societies from differ- Arasaratnam, L. A., & Banerjee, S. C. (2007). Ethnocentrism and ent zones across the globe. sensation seeking as variables that influence intercultural contact-seeking behavior: A path analysis. Communi cation Informed Consent Statement Research Reports, 24(4), 303–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/ All participants provided informed consent prior to completing this study. Arasaratnam, L. A., & Banerjee, S. C. (2011). Sensation seeking and intercultural communication competence: A model test. Data Availability International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(2), 226– 233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.07.003 The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current Arasaratnam, L. A., & Doerfel, M. L. (2005). Intercultural commu- study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable nication competence: Identifying key components from mul- request. ticultural perspectives. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijin- Declaration of Conflicting Interests trel.2004.04.001 The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to Arasaratnam, L. A., Banerjee, S. C., & Dembek, K. (2010a). The the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. integrated model of intercultural communication competence Nadeem 9 (IMICC): Model test. Australian Journal of Communication, Gudykunst, W. B. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) 37(3), 103–116. theory: Current status. In R. L. Wiseman (Eds.), Intercultural Arasaratnam, L. A., Banerjee, S. C., & Dembek, K. (2010b). communication theory (Vol. 19, pp. 8–58). Sage Publications, Sensation seeking and the integrated model of intercul- Inc. tural communication competence. Journal of Intercultural Gudykunst, W. B. (2005). An anxiety/uncertainty management Communication Research, 39(2), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.10 (AUM) theory of strangers’ intercultural adjustment. In W. B. 80/17475759.2010.526312 Gudykunst (Eds.), Theorizing about intercultural communica- Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–medi- tion (pp. 419–457). SAGE. ator variable distinction in social psychological research: Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating with Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (4th Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https:// ed.). McGraw Hill. doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173 Holmes, P., & O’Neill, G. (2012). Developing and evaluating inter- Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing intercultural cultural competence: Ethnographies of intercultural encoun- sensitivity: An integrative approach to global and domes- ters. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(5), tic diversity. In D. Landis, J. Bennett & M. Bennett (Eds.), 707–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04.010 Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Sage. Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief Bennett, M. J. (1979). Overcoming the golden rule: Sympathy measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual and empathy. Annals of the International Communication Differences, 32(3), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191- Association, 3(1), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985 8869(01)00032-0 .1979.11923774 Johnson, B. R., Jang, S. J., Larson, D. B., & De Li, S. (2001). Does Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural communica- adolescent religious commitment matter? A reexamination of tion competence: A synthesis. Annals of the International the effects of religiosity on delinquency. Journal of Research Communication Association, 19(1), 353–383. https://doi.org/1 in Crime and Delinquency, 38(1), 22–44. https://doi.org/10.11 0.1080/23808985.1996.11678935 77%2F0022427801038001002 Cramer, D. (2003). Advanced quantitative data analysis. Open Kim, Y. Y. (1986). Understanding the social context of inter- University Press. group communication: A personal network approach. In W. Dalib, S., Harun, M., & Yusof, N. (2017). Student intercultural B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Intergroup communication (pp. 86–95). competence in a Malaysian campus: A phenomenological London: Edward Arnold. approach. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 12(1), 42–62. Kim, Y. Y. (2002). Adapting to an unfamiliar culture. In W. B. https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2016.1264408 Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of international and Deardorff, D. K. (2004). The identification and assessment of inter- intercultural communication (pp. 259–273). Sage. cultural competence as a student outcome of internationaliza- Lu, Y., & Hsu, C. F. (2008). Willingness to communicate in inter- tion at institutions of higher education in the United States cultural interactions between Chinese and Americans. Journal [Unpublished Doctoral dissertation]. North Carolina State of Intercultural Communication Research, 37(2), 75–88. University, Raleigh, North Carolina. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475750802533356 Deardorff, D. K., Arasaratnam, L. A., & Calloway-Thomas, C. Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (2003). Intercultural competence: (2017). The role of empathy in fostering intercultural com- Interpersonal communication across cultures (5th ed.). Harper petence. In D. K. Deardorff & L. A. Arasaratnam (Eds.), Collins. Intercultural competence in higher education (pp. 32–42). MacIntyre, P. D., & Clement, R. (1996). A model of willingness Routledge. to communicate in a second language: The concept, its ante- th Dunne, C. (2013). Exploring motivations for intercultural contact cedents and implications. Paper presented at the 11 World among host country university students: An Irish case study. Congress of Applied Linguistics (AILA), Jyväskylä, Finland. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(5), 567– Mahmud, Z., Amat, S., Rahman, S., & Ishak, N. M. (2010). 578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.06.003 Challenges for international students in Malaysia: Culture, Fatemi, A. H., Khajavy, G. H., & Choi, C. W. (2016). Testing a climate and care. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7, model of intercultural willingness to communicate based on 289–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.040 ethnocentrism, ambiguity tolerance and sensation seeking: Mamman, A. (1995). Socio-biographical antecedents of intercul- The role of learning English in Iran. Journal of Intercultural tural effectiveness: The neglected factors. British Journal of Communication Research, 45(4), 304–318. https://doi.org/10. Management, 6(2), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551. 1080/17475759.2016.1190776 1995.tb00088.x Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing mod- Matveev, A. V., & Nelson, P. E. (2004). Cross cultural commu- erator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. nication competence and multicultural team performance: Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(1), 115–134. https:// Perceptions of American and Russian managers. International doi/10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115 Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(2), 253–270. https:// Gibson, D., & Zhong, M. (2005). Intercultural communication doi.org/10.1177%2F1470595804044752 competence in the healthcare context. International Journal Mokhlis, S. (2008). Consumer religiosity and the importance of of Intercultural Relations, 29(5), 621–634. https://doi. store attributes. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.008 Learning, 4(2), 122–133. 10 SAGE Open Mokhlis, S. (2009). Relevancy and measurement of religiosity in Redmond, M. V. (1989). The functions of empathy (decentering) consumer behavior research. International Business Research, in human relations. Human Relations, 42(7), 593–605. https:// 2(3), 75–84. http://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v2n3p75 doi.org/10.1177%2F001872678904200703 Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2017). A proposed Redmond, M. V., & Bunyi, J. M. (1993). The relationship of model of intercultural communication competence (ICC) intercultural communication competence with stress and in Malaysian context. International Journal of Educational the handling of stress as reported by international students. Research Review, 2(2), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.24331/ International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17(2), 235– ijere.327470 254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(93)90027-6 Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2018). International Remmers, H. H., Gage, N. L., & Rummel, J. F. (1965). A practical students’ empathy and sensation seeking traits as the anteced- introduction to measurement and evaluation. Harper. ents of motivation to engage in intercultural communication. Spitzberg, B. H., & Changnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercul- Paradigms, 12(2), 127–131. https://doi.org/10.24312/para- tural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Eds.), The SAGE hand- digms120202 book of intercultural competence (pp. 2–52). Sage Publications. Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2019). An association Ting-Toomey, S. (1993). Communicative resourcefulness: An iden- between international students’ attitude and intercultural com- tity negotiation perspective. In R. L. Wiseman & J. Koester munication competence. Paradigms, 13(1), 47–51. https://doi. (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (Vol. 17, pp. org/10.24312/1900051130108 72–111). Sage Publications, Inc. Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2020a). Influence of Van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2015). In search sensation seeking on intercultural communication competence of a cultural home: From acculturation to frame-switching of international students in a Malaysian university: Attitude as and intercultural competencies. International Journal of a mediator. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Intercultural Relations, 46, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 74, 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.10.006 ijintrel.2015.03.022 Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2020b). Retesting Van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Van Der Zee, K. I. (2002). Predicting integrated model of intercultural communication competence multicultural effectiveness of international students: The mul- (IMICC) on international students from the Asian context of ticultural personality questionnaire. International Journal Malaysia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 74, of Intercultural Relations, 26(6), 679–694. https://doi. 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.10.005 org/10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00041-X Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., Dalib, S., & Mumtaz, S. Worthington, E. L. J., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., (2020c). The impact of Muslim international students’ reli- McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., . . .Conner, L. O. (2003). giosity on their intercultural communication competence: A The religious commitment inventory 10: Development, refine- case of Malaysia. Paradigms, 14(1), 21f9–224. https://doi. ment, and validation of a brief scale for research and counsel- org/10.24312/193014031 ing. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(1), 84–96. https:// Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., Dalib, S., & Mumtaz, S. (2021). doi/10.1037/0022-0167.50.1.84 An investigation of factors influencing intercultural communi- Worthington, E. L. J., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., cation competence of the international students from a higher McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., . . .Conner, L. O. (2012). The education institute in Malaysia. Journal of Applied Research in religious commitment inventory-10 (RCI-10). Measurement Higher Education, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-03- Instrument Database for the Social Science. 2021-0111 Wrench, J. S., Corrigan, M. W., McCroskey, J. C., & Punyanunt- Neuliep, J. W. (2002). Assessing the reliability and validity of Carter, N. M. (2006). Religious fundamentalism and intercul- the generalized ethnocentrism scale. Journal of Intercultural tural communication: The relationships among ethnocentrism, Communication Research, 31(4), 201–215. http://dx.doi. intercultural communication apprehension, religious funda- org/10.13072/midss.507 mentalism, homonegativity, and tolerance for religious dis- Neuliep, J. W., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The development of agreements. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, a US and generalized ethnocentrism scale. Communication 35(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475740600739198 Research Reports, 14(4), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/ Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second lan- 08824099709388682 guage: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Neuliep, J. W., Chaudoir, M., & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). A cross-cul- Journal, 86(1), 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00136 tural comparison of ethnocentrism among Japanese and United Yeh, J. B. (2010). Relations matter: Redefining communication States college students. Communication Research Reports, competence from a Chinese perspective. Chinese Journal of 18(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090109384791 Communication, 3(1), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/1754475 Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures 0903528807 for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Yum, J. O. (2012). Communication competence: A Korean per- Behavior Research Methods, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi. spective. China Media Research, 8(2), 11–18. org/10.3758/BF03206553 Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation seeking and sports. Personality Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling and Individual Differences, 4(3), 285–292. https:// strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in mul- doi/10.1016/0191-8869(83)90150-2 tiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879 of sensation seeking. Cambridge University Press. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE

An Extension of the Integrated Model of Intercultural Communication Competence (IMICC) with Religiosity: An International Students’ Perspective:

Nadeem, Muhammad Umar
SAGE Open , Volume 12 (1): 1 – Mar 28, 2022
Download PDF
10 pages

Loading next page...
 
/lp/sage/an-extension-of-the-integrated-model-of-intercultural-communication-uPPsO1Wfxn

References (80)

Publisher
SAGE
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 by SAGE Publications Inc, unless otherwise noted. Manuscript content on this site is licensed under Creative Commons Licenses.
ISSN
2158-2440
eISSN
2158-2440
DOI
10.1177/21582440221082139
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

This study aims to extend and further test the integrated model of intercultural communication competence (IMICC) on a cultural context of Malaysia. Since previous researchers have pointed out the need to address religion during intercultural encounters; this study adopted IMICC, expanded it with religiosity, and tested it in Malaysian context. International students from multiple countries were considered as respondents. In this study, direct effects of empathy, sensation seeking, and ethnocentrism on intercultural communication competence (ICC) were addressed. In addition, moderating effect of religiosity and mediating effects of attitude toward other cultures (ATOC) and motivation to engage in intercultural communication (MTEIIC) on ICC were also examined. The findings show that empathy, sensation seeking, and ATOC directly influenced ICC. Findings empirically justified the moderating effect of religiosity and mediating effect of ATOC. The inclusion of religiosity into IMICC adds valuable theoretical insights. This study reconfirms the culture-general nature of variables and IMICC. Keywords Intercultural communication competence, Religion, Extended IMICC, Religiosity, International students, Malaysia. variables (e.g., religion) have a strong impact on the ICC of Introduction individuals (Arasaratnam, 2016b). In addition, several The integrated model of intercultural communication com- researchers have noticed and addressed the importance of petence (IMICC) is one of the prominent contributions in religion in their discourses on ICC, such as in Malaysia literature of the culture-general models of intercultural com- (Nadeem et al., 2020c), Iran (Ameli & Molaei, 2012), and munication competence (ICC). An effort by Arasaratnam and Nigeria (Ajitoni, 2014). However, insufficient attention has Doerfel (2005) regarding the identification of various cul- been given to contextual variable, religion, in mainstream ture-general variables that have potential to influence ICC on discourses on ICC (Holmes & O’Neill, 2012; Wrench et al., diverse cultural contexts, leads to the development of IMICC 2006). For this reason, these iterations of IMICC have a (Arasaratnam, 2006). The most recent versions of IMICC dominant Western perspective and focus on their own cul- (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021) tural factors (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011). As the have discussed several factors that are important for predict- Malaysian context is being