A Reliability Generalization Study of the Political Skill Inventory:

Ryan K. Jacobson; Chockalingam Viswesvaran

doi:10.1177/2158244017706714

A Reliability Generalization Study of the Political Skill Inventory:

Jacobson, Ryan K.; Viswesvaran, Chockalingam 2017-05-10 00:00:00 Measures of political skill have been shown to be significant predictors of job performance across a variety of occupations and have consistently been related to positive work-related behaviors and outcomes. A reliability generalization study was conducted on the Political Skill Inventory (PSI), currently the most frequently utilized measuring instrument for assessing the construct of political skill, to determine the weighted mean internal consistency reliability estimate of the PSI and its four dimensions across samples while also examining the effect of six potential sources of measurement error that may impact the internal consistency reliability of the PSI and its four dimensions. Across the samples that reported a reliability estimate for the Ferris et al. 18-item PSI measure, the weighted mean reliability coefficient alpha of the PSI was .89 (k = 77, N = 15,987) and that for the six-item measure of the PSI was .81 (k = 11, N = 2,123). Potential sources of measurement error variance that could impact the typical score reliability of the PSI and three of the four PSI subscale dimensions were identified and are discussed. Keywords Political Skill Inventory, reliability generalization, political skill predictor An increasing amount of research regarding the correlates specifically, the political skill construct has received an and consequences of organizational politics has been con- increasing amount of attention from organizations in recent ducted in recent years as internal politics have proven to be years because of the generally strong relationship measures quite pervasive in the private as well as the public sector jobs political skills have with job performance across a variety of (Zettler & Lang, 2015). In recent years, research on organi- industries (e.g., Blickle, Ferris, et al., 2011; Ferris et al., zational politicking has focused on the construct of political 2007; Zettler & Lang, 2015; etc.). The main explanation for skill and how it can predict job performance in organizations the general success of political skill in predicting job perfor- (Ferris, Treadway, Brouer, & Munyon, 2012). Political skill mance is largely based on the reasoning that individual can be briefly defined as a comprehensive pattern of “social employees with high levels of political skill are able to competencies, with cognitive, affective, and behavioral man- quickly identify and understand the subtle and hidden inten- ifestations” (Ferris et al., 2007, p. 291). Examples of political tions and needs of their organization, co-workers, supervi- skill manifestations include networking with others, influ- sors, and customers and also possess the competence to encing others, and perceiving close attention to other’s non- strategically modify their own behavior to influence their verbal behaviors (Ferris et al., 2005). Thus, political skill can workplace environment to their advantage (Zettler & Lang, help perform essential job functions related to organizational 2015). Previous research has also suggested that those with goals and researchers have become increasingly interested in political skill improve their own performance by getting col- measuring and validating the political skill construct (Ferris leagues to assist them, assertively controlling negotiations et al., 2012). The Political Skill Inventory (PSI) is the most and sales, and enhancing social networks that help them per- frequently used measure for assessing political skill as it is form better (i.e., back-up staff and technical equipment; currently defined as a construct (Ferris et al., 2012; Zettler & Zettler & Lang, 2015). In support of these findings, many Lang, 2015). As the PSI is the most frequently used measure studies (e.g., Blickle, Ferris et al., 2011; Ferris et al., 2007) of political skill as a construct, a reliability generalization of including a meta-analysis (Being, Davison, Minor, the scale was conducted to examine the variability of reli- ability coefficients in studies that used the PSI. Florida International University, Miami, USA For the past decade, the political skill construct has Corresponding Author: received promising empirical support, generating increased Ryan K. Jacobson, Department of Psychology, Florida International attention by both researchers and practitioners, thus advanc- University, 11200 SW 8th Street, DM 258, Miami, FL 33199, USA. ing the understanding of organizational behavior. More Email: rjaco033@fiu.edu Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open Novicevic, & Frink, 2011) have all found a significant posi- construct exploration (Ferris et al., 2005). As a result, the tive correlation between political skill and job performance six-item scale attempted to measure the political skill con- across a number of different job types (Bing, Davison, Minor, struct by examining two primary dimensions that were theo- Novicevic, & Frink, 2011). The primary objective of the retically related to the construct: social astuteness and present research is to investigate the typical magnitude and interpersonal influence (Ahearn et al., 2004; Ferris et al., variabilities of reliability coefficient estimates reported 1999; Ferris et al., 2005). However, the original six-item PSI across existing studies that administered the PSI—one of the measure (Ferris et al., 1999) addressed the social astuteness most widely used measures of the political skill construct. and interpersonal influence dimensions of the political skill Political skill has been broadly defined as “the ability to construct without separating the two dimensions into inde- effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowl- pendent factors. The original six-item PSI did not include edge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s items for the purposes of assessing the networking ability personal or organizational objectives” (Ahearn, Ferris, and apparent sincerity dimensions of the political skill con- Hochwarter, Douglas, & Ammeter, 2004, p. 311). As a result, struct reflected in the organizational politics literature political skill involves the combination of social astuteness (Ahearn et al., 2004; Ferris et al., 2005). with the ability to adjust behavior to different situations to Although the original unidimensional six-item version of achieve personal or organizational goals using a manner that the PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) provided initial construct evi- is perceived as sincere, inspires trust and motivation, and dence supporting the existence of the underlined latent polit- influences the responses of others (Ferris et al., 2005). More ical skill construct, the call for a more comprehensive, specifically, effective communication, friendships, network content-valid measure that adequately assessed each of the building, alliances, and coalition building are critical for four primary dimensions of political skill theorized by orga- individuals to navigate the politics of organizations to effec- nizational politicking literature led to the development of the tively achieve desired outcomes and represent an important full 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005). To maximize the con- aspect of political skill in the organizational politics litera- tent validity of the 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005), a pool of ture (Ahearn et al., 2004; Ferris et al., 1999; Pfeffer, 1992). 40 items was generated with each item intended to generally The other major aspect of political skill represented in the asses the political skill construct and to reflect the specific organizational politics literature is genuineness and the dimensions associated with political skill (Ferris et al., 1999). appearance of trustworthiness (Ferris et al., 2005). More spe- The items included in the 18-item PSI scale (Ferris et al., cifically, the ability to maintain the appearance of sincerity 2005) were selected from the 40-item pool based on the allows politically skilled individuals to achieve a high level results from item analyses in which only the items (a) with of interpersonal influence with individuals at work because the highest item-to-total correlations, (b) not significantly they are able to inspire trust that motivates others to assist correlated with the Social Desirability Scale total score, and them with achieving and providing resources for their orga- (c) that did not cross-load highly onto more than one factor nizational or personal goals (Ahearn et al., 2004). Thus, the were retained. A factor analysis of the 18 items of the PSI four primary dimensions of the political skill construct captured the four-factor solution, with each of the four fac- reflected in the organizational politics literature are social tors representing a theoretical dimension of the political skill astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and construct: networking ability (six items), interpersonal influ- apparent sincerity. The social astuteness dimension refers to ence (four items), social astuteness (five items), and apparent the ability to accurately perceive as well as comprehend sincerity (three items). Of the six items included in the Ferris social situations and interpersonal interactions while the et al. (1999) PSI, only three were retained as part of the apparent sincerity dimension refers to the individual ability 18-item version of the measure: “I am able to make most to be perceived by others as being honest, authentic, sincere, people feel comfortable and at ease around me” (interper- genuine, and possessing no ulterior motives (Ferris et al., sonal influence), “it is easy for me to develop good rapport 2005; Pfeffer, 1992). The interpersonal influence dimension with most people” (interpersonal influence), and “I under- involves the ability to appropriately adapt and adjust behav- stand people very well” (social astuteness; Ferris et al., ior to each situation to achieve