considered in the present study, ing ICC of the individuals who belong to different cultural religion is one of the factors that contribute to the ICC contexts. These factors include empathy, ethnocentrism, and (Mamman, 1995; Nadeem et al., 2020c) and intercultural sensation seeking as independent variables, motivation to scholars (Ameli & Molaei, 2012; Wrench et al., 2006) have engage in intercultural communication (MTEIIC), and atti- strongly suggested addressing religion in influencing ICC. tude toward other cultures (ATOC) as mediating variables Hence, the importance of religion cannot be ignored in the that influence ICC. In fact, few researcher (Arasaratnam et al., 2010a; Nadeem et al., 2020b) have made the call to National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, enhance and further explore IMICC on various cultural con- Pakistan texts (Arasaratnam, 2006). Furthermore, a key variable Corresponding Author: namely, religiosity was overlooked or was not taken into Muhammad Umar Nadeem, Department of Mass Communication, School consideration in the latest versions of IMICC. of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H), National University of Sciences Religion as a contextual variable has a unique importance and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan. in intercultural communication. It is argued that contextual Email: umarnadeem@s3h.nust.edu.pk Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open context of Malaysia, and it is crucial to examine the relation- of ICC that is demanded by the individuals during intercul- ship between religion and ICC empirically. Responding to tural communication to be competent in intercultural com- this call, this study re-examines and refines IMICC model munication (Lustig & Koester, 2003). In addition, there are (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021) certain requirements such as motivation, knowledge, skills, with religiosity (as a moderating variable) and aims to test it and attitudes that must be fulfilled by the individual to be in the Malaysian context (Nadeem et al., 2017). interculturally competent (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). Even though most conceptualizations of ICC have been In terms of IMICC, an effort initiated by Arasaratnam, dominated by the Western perspective (Arasaratnam & and her associates has contributed well toward developing a Doerfel, 2005; Gudykunst, 2005; Kim, 2002; Ting-Toomey, comprehensive model that is free from any cultural stand- 1993), several other scholars have pointed other cultural points (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005). In the past, existing contexts of competence such as that of Malaysia (Dalib models, theories, and approaches were having some cultural et al., 2017), Korea (Yum, 2012), and China (Yeh, 2010). bias elements that limits their universal application Arasaratnam (2016b) pointed out that contextual variables (Arasaratnam, 2007). Finally, the first version of IMICC was matter in conceptualizing ICC. In the context of West, reli- officially introduced by Arasaratnam (2006) that was having gion does not appear as an important contributor to ICC as multiple culture-general factors that can impact ICC of the compared to the other contexts such as Malaysia (Nadeem individual from diverse cultures. Over the years, several et al., 2020c), Iran (Ameli & Molaei, 2012), and Nigeria variables were added and eliminated from IMICC and were (Ajitoni, 2014). In the West, religion might not influence addressed on the cultural contexts of America, Australia, and communication of individuals because it is considered as a Malaysia (Arasaratnam, 2006; Arasaratnam & Banerjee, “private matter.” However, in countries like Malaysia, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). Until now, around seven communication is highly influenced by religion because versions of IMICC are available in the literature of ICC and individuals do not consider religion as a “personal matter” further suggested to keep refining and addressing IMICC (Mamman, 1995). Furthermore, religion has a strong influ- throughout the world (Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). ence on the Malaysian culture (Mahmud et al., 2010) Therefore, the current study has followed the same line and because Islam is the dominant creed in Malaysia and their adopted the latest version of IMICC extended with religios- interaction with strangers is based on the philosophy of ity and aims to address on the Malaysian context. The factors Islam. Therefore, it is crucial to examine religiosity (com- associated with IMICC are empathy, sensation seeking, eth- mitment of an individual toward specific religion) influenc- nocentrism, MTEIIC, and ATOC (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, ing ICC in Malaysian context. 2011: Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). The mentioned factors of At this stage, the importance of context and contextual IMICC have tendency to impact ICC, directly, or indirectly. variables cannot be ignored. The recent versions of IMICC The following sub-sections discuss each factor associated (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011; Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021) with the most recent version of IMICC individually. have not considered religiosity, possibly due to the influence of Western perspective. For that reason, this study incorpo- Empathy rated the suggestions of earlier researcher and further extended IMICC with religiosity (moderating variable). As it Empathy is conceptualized by several researchers in the con- is claimed that IMICC can translate well apart from different text of ICC such as Bennett (1979), who defined empathy as cultural contexts, therefore, this study further tested the “intellectual and emotional participation in another person’s extended version of IMICC on international students from experience” (p. 418). In the context of intercultural research, Malaysia, and to reconfirm and validate culture-general Van Oudenhoven and Benet-Martínez (2015) defined cul- nature of variables and IMICC. tural empathy as “the ability to empathize with the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals from a different cul- tural background” (p. 51). Among the different independent Literature Review variables concerning ICC, empathy is one of the most popu- lar. Empathy is an important factor that influences ICC. Intercultural Communication Competence Empathy serves as the key contributor to communication ICC is defined as “the appropriate and effective management competence by enhancing prediction, adaptation, and under- of interaction between people who, to some degree or standing (Redmond, 1989). Empathy, a skill in which an another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, individual communicates in an appropriate manner with oth- and behavioral orientations to the world” (Spitzberg & ers, and it is important in intercultural and interpersonal Chagnon, 2009, p. 7). In a similar vein, Deardorff (2004) interactions (Redmond & Bunyi, 1993). referred ICC as “the ability to communicate effectively and In addition, empathy is a predictor of intercultural effec- appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s inter- tiveness that leads to ICC. Kim (1986) discovered that empa- cultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p. 184). The thy is the utmost key predilection for effective cross-cultural appropriate and effective behaviors are the core conception communication. Another study by Matveev and Nelson Nadeem 3 (2004) on the team performances exposed that empathy and Ethnocentrism other contributors assist as key players in effective team Ethnocentrism is frequently noticed as perceiving an indi- involvement in cross-cultural interactions. Gibson and vidual’s personal culture as dominant among all others as Zhong (2005) examined the ICC in healthcare regarding the well as assessing different cultures grounded in personal patient-doctor communication. The finding showed that standards. Neuliep and McCroskey (1997) referred to eth- there was a significant association among empathy and ICC nocentrism as “ethnocentric groups see themselves as in medical providers. On the other hand, there was a strong virtuous and superior while outgroups are contemptible, positive relationship between empathy and ICC in the per- immoral, inferior, and weak” (p. 386). Gudykunst and Kim ceptions of patients. Results also revealed that in a healthcare (2003) explained that “ethnocentrism leads us to see our environment, empathy is a primary component of ICC. own culture’s ways of doing things as right and all others as Previous studies found that empathy had a direct relationship wrong” (p. 4). The researchers additionally claimed that with ICC. Another study indicated that empathy is the main extreme thresholds of ethnocentrism might cause an indi- influencer