a desired response or out- 2005). come, and the networking ability dimension refers to the Convergent and discriminant validity evidence for the capability or capacity to easily develop friendships and cre- two measures can be found in the literature. For example, ate strong beneficial alliances and coalitions to create and Ferris et al. (2005) found evidence that total score of both the take advantage of opportunities (Ferris et al., 2005; Pfeffer, six-item and 18-item PSI measures were strongly correlated 1992). with self-monitoring, consciousness, trait anxiety, and social The first measure that was developed to assess the politi- desirability which have each been previously hypothesized cal skill construct was the unidimensional, six-item PSI scale to be related to the political skill construct. However, Ferris (Ferris et al., 1999). Although the unidimensional six-item et al. (2005) also found that the 18-item PSI was more related PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) had acceptable psychometric proper- to the influence tactics of upward appeal and coalition in ties, it was created for the primary purposes of preliminary addition to being less related to the influence tactic of Jacobson and Viswesvaran 3 assertiveness than the six-item PSI, which indicates the according to sample characteristics, administration proce- 18-item PSI may more comprehensively capture the political dures, and so on. skill construct. The small relationship between the six-item The reliability of the test for a population can be defined PSI with the influence tactics of appeal and coalition along as the ratio of true score variance to observed score variance, with the significant relationship between the six-item PSI or as the squared correlation between true and observed with assertiveness may likely demonstrate potential improve- scores (Lord, 1959; Nunnally, 1978). In actual practice, how- ments of the 18-item PSI over the original six-item measure, ever, true scores can never be determined; therefore, the reli- as it has been hypothesized that those high in political skill ability is typically estimated by coefficients of internal will be more likely to engage in the more subtle and less consistency, test–retest, alternate forms, and other reliability direct influence tactics of appeal and coalition while avoid- methods mentioned in the psychometric literature (Dimitrov, ing more overt influence tactics such as assertiveness, which 2002; Vacha-Haase, 1998; Vacha et al., 2000). For this reli- involves demanding ordering and checking up on others to ability generalization study, however, given the limited num- exercise influence (Ferris et al., 2005; Kipins, Schmidt, & ber of studies that reported other types of reliability, the Wilkinson, 1980). internal consistency reliability coefficient of Cronbach’s The full 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005) is currently the alpha alone was investigated in this study. As Cronbach’s most frequently implemented measure of the political skill alpha will generally increase as the intercorrelations among construct in research being administered to over 76 samples test items increase and the intercorrelations of test items tend in multiple languages with the six-item unidimensional ver- to increase when all of the test items measure the same sion of the PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) being the next most underlying construct, higher values of alpha are generally frequently administered political skill measure. Thus, as the thought to indicate that a particular set of test items measure six-item PSI and 18-item PSI scales are the most frequently a single construct. Although several researchers (e.g., implemented and empirically validated measures of the Cronbach, 1951; Nunnally, 1978, etc.) have shown that alpha political skill construct found in existing research, both ver- values can be considerably high even when the set of items sions of the scale were included in the current study to measure multiple unrelated latent constructs, our use of alpha determine the reliability estimates of each. However, due to in this reliability generalization study of the PSI seems the substantial body of evidence indicating adequate psy- appropriate given researchers have generally agreed that chometric properties and the inclusion of all four dimen- alpha is most appropriately utilized when the items in a test sions reflecting the political skill construct in the 18-item measure a single construct (Nunnally, 1978). PSI Ferris et al. (2005) scale, the reliability coefficients obtained from the 18-item PSI represent the primary focus Reliability Generalization of this generalization study. Thus, the reliability coeffi- cients obtained from the 18-item Ferris et al. (2005) PSI are Reliability generalization (RG) reflects a meta-analytic reported separately in the results from the reliability coef- approach to quantify reliability scores across samples and ficients obtained from the unidimensional six-item Ferris examine the variability of the reliability estimates et