of ICC (Arasaratnam et al., 2010a). It is strongly vidual to misrepresent the denotation of the performance of recommended to further explore the association between somebody who belongs to a diverse culture because we empathy and ICC in future studies (Nadeem et al., 2018). mostly assess these deeds grounded to the viewpoint of our A potential contributor, empathy, has been addressed in personal culture, possibly contributing to ineffective com- the framework of ICC by several researchers and revealed munication. Ethnocentrism denotes the perception of the empathy as the most promising indicator in predicting ICC individual about perceiving other individuals based on (Deardorff et al., 2017; Gibson & Zhong, 2005; Matveev & one’s own cultural values and norms and considering one’s Nelson, 2004). As the previous literature on empathy in rela- own culture superior to others. tion to ICC is subjected to the Western point of view Research suggested that ethnocentrism influences inter- (Arasaratnam, 2016a; Arasaratnam et al., 2010b). In addi- cultural interaction through emotions, cultural values, and tion, Deardorff et al. (2017) and Dunne (2013) argued that actions presented in the interaction (Neuliep et al., 2001). empathy needs more attention by researchers to recognize its The association among intercultural communication and eth- relationship with ICC. An association between empathy of nocentrism, exists when lower in intercultural communica- individual and ICC must be empirically addressed with pre- tion and higher in ethnocentrism (Bennett & Bennett, 2004). vailing factors of IMICC. Therefore, this study incorporated In the same vein, ethnocentrism appears as a wall of intercul- empathy in the IMICC and targets to further test IMICC on a tural communication (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Ethnocentrism cultural context of Malaysia. is a variable that had a negative relationship with ICC as well as weakened the relationship between other variables that Sensation Seeking contribute to ICC (Arasaratnam, 2007). On the contrary, var- ious studies found that ethnocentrism fails to impact ICC of A personality variable sensation seeking is usually con- the students (Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). nected with the risky behaviors of the individuals such as, thrill seeking, novelty thirst, and other risky activities (Zuckerman, 1983, 1994). Sensation seekers are mostly Attitude Toward Other Cultures found of looking for new/unique experiences and having a need of adventurous activities (Zuckerman, 1994). Apart ATOC is described as an optimistic, non-ethnocentric char- from various risky behaviors (Hoyle et al., 2002) they are acter of individuals that belong to different cultures also found of finding new ways to communicate with cul- (Arasaratnam, 2006). ATOC also explicates the openness of turally different others (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2007, an individual concerning other worldviews and cultures. The 2011). Furthermore, to be effective in intercultural interac- description of ATOC by Arasaratnam (2006) regards the con- tions; sensation seekers are susceptible to such behaviors cept as “positive ATOC and is not ethnocentric” (p. 5). and ATOC that are promising for intercultural interaction. A Nadeem et al. (2020b) found that individuals ATOC is hav- study by Nadeem et al. (2020a) found that the international ing a strong influence on their ICC on an Asian context of students of Malaysia hold sensation seeking trait that fur- Malaysia. Research by Lu and Hsu (2008) deduced that ther influences their positive ATOC and it enables them to a friendly communication with positive ATOC helps to be effective in intercultural interaction. Another study by minimize communication anxiety of overseas residents. Fatemi et al. (2016) on the students in Iran examined the Additionally, it turns into the improvement of willingness for association among sensation seeking and the willingness to communication and intercultural relationships. Arasaratnam communicate in intercultural situations. The findings indi- and Doerfel (2005) addressed five key influencers that con- cated that sensation seeking positively affects the commu- tribute to ICC. ATOC is one of the five significant predictors nication with people of different cultural backgrounds. with the tendency to influence ICC of the individual (Nadeem Recently, Nadeem et al. (2021) witnessed that sensation et al., 2019). Arasaratnam (2006) found that these variables seeking is one of the significant indicators of ICC. had a positive association with ICC. Findings indicated a 4 SAGE Open positive association between ICC and positive ATOC. The gender (Mokhlis, 2009), and religion refers to the specific ATOC is termed as the global attitudes in the initial research belief or faith of the individual. Besides, Worthington et al. on the factors contributing to ICC. Later, the term changed (2003) defined religiosity as the “the degree to which a per- into positive ATOC. son adheres to his or her religious values, beliefs, and prac- tices, and uses them in daily living. The supposition is that a highly religious person will evaluate the world through reli- Motivation to Engage in Intercultural gious schemas and thus will integrate his or her religion into Communication much of his or her life” (p. 85). Intercultural interaction has a significant relationship with MTEIIC is usually denoted as the combination of such feel- the religion of the foreigners in Malaysia, whether their ing that further push the individuals to participate in intercul- upbringings are totally different from each other (Mamman, tural interaction (Deardorff, 2004). Arasaratnam (2006) 1995). However, in the West, intercultural effectiveness does defined MTEIIC “as the desire to engage in intercultural not have any emotional effect on the religion of the individ- interactions for the purpose of understanding and learning ual because in that context, religion is always a private mat- about other cultures” (p. 94). Arasaratnam and Doerfel ter of life (Mamman, 1995). On the other hand, in Malaysia (2005) specified that knowledge, MTEIIC, and skills are the religion is not considered as a private matter, it always influ- key factors of ICC. Gudykunst (1995) categorized six rea- ences one’s daily life matters. Ajitoni (2014) examined the sons that lead to intercultural adjustment, MTEIIC being one relationship between religion and ICC in Nigerian school of the reasons. He also asserted that these variables are the students. The findings indicated that religion positively competitors in the model of ICC. Yashima (2002) examined influences the student’s ICC in the context of their class- MTEIIC in learning the second language in the Japanese rooms. It is depicted that from an empirical standpoint, reli- context. Results indicated that MTEIIC influences individu- gion has a strong and positive influence on ICC in an al’s willingness to communicate during intercultural inter- educational setting. actions. Hence, MTEIIC is a predictor of willingness to Ameli and Molaei (2012) claimed that religion have a communicate as well as intensity of communication in a sec- strong influence on effective communication between two ond language (MacIntyre & Clement, 1996). A study by different groups. They found that two religious groups were Arasaratnam (2006) on the testing of a culture-general model more inclined towards their similarities instead of dissimi- of ICC showed that a significant relationship exists between larities. The researchers concluded that religion has the MTEIIC and ICC. Another study about the contact seeking potential to influence effective intercultural interactions. A behaviors to form an intercultural friendship by Arasaratnam study regarding the evaluation of ICC by Holmes and O’Neill and Banerjee (2007) noticed the presence of significant asso- (2012) recommended to further explore the relationship ciation among MTEIIC and intercultural friendship. Results between belief system and religious identities on ICC. also indicated that when individuals have high levels of Wrench et al. (2006) also addressed the relationship between MTEIIC, they tend to have more intercultural friends. religious fundamentalism and ICC and found religion was These discussed variables are the part of IMICC. As dis- the contributor to intercultural communication. The research- cussed earlier, the previous section suggests extending and ers firmly suggested that religion is the strongest contributor testing of IMICC on diverse cultural perspectives. Therefore, of intercultural communication, and it must be addressed in this study expanded IMICC with religiosity and addressed upcoming studies. They also suggested that new scholars on the cultural context of Malaysia. The following section empirically examine religion and ICC. It indicates the lack of entails a review