al. (1999) PSI. Among the samples that were included in (Thompson & Vacha-Haase, 2000; Vacha-Haase, 1998; this reliability generalization study that administered the Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). Reliability coefficients are 18-item PSI, reliability coefficients were often reported collected across studies to calculate central tendency and separately for each of the four dimensions in addition to the variability. Sample characteristics can be tabulated in an reliability coefficient for the entire PSI scale. Reliability attempt to account for the variability in reliability estimates estimates reported for the four dimensions were only (e.g., Thompson & Vacha-Haase, 2000; Yin & Fan, 2000; obtained from samples that administered the 18-item ver- etc.). In addition, the current reliability generalization study sion of the PSI as the six-item PSI measure is unidimen- utilizes general linear modeling to provide indications of sional and does not distinguish between any of the four PSI when the use of the PSI is more or less favorable in terms dimensions. of expected measurement error. More specifically, sample gender distribution, the number of items included in the measure, sample population, language, geographic loca- Reliability tion, and the number of response options are all examined Reliability refers to “the results obtained with an evaluation in the current study as potential factors that might influence instrument and not to the instrument itself” (Gronlund & the score reliability obtained from the PSI. Thus, the find- Linn, 1990, p. 78). The psychometric literature is clear that ings of the current study could likely serve as an additional reliability is based on scores gathered from a measurement source of information and reference for future practitioners scale and will vary from sample to sample (Thompson & and researchers in that it may shed light on potential con- Vacha-Haase, 2000; Vacha-Haase, Henson, & Caruso, 2002; textual moderators that may lower (or raise) the reliability Vacha-Haase, Kogan, & Thompson, 2000). Thus, it is infor- of the PSI measure depending on different sample and situ- mative to investigate how the reliability of a measure varies ational circumstances. 4 SAGE Open Research Question 2: Will the average internal consis- Factors That Influence Reliability tency reliability of the PSI scales that utilize 5 response Number of Items options significantly differ from the PSI scales that utilize 7 response options? As mentioned previously, as the 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005) and the six-item PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) are the most frequently implemented and empirically validated mea- Language sures of the political skill construct, both versions of the Increasing number of organizations are using personality PSI were included in the current study to determine the assessment for selection purposes in international contexts reliability estimates of each as well as potential contextual (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). When measuring a construct variables that may impact the overall scale reliability of for occupational assessment (e.g., as part of a job selection each. Although implementing the shortened six-item ver- procedure), organizations will often use various adaptations sion of the PSI may be practically appealing to many orga- of the same instrument to assess people from various coun- nizations and researchers due to the reduced time and cost tries and will then make direct comparisons between these involved during administration, many researchers have people (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). This raises a need to contended that the 18-item PSI more accurately reflects compare the results of people who have completed an instru- the theoretical definition of the political construct by ment in different countries or using different language ver- explicitly including items for each of the four subdimen- sions (Bartram, 2008). The goals of translating a test are to sions. In terms of reliability, research has shown consis- preserve (a) translinguistic and (b) transcultural meaning of tently that there is a tendency for the internal consistency test items—so that candidates read and respond to equivalent of a measure to increase when the number of items measures (Daouk, Rust, & McDowall, 2005). However, this increases as alpha is a function of the average interterm is not always possible as some items may sound stronger or correlation and the number of items in a measure (Hellman, weaker in a target language, and as a result, wording some- Fuqua, & Worley, 2006). times must be changed to reflect the same strength of the item in both language versions of a test (Bartram, 2008; Research Question 1: Will the average internal consis- Daouk et al., 2005). Thus, the measurement error of the test tency reliability estimate of the full 18-item PSI be sig- may differ across language versions of a measure due to dif- nificantly higher than that of the shortened six-item ferences in translation of items. version of the PSI? Research Question 3: Will the average internal consis- Number of Response Options tency reliability of the PSI administered in English differ from translated non-English versions of the PSI? Given the high prevalence of Likert-type scales in organi- zational research, determining the optimal number of response options for participants to maximize internal con- Geographic Location sistency is an important consideration during the construc- tion of such scales (Mattel & Jacoby, 1971, 1972). Early In addition to language, cultural differences between the work on response format by Bendig (1954) provided evi- various geographic locations a test is administered in may dence that the internal consistency reliability of a test may lead to systematic differences in measurement error not be affected much by the number of alternatives pro- between samples from different geographic locations vided in Likert-type scales. Providing many response (Bartram, 2008; Daouk et al., 2005; Mushquash & Bova, options may not increase reliability if raters consistently 2007; Oswald, 2008). Specifically, decrements in reliability utilize only a small proportion of them. In some instances, and validity may arise when a measurement instrument that research has found that reducing the number of response has been developed in a particular culture is applied to options to an extreme degree can result in lowered esti- other cultural groups for which it was not originally mates of reliability (Mattel & Jacoby, 1971, 1972). For intended (Mushquash & Bova, 2007; Oswald, 2008). Thus, example, Schmidt and Hunter (1998) found that the aver- cultural differences between geographic locations regard- age correlation of items was significantly reduced when ing the targeted latent construct of political skill and its four the response options were reduced from multiple to dichot- subdimensions may lead to systematic differences in the omous response options. However, as all of the PSI mea- measurement error of the PSI between samples from differ- sures included in the current reliability generalization ent geographic locations. study utilize response options from either 1 to 5 or 1 to 7 Likert-type scale, it seems unlikely that there would be a Research Question 4: Will average internal consistency significant difference in the average internal consistency reliability estimates of the PSI significantly differ between reliability estimates between the two. different geographic locations? Jacobson and Viswesvaran 5 Sample Population Method By knowing in which types of populations a measure gen- Following the methods suggested by Vacha-Haase (1998), erally has demonstrated low reliability, researchers and reliability generalization was completed to (a) calculate the practitioners can make more informed decisions when eval- typical reliability of scores of a test across studies, (b) exam- uating test scores. Indeed, previous RG studies have found ine the amount of variability in reliability coefficients for the varying reliability coefficients for the same measure and given test, and (c) identify the sources of variability in the subscales administered to different types of sample popula- reliability coefficients across studies. The keywords tions such as students and employees (e.g., Dimitrov, 2002; “Political Skill Inventory” were entered in a search using the Hellman et al., 2006; Vacha-Haase, 1998; Vacha-Haase “tests and measurements” search option in the PsycINFO et al., 2000, etc.). As the PSI was designed to measure database. From this initial search, we located 98 original employee political skill in the workplace setting, determin- journal articles that reportedly included the PSI as a measure ing if it has an acceptable reliability across samples consist- in their study. For this study, of the 98 articles, we included ing of all employees is an important contribution of the only those that met the following criteria: (a) the study current RG study. In addition, the current study investigates administered the PSI scale, (b) a reliability coefficient was if the PSI is more or less reliable when it is administered to reported in the study, (c) the reliability coefficient reported employees in occupational settings compared with when it was from their own local sample (reliability coefficients is administered to full- or part-time students in academic cited from previous studies were excluded), and (d) the study settings. was available in English. Of all of the studies in the original search list, only one was written in a language other than Research Question 5: Will the average internal consis- English (Marinho-Araujo, 2014), and as no translated ver- tency reliability of PSI scores of all-employee samples sion could be found, it was left out of our analyses. Two more administered in occupational settings significantly differ studies were left out of the analysis because they used a sam- from the PSI scores of full- and part-time student samples ple of school-aged children 6 to 12 years of age and a modi- administered in academic settings? fied version of the