and importance of religiosity besides its research practice regarding the relationship between religion introduction in IMICC. and ICC which requires serious attention. It is noted that religiosity is a potential moderator and has Religiosity the tendency to strengthen or weaken the relationship Mokhlis (2008) referred to religiosity as “the degree to between variables. Furthermore, it is evident that religiosity which beliefs in specific religious values and ideals are held has an influence on ICC (Ajitoni, 2014; Wrench et al., 2006). and practiced by an individual” (p. 122). Johnson et al. Hence, religiosity is introduced as a moderating variable in (2001) described religiosity as “the extent to which an indi- the IMICC. It is proposed that religiosity can strengthen or vidual is committed to the religion he or she professes and weaken the relationship between exogenous variables (eth- its teachings, such as the individual’s attitudes and behav- nocentrism, empathy, sensation seeking, MTEIIC, and iors reflect this commitment” (p. 25). Religiosity is consid- ATOC) and endogenous variable (ICC) of the extended ver- ered to have the role of religion in intercultural interactions sion of IMICC (see, Figure 1) because the findings of the because religiosity deals with the behavior or practice of relationship between the mentioned variables are not consis- individual according to a specific religion. Religion is usu- tent in past studies and these relationships are primarily ally considered as a demographic variable like age and endorsed in Western cultural contexts. Nadeem 5 Figure 1. Extended version of IMICC. Various countries were represented by the respondents Methodology such as Egypt, Iran, Libya, Oman, Sudan, Uzbekistan, and so Respondents on. Most of the respondents who participated in the survey were males and a minimal participation from the females The population of the current study were the international was witnessed, and their age ranged from 15 to 60, respec- students, and the samples were drawn from a single univer- tively. The international students were enrolled in undergrad- sity. Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) is a public sector uate and postgraduate programs, and they were living in university that is situated in Sintok, Kedah which is the rural Malaysia from 1 to 2 years (72%), less than 1 year (16%), area of Malaysia. The university is known as an eminent and 3 to 4 years (12%). Most importantly, the religious affili- management university of Malaysia. UUM hosts more than ation of the respondents indicated that 74.7% respondents two-thousand international students from different cultural were Muslims, 13.7% were Christians, while 11.7% belonged backgrounds in its campus. It ensures that a great cultural to Others (i.e., Buddhists, Hindus, Atheists). It reveals that diversity in UUM campus where students from different most international students were Muslims and stayed in cultural backgrounds can interact with each other regularly. Malaysia for less than 2 years. International students enrolled at a university were consid- ered as the potential respondents instead of national stu- dents, due to multiple reasons. Firstly, the model of the Measurements current study is culture-general and for this reason, a sample Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was considered for this of culturally diverse people is required to address and vali- study to confirm the validity of data and test the hypotheses. date the model. Secondly, a high cultural diversity is wit- The agreements of respondents were captured using a five- nessed among international students at the campus. Thirdly, point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) international students can better resonate with and explain regarding factors influencing ICC. intercultural experiences as compared to domestic students. Fourthly, most of the international students in Malaysia Empathy. Respondents’ empathy was measured through have come from the developing countries where dominant adopting the 18 items (such as, “I enjoy other people’s sto- religion is Islam, and they hold a perception or belief that ries” and “I sympathize with others”) Likert type scale devel- Malaysia is a Muslim country and its easy to resonate with oped by Van Oudenhoven and Van Der Zee (2002). Malaysian culture. Based on these discussed requirements, the current study has considered international student sample. Sensation seeking. Sensation seeking was measured by The respondents were identified and approached through adopting Hoyle et al.’s (2002) Brief Sensation Seeking (BSS) random sampling. 6 SAGE Open scale comprising 8 items (e.g., “I prefer friends who are excit- statistically significant and the lower and upper bound, which ingly unpredictable” and “I like to do frightening things”). did not straddle at zero. Thus, the mediating effect of ATOC was established between ethnocentrism, sensation seeking, and Ethnocentrism. A scale developed by Neuliep (2002) and empathy with ICC. On the other side, findings show that the Neuliep et al. (2001) was considered in this study to measure standardized indirect estimates of ethnocentrism (β = .000, ethnocentrism through 22 items (for instance, “I do not trust p > .05), sensation seeking (β = .007, p > .05), and empathy people who are different” and “I apply my values when judg- (β = .002, p > .05) were statistically insignificant while the ing people who are different”). lower and upper bound straddles at zero. Therefore, it was the indication of no mediating effect of MTEIIC between ethno- Attitude toward other cultures. ATOC was measured through centrism, sensation seeking, and empathy with ICC. adopting the 8 items scale (such as, “People of other cultures The hierarchical regression technique was utilized to are equal in intelligence to people in my own group” and address the moderating effect of religiosity (Baron & Kenny, “People of other cultures should be treated the same as people 1986; Frazier et al., 2004), three steps were employed for the of my own culture”) developed by Remmers et al. (1965). determination of variance in the specific variable by other variables when they entered the regression analysis in a spe- Motivation to engage in intercultural communication. MTE- cific manner (Cramer, 2003). The significant interaction IIC was measured by adopting the MTEIIC scale developed term indicated the existence of moderation (Baron & Kenny, by Arasaratnam (2006) through its seven items (for instance, 1986). The interaction term of Sensation Seeking × Religiosity “I would seek out friendships with people from different cul- (β = .095, p < .05), Ethnocentrism × Religiosity (β = .109, tures in order to learn about their culture” and “I enjoy initi- p < .05), and A TOC × Religiosity (β = .105, p < .05) indicated ating conversations with someone from a different culture”). a significant relationship with ICC. However, other interaction terms like, Empathy × Religiosity and MTEIIC × Religiosity Religiosity. The religiosity of the individuals was mea- leading to ICC remained statistically insignificant. For that sured by adopting the Religious Commitment Inventory reason, moderating effect of religiosity could not be estab- (RCI) developed by Worthington et al. (2003, 2012). This lished in these mentioned two paths. The following section scale comprised of 10 items (e.g., “Religious beliefs influ- involves a thorough discussion on the significant and insig- ence all my dealings in life” and “I enjoy spending time with nificant paths (direct, indirect, and interaction effects) of the others of my religious affiliation”). extended version of IMICC. Intercultural communication competence. ICC was mea- Discussion sured with 15 items (such as, “Most of my close friends are from other cultures” and “I feel that people from other cul- The current study targeted to extend IMICC with religiosity tures have many valuable things to teach me”) which were and to further test IMICC on the context of Malaysia. The developed by Arasaratnam (2009). factors associated with IMICC are empathy, ethnocentrism, sensation seeking, ATOC, MTEIIC, and ICC. This study considered the fresh version of IMICC and expanded it with Results religiosity as the moderating variable. In terms of testing The relationship among exogenous and endogenous vari- IMICC in a Malaysian context, the findings supported most ables; and the results of five direct effects were assessed of the established paths. Such as, ATOC, sensation seeking, through regression analysis. A direct statistically significant and empathy were witnessed as direct predictors of ICC. relationship was found between ATOC (β = .180, p < .05), ATOC established a mediating effect on the relationship sensation seeking (β = .165, p < .05), and empathy (β = .260, between exogenous (ethnocentrism, sensation seeking, p < .05) with ICC. On the contrary, MTEIIC (β = .012, empathy) and endogenous (ICC) variables. However, this p > .05) and ethnocentrism (β = .003, p > .05) did not have a cultural context has not confirmed other established paths of statistically significant relationship with ICC. IMICC such as, influence of ethnocentrism on ICC besides For indirect effects, an approach by Preacher and Hayes the direct and indirect effect of MTEIIC on ICC. (2004) was considered to look for the indirect effect (Preacher Due to certain reasons, other established paths like & Hayes, 2008) of the empathy, sensation seeking, and ethno- MTEIIC contributing ICC and mediating effect of MTEIIC centrism on the ICC through the mediating variables, ATOC on ICC, did not appear significant in this study. International and MTEIIC on ICC. For the determination of significant students may have come to Malaysia with the perception that mediation, it is necessary that indirect effect must be statisti- Malaysia would be culturally close to their home countries, cally significant and zero should not straddle between upper perhaps, based on the religion. However, when they are and lower bounds. The results show that the standardized indi- exposed to Malaysia, they found that they are sharing a simi- rect effects of ethnocentrism (β = .023, p < .05), sensation seek- lar religion but a different culture where they are not only ing (β = .052, p < .05), and empathy (β = .061, p < .05) were dependent on the Malaysians but also on other members of Nadeem 7 different cultures. The dissimilarity of cultural norms, val- interaction with high levels of religiosity contributes to the ues, and traditions might have reduced their motivation level competency of international students during intercultural to interact with culturally different individuals in Malaysia. interactions. It indicates that international students have kept In addition, previous studies on the context of Malaysia their predispositions regarding superiority of culture on have also found that international student are not motivated lower levels and possess higher levels of religiosity during for intercultural interactions (Nadeem et al., 2020b, 2021). intercultural communication. The studies highlighted that the international students of Other proposed paths regarding interaction effect of religi- Malaysia belong to developing nations where English is con- osity, with empathy and MTEIIC, could not significantly sidered as a second language. Furthermore, they tend to affect ICC. For MTEIIC, it was obvious, because international experience numerous challenges: culture, adjustment, food, students possess lower levels of MTEIIC in dealing with ICC. accommodation, confidence, etc. in Malaysia. All discussed For this reason, the interaction effect of MTEIIC and religios- factors might have reduced the motivation of international ity could not significantly contribute to ICC. On the other side, students to communicate with culturally different people. On it is worthy to discuss why interaction effect of religiosity with the other side, the prior testing of IMICC was done in west- empathy could not be established significantly. The findings ern cultural contexts where students are already motivated revealed that religiosity dampen the direct influence of empa- for intercultural interactions. As far as Malaysian context is thy on ICC. Nonetheless, it provides new insights into interna- concerned, the findings of this study indicated MTEIIC lacks tional students’ levels of empathy not significantly interacting to establish a direct and indirect effect on ICC. It can be con- with their levels of religiosity to further impact ICC. Even cluded as context played a crucial role in establishing influ- though empathy is witnessed as a direct influencer on ICC in ence of MTEIIC on ICC. the extended version of IMICC, still findings of expanded ver- Likewise, ethnocentrism also failed to contribute to ICC. sion of IMICC are conspicuous. For a reason, international students during their experiences The extended version of IMICC has contributed well to abroad usually have lower levels of ethnocentrism and are the existing body of knowledge by providing a novel mecha- high sensation seekers for seeking intercultural contact. The nism to examine systematic influence of various factors on findings of this study have supported this claim and found ICC. The factors of this study influenced ICC directly international students are high sensation seekers and scored (ATOC, sensation seeking, and empathy), indirectly (ATOC), lower on ethnocentrism in communicating with individuals and through interaction (ATOC, ethnocentrism, and sensa- of other cultures. The discussed reasons have confirmed the tion seeking with religiosity). This study has not only causes behind the study’s findings not supporting the estab- enriched the IMICC in terms of adding a predictor, but it has lished paths of IMICC in the Malaysian context. also enhanced the explanatory or predictive power of IMICC. In the extended version of IMICC, two variables played a For instance, empathy in IMICC showed that the interna- key role in terms of contributing towards the current body of tional students of Malaysia possess empathetic attitudes that knowledge. First, empathy in the model has led to notewor- lead them to be competent in intercultural interactions. In thy findings in comparison to former versions of IMICC. The terms of religiosity, it is observed as the strongest predictor findings revealed that an individuals’ empathy carries a in a context of Malaysia. Furthermore, interaction of religi- direct significant impact on ICC. Previous versions of IMICC osity with sensation seeking, ethnocentrism, and ATOC of have found inconsistencies regarding relationship between international students played a key role in turning them into empathy and ICC, prevails when mediated by ATOC. being interculturally competent. To sum up, the extended However, this study witnessed that empathy is a key player version of IMICC can predict ICC better than former ver- in determining ICC. In addition, the association among sions of IMICC in the cultural context of Malaysia. empathy and ICC also exists in presence of mediating vari- The current study faces several limitations. First, the able ATOC. Despite of different cultural context (Malaysia) responses of the international students may change with the of this study, still findings indicated novel results. Second, passage of time as it is normally witnessed in social sciences the important addition to IMICC was religiosity. This study research. Second, in this study, most of the international stu- witnessed unique findings regarding this addition. The inter- dents were the Muslims and were sampled from the specific action effect of religiosity with ATOC, ethnocentrism, and university located in the rural area of Malaysia. Therefore, sensation seeking had a strong impact on ICC. These signifi- the perspective of international students regarding ICC from cant interaction effects revealed religiosity as a potential urban areas of Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur and Penang) might moderator in terms of ICC and have strengthen the relation- be slightly different to this study. Third, there is a possibility ship of ATOC, ethnocentrism, and sensation seeking with that students have not shared their original stances and ICC. This direction can be interpreted as international stu- response about ICC from the fear of being judged. Lastly, as dents’ ATOC, sensation seeking, and ethnocentrism interac- this study has not considered experimental research deign, tion with their religiosity, bearing a strong impact on their therefore, a transparent cause and effect might not be estab- ICC. Most interestingly, lower levels of ethnocentrism lished in this regard. 8 SAGE Open Funding Conclusion The author received no financial support for the research, author- This study has extended IMICC with religiosity and tested it ship, and/or publication of this article. in the context of Malaysia. The expanded version of IMICC is tested by incorporating SEM technique through multivari- Ethics Statement ate analysis. The findings of present study have validated This research was in accordance with the ethical standards of the most of existing relationships (for instance, empathy, sensa- Department of Communication, School of Multimedia Technology tion seeking, and ATOC leading to ICC) dominated by and Communication (SMMTC), Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). Western point of view. However, two paths (ethnocentrism and MTEIIC leading to ICC) were not supported by the find- ORCID iD ings, possibly due to composition of diverse respondents and Muhammad Umar Nadeem https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6613- different context. Furthermore, mediating effect of ATOC is established by findings. However, the mediating effect of MTEIIC could not established in this study. Still, findings References are considered as a significant contribution. An introduction of religiosity in IMICC provides the novel findings and inter- Ajitoni, S. (2014). Enhancing Nigerian students’ intercultural com- petence and achievement in social studies through outdoor action of religiosity with other factors results in strengthen- activities. Journal of Language and Cultural Education, 2(2), ing their relationship with ICC. Finally, it can be interpreted 204–217. as the overall findings of the study supported many paths Ameli, S. R., & Molaei, H. (2012). Religious affiliation and intercul- except a few and reconfirmed that IMICC and associated tural sensitivity: Interculturality between Shia & Sunni Muslims variables are having a culture-general nature. in Iran. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(1), It is the initial attempt in which the factors of IMICC are 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.007 considered in influencing ICC, particularly in Malaysian Arasaratnam, L. A. (2006). Further testing of a new model of context. The interaction of religiosity with other contributing intercultural communication competence. Communication factors to ICC is investigated in this research. Even though Research Reports, 23(2), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/ this association is seen as an important aspect of this study, the path from religiosity to ICC is still in its early phases. The Arasaratnam, L. A. (2007). Research in intercultural communi- cation competence: Past perspectives and future directions. direct association between religiosity and ICC would be an Journal of International Communication, 13(2), 66–73. https:// important path that must be explored in future research on doi.org/10.1080/13216597.2007.9674715 multiple cultural perspectives to validate findings of this Arasaratnam, L. A. (2009). The development of a new instru- study. The findings of current study, however, are promising ment of intercultural communication competence. Journal of apart from two insignificant paths. This exception must be Intercultural Communication, 20, 2–22. considered in future research of ICC on other cultural con- Arasaratnam, L. A. (2016a). An exploration of the relationship texts. The extended version of IMICC is not limited to the between intercultural communication competence and bilin- setting of Malaysia. This model can be adapted for other con- gualism. Communication Research Reports, 33(3), 231–238. texts where religion is a crucial element behind intercultural https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2016.1186628 interactions. It can also be adopted by Western researchers Arasaratnam, L. A. (2016b). Intercultural competence. Oxford for the determination of religion in terms of ICC in various Research Encyclopedia of Communication (pp. 01–23). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228 Western contexts. There will be significant findings when 613.013.68 this model is adapted for multicultural societies from differ- Arasaratnam, L. A., & Banerjee, S. C. (2007). Ethnocentrism and ent zones across the globe. sensation seeking as variables that influence intercultural contact-seeking behavior: A path analysis. Communi cation Informed Consent Statement Research Reports, 24(4), 303–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/ All participants provided informed consent prior to completing this study. Arasaratnam, L. A., & Banerjee, S. C. (2011). Sensation seeking and intercultural communication competence: A model test. Data Availability International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(2), 226– 233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.07.003 The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current Arasaratnam, L. A., & Doerfel, M. L. (2005). Intercultural commu- study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable nication competence: Identifying key components from mul- request. ticultural perspectives. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijin- Declaration of Conflicting Interests trel.2004.04.001 The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to Arasaratnam, L. A., Banerjee, S. C., & Dembek, K. (2010a). The the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. integrated model of intercultural communication competence Nadeem 9 (IMICC): Model test. Australian Journal of Communication, Gudykunst, W. B. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) 37(3), 103–116. theory: Current status. In R. L. Wiseman (Eds.), Intercultural Arasaratnam, L. A., Banerjee, S. C., & Dembek, K. (2010b). communication theory (Vol. 19, pp. 8–58). Sage Publications, Sensation seeking and the integrated model of intercul- Inc. tural communication competence. Journal of Intercultural Gudykunst, W. B. (2005). An anxiety/uncertainty management Communication Research, 39(2), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.10 (AUM) theory of strangers’ intercultural adjustment. In W. B. 80/17475759.2010.526312 Gudykunst (Eds.), Theorizing about intercultural communica- Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–medi- tion (pp. 419–457). SAGE. ator variable distinction in social psychological research: Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating with Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (4th Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https:// ed.). McGraw Hill. doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173 Holmes, P., & O’Neill, G. (2012). Developing and evaluating inter- Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing intercultural cultural competence: Ethnographies of intercultural encoun- sensitivity: An integrative approach to global and domes- ters. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(5), tic diversity. In D. Landis, J. Bennett & M. Bennett (Eds.), 707–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04.010 Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Sage. Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief Bennett, M. J. (1979). Overcoming the golden rule: Sympathy measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual and empathy. Annals of the International Communication Differences, 32(3), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191- Association, 3(1), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985 8869(01)00032-0 .1979.11923774 Johnson, B. R., Jang, S. J., Larson, D. B., & De Li, S. (2001). Does Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural communica- adolescent religious commitment matter? A reexamination of tion competence: A synthesis. Annals of the International the effects of religiosity on delinquency. Journal of Research Communication Association, 19(1), 353–383. https://doi.org/1 in Crime and Delinquency, 38(1), 22–44. https://doi.org/10.11 0.1080/23808985.1996.11678935 77%2F0022427801038001002 Cramer, D. (2003). Advanced quantitative data analysis. Open Kim, Y. Y. (1986). Understanding the social context of inter- University Press. group communication: A personal network approach. In W. Dalib, S., Harun, M., & Yusof, N. (2017). Student intercultural B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Intergroup communication (pp. 86–95). competence in a Malaysian campus: A phenomenological London: Edward Arnold. approach. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 12(1), 42–62. Kim, Y. Y. (2002). Adapting to an unfamiliar culture. In W. B. https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2016.1264408 Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of international and Deardorff, D. K. (2004). The identification and assessment of inter- intercultural communication (pp. 259–273). Sage. cultural competence as a student outcome of internationaliza- Lu, Y., & Hsu, C. F. (2008). Willingness to communicate in inter- tion at institutions of higher education in the United States cultural interactions between Chinese and Americans. Journal [Unpublished Doctoral dissertation]. North Carolina State of Intercultural Communication Research, 37(2), 75–88. University, Raleigh, North Carolina. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475750802533356 Deardorff, D. K., Arasaratnam, L. A., & Calloway-Thomas, C. Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (2003). Intercultural competence: (2017). The role of empathy in fostering intercultural com- Interpersonal communication across cultures (5th ed.). Harper petence. In D. K. Deardorff & L. A. Arasaratnam (Eds.), Collins. Intercultural competence in higher education (pp. 32–42). MacIntyre, P. D., & Clement, R. (1996). A model of willingness Routledge. to communicate in a second language: The concept, its ante- th Dunne, C. (2013). Exploring motivations for intercultural contact cedents and implications. Paper presented at the 11 World among host country university students: An Irish case study. Congress of Applied Linguistics (AILA), Jyväskylä, Finland. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(5), 567– Mahmud, Z., Amat, S., Rahman, S., & Ishak, N. M. (2010). 578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.06.003 Challenges for international students in Malaysia: Culture, Fatemi, A. H., Khajavy, G. H., & Choi, C. W. (2016). Testing a climate and care. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7, model of intercultural willingness to communicate based on 289–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.040 ethnocentrism, ambiguity tolerance and sensation seeking: Mamman, A. (1995). Socio-biographical antecedents of intercul- The role of learning English in Iran. Journal of Intercultural tural effectiveness: The neglected factors. British Journal of Communication Research, 45(4), 304–318. https://doi.org/10. Management, 6(2), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551. 1080/17475759.2016.1190776 1995.tb00088.x Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing mod- Matveev, A. V., & Nelson, P. E. (2004). Cross cultural commu- erator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. nication competence and multicultural team performance: Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(1), 115–134. https:// Perceptions of American and Russian managers. International doi/10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115 Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(2), 253–270. https:// Gibson, D., & Zhong, M. (2005). Intercultural communication doi.org/10.1177%2F1470595804044752 competence in the healthcare context. International Journal Mokhlis, S. (2008). Consumer religiosity and the importance of of Intercultural Relations, 29(5), 621–634. https://doi. store attributes. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.008 Learning, 4(2), 122–133. 10 SAGE Open Mokhlis, S. (2009). Relevancy and measurement of religiosity in Redmond, M. V. (1989). The functions of empathy (decentering) consumer behavior research. International Business Research, in human relations. Human Relations, 42(7), 593–605. https:// 2(3), 75–84. http://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v2n3p75 doi.org/10.1177%2F001872678904200703 Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2017). A proposed Redmond, M. V., & Bunyi, J. M. (1993). The relationship of model of intercultural communication competence (ICC) intercultural communication competence with stress and in Malaysian context. International Journal of Educational the handling of stress as reported by international students. Research Review, 2(2), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.24331/ International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17(2), 235– ijere.327470 254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(93)90027-6 Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2018). International Remmers, H. H., Gage, N. L., & Rummel, J. F. (1965). A practical students’ empathy and sensation seeking traits as the anteced- introduction to measurement and evaluation. Harper. ents of motivation to engage in intercultural communication. Spitzberg, B. H., & Changnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercul- Paradigms, 12(2), 127–131. https://doi.org/10.24312/para- tural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Eds.), The SAGE hand- digms120202 book of intercultural competence (pp. 2–52). Sage Publications. Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2019). An association Ting-Toomey, S. (1993). Communicative resourcefulness: An iden- between international students’ attitude and intercultural com- tity negotiation perspective. In R. L. Wiseman & J. Koester munication competence. Paradigms, 13(1), 47–51. https://doi. (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (Vol. 17, pp. org/10.24312/1900051130108 72–111). Sage Publications, Inc. Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2020a). Influence of Van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2015). In search sensation seeking on intercultural communication competence of a cultural home: From acculturation to frame-switching of international students in a Malaysian university: Attitude as and intercultural competencies. International Journal of a mediator. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Intercultural Relations, 46, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 74, 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.10.006 ijintrel.2015.03.022 Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., & Dalib, S. (2020b). Retesting Van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Van Der Zee, K. I. (2002). Predicting integrated model of intercultural communication competence multicultural effectiveness of international students: The mul- (IMICC) on international students from the Asian context of ticultural personality questionnaire. International Journal Malaysia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 74, of Intercultural Relations, 26(6), 679–694. https://doi. 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.10.005 org/10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00041-X Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., Dalib, S., & Mumtaz, S. Worthington, E. L. J., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., (2020c). The impact of Muslim international students’ reli- McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., . . .Conner, L. O. (2003). giosity on their intercultural communication competence: A The religious commitment inventory 10: Development, refine- case of Malaysia. Paradigms, 14(1), 21f9–224. https://doi. ment, and validation of a brief scale for research and counsel- org/10.24312/193014031 ing. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(1), 84–96. https:// Nadeem, M. U., Mohammed, R., Dalib, S., & Mumtaz, S. (2021). doi/10.1037/0022-0167.50.1.84 An investigation of factors influencing intercultural communi- Worthington, E. L. J., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., cation competence of the international students from a higher McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., . . .Conner, L. O. (2012). The education institute in Malaysia. Journal of Applied Research in religious commitment inventory-10 (RCI-10). Measurement Higher Education, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-03- Instrument Database for the Social Science. 2021-0111 Wrench, J. S., Corrigan, M. W., McCroskey, J. C., & Punyanunt- Neuliep, J. W. (2002). Assessing the reliability and validity of Carter, N. M. (2006). Religious fundamentalism and intercul- the generalized ethnocentrism scale. Journal of Intercultural tural communication: The relationships among ethnocentrism, Communication Research, 31(4), 201–215. http://dx.doi. intercultural communication apprehension, religious funda- org/10.13072/midss.507 mentalism, homonegativity, and tolerance for religious dis- Neuliep, J. W., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The development of agreements. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, a US and generalized ethnocentrism scale. Communication 35(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475740600739198 Research Reports, 14(4), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/ Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second lan- 08824099709388682 guage: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Neuliep, J. W., Chaudoir, M., & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). A cross-cul- Journal, 86(1), 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00136 tural comparison of ethnocentrism among Japanese and United Yeh, J. B. (2010). Relations matter: Redefining communication States college students. Communication Research Reports, competence from a Chinese perspective. Chinese Journal of 18(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090109384791 Communication, 3(1), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/1754475 Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures 0903528807 for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Yum, J. O. (2012). Communication competence: A Korean per- Behavior Research Methods, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi. spective. China Media Research, 8(2), 11–18. org/10.3758/BF03206553 Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation seeking and sports. Personality Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling and Individual Differences, 4(3), 285–292. https:// strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in mul- doi/10.1016/0191-8869(83)90150-2 tiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879 of sensation seeking. Cambridge University Press.

Journal

SAGE Open – SAGE

Published: Mar 28, 2022

Keywords: Intercultural communication competence; Religion; Extended IMICC; Religiosity; International students; Malaysia.

There are no references for this article.