PSI (Lavi & Slone, 2011, 2012). The remaining 95 studies which met these four qualifications were included in the current reliability generalization study. Sample Gender Distribution In the 95 studies, there were reliability coefficients reported Previous research has demonstrated the demographic com- for 101 separate samples. position of a sample can affect the internal consistency of a In addition, separate reliability coefficients were often measure. For example, one investigation found that more reported separately for each of the four dimensions in addi- homogeneous groups that were administered the Coppersmith tion to the reliability coefficient for the entire PSI scale. For Self-Esteem Inventory yielded higher reliability coefficients example, Zettler and Lang (2015) reported reliability coeffi- than heterogeneous samples (Lane, White, & Henson, 2002). cients for the entire PSI, network ability, interpersonal influ- One demographic variable that may be especially important ence, social astuteness, and apparent sincerity, and found that to consider when administering an organizational measure to aside from the political skill dimensions of interpersonal a sample is gender as previous research has indicated that influence and social astuteness, all internal consistency esti- differences in measurement error between countries and lan- mates were acceptable in their sample (α > .70). For this reli- guages are smaller on average than differences in measure- ability generalization study of the PSI, whenever reliability ment error between males and females on international coefficients were reported for the entire PSI and its dimen- selection tests (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). For example, sions, all five of these reliability coefficients were recorded. Oswald (2008) found there were significant gender differ- However, each dimension and total score were separately ences in scoring and reliability between men and women par- analyzed, and as such, there is no violation of the indepen- ticipants in all but one of the 32 scales contained in the dence assumption in the computation of the means reported Occupational Personality Questionnaire Inventory (OPQ32i) in this article. Following the protocol outlined by previous reliability that describe an individual’s preferred and typical behavior at generalization studies (e.g., Vacha-Haase, 1998, Vacha- work (Oswald, 2008). As a result of potential differences in Haase et al., 2000), six features were included as predictor measurement error based on gender, it is important to deter- variables that may predict a significant amount of variability mine if there are systematic differences in internal consis- in the reliabilities reported across the studies. The predictor tency reliability estimates of PSI scores based on the gender variables included in this study were the following: (a) the composition of a sample (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). length of the PSI scale (full 18-item PSI scale coded as 0 and Research Question 6: Will the average internal consis- the Ferris et al., 1999, six-item unidimensional PSI scale tency reliability of PSI scores significantly differ based on coded as 1), (b) language in which PSI was administered the gender composition of the sample? (English coded as 1 and others as 0), (c) response format 6 SAGE Open Table 1. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the 18-Item PSI and the Four Dimensions. Dimension n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt Overall PSI 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] Networking ability 6,524 27 .85 .056 .85 .055 .922 .237 .922 .235 [.84, .86] Interpersonal influence 6,311 27 .80 .076 .81 .075 .896 .276 .901 .274 [.78, .82] Social astuteness 5,993 25 .77 .080 .77 .084 .875 .283 .880 .290 [.75, .79] Apparent sincerity 5,993 25 .72 .088 .70 .097 .849 .297 .838 .311 [.70, .74] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 2. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the 18-Item PSI and Six-Item PSI. PSI scale n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt 18-item PSI 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] Six-item PSI 2,123 11 .81 .072 .81 .074 .899 .272 .902 .272 [.78, .84] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt (seven-option response scale coded as 1 and five-option astuteness dimension, and 25 for the apparent sincerity response scale as 0), (d) the gender mix of the sample (0%- dimension. We summarize in the tables whenever there were 25% males coded as 0, 25%-50% as 1, 50%-75% as 2, and over three reliability confidents reported for each of analysis. 75%-100% as 3), (e) if the study included student or Thus, the tables in our results do not report the reliability employee samples (all-student samples coded 1 and coefficients for the four PSI dimensions unless there was a employee samples coded 0), and (f) geographic location of sufficient number of samples in each of the groups being the sample (samples in the United States coded as 0, samples compared. The source PSI reliability reports are designated in Germany coded as 1, and samples in China, Taiwan, and with asterisks in our references. Japan coded as 2). Upon further examination, there were 101 samples in the Results 95 articles that reported reliability coefficients of the total PSI or at least one of the four subdimensions. Of the 101 The weighted coefficient alpha internal consistency reliabil- samples included in the analysis, 77 samples reported overall ity estimate for the Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item PSI and each scale reliability coefficient for the full 18-item PSI scale, of the four PSI subdimensions are summarized in Table 1. which was analyzed as the overall scale reliability estimate Coefficient alpha internal consistency reliability estimates of the PSI. The remaining samples either reported reliability for the Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item and the Ferris et al. (1999) coefficients of the shortened six-item Ferris et al. PSI mea- six-item PSI are summarized in Table 2, and the coefficient sure or only reported reliability estimates for one or more of alpha internal consistency reliability estimates by response the PSI dimensions from the 18-item PSI without reporting option type are summarized in Table 3. Estimates of coeffi- the overall scale reliability and were not included in analyses cient alpha for samples administered English and non-Eng- of the overall scale reliability. Of the 77 samples that reported lish versions of the PSI are summarized in Table 4, and reliability coefficients of the full 18-item PSI, there was a estimates of coefficient alpha by geographic location are total of 15,987 participants (with sample sizes varying from summarized in Table 5. Table 6 compares estimates of coef- 25 to 558). In addition to reporting the weighted Cronbach’s ficient alphas for all-student samples with employee sam- alpha reliability coefficient of the full 18-item PSI, the ples. Finally, estimates of coefficient alpha by sample gender weighted alpha reliability coefficients of each of the four composition are summarized in Table 7. It should be noted dimensions of the PSI were also reported independently that the four dimensions of the scale are only present in using the samples that reported separate reliability coeffi- Tables 1, 3, and 4, as we did not include results of the analy- cients for the four dimensions. More specifically, of the sam- sis that were based on less than three reliability estimates. ples that reported reliability coefficient estimates for one or The sample size weighted mean and standard deviation more of the PSI dimensions, 27 samples reported a reliability was computed for each distribution analyzed. We also com- coefficient for the networking ability dimension, 27 reported puted the unweighted mean and standard deviation for each for the interpersonal influence dimension, 25 for the social distribution of reliability coefficients. As the unweighted Jacobson and Viswesvaran 7 Table 3. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the PSI by Response Scale Type. Dimension Response option n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt Overall PSI All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] 5-point response option 5,445 28 .89 .037 .89 .039 .943 .197 .943 .197 [.88, .90] 7-point response option 10,351 48 .89 .065 .88 .065 .943 .255 .938 .255 [.88, .90] Networking ability All samples 6,524 27 .85 .056 .85 .055 .922 .235 .922 .237 [.84, .86] 5-point response option 1,116 5 .84 .055 .83 .055 .917 .235 .911 .235 [.81, .87] 7-point response option 5,408 22 .85 .056 .84 .056 .922 .237 .917 .237 [.83, .87] Interpersonal All samples 6,311 27 .80 .076 .81 .075 .896 .276 .901 .274 [.78, .82] influence 5-point response option 951 5 .82 .059 .81 .068 .906 .243 .900 .261 [.79, .85] 7-point response option 5,360 22 .80 .078 .81 .078 .894 .280 .900 .280 [.78, .82] Social astuteness All samples 5,993 25 .77 .080 .77 .084 .875 .283 .880 .290 [.75, .79] 5-point response option 951 5 .72 .087 .72 .097 .849 .295 .849 .311 [.67, .77] 7-point response option 5,042 20 .77 .076 .79 .077 .875 .276 .889 .277 [.75, .79] Apparent sincerity All samples 5,993 25 .72 .088 .70 .097 .849 .297 .838 .311 [.70, .74] 5-point response option 951 5 .69 .084 .68 .093 .831 .290 .825 .305 [.64, .74] 7-point response option 5,042 20 .73 .087 .71 .099 .854 .295 .843 .315 [.71, .75] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 4. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the PSI by Language Version. Dimension Language n k Mwt SDwt Munwt SDunwt Msqwt SDsqwt Msqunwt SDsqunwt 80% CI Overall PSI All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] English 8,824 43 .90 .028 .89 .027 .949 .167 .943 .164 [.89, .91] Non-English 7,163 34 .88 .057 .88 .081 .938 .239 .938 .285 [.87, .89] Networking All samples 6,524 27 .85 .056 .85 .055 .922 .235 .922 .237 [.84, .86 ability English 3,906 17 .88 .051 .87 .055 .938 .226 .933 .235 [.86, .90] Non-English 2,618 10 .81 .040 .82 .038 .90 .200 .906 .195 [.79, .83] Interpersonal All samples 6,311 27 .80 .076 .81 .075 .896 .274 .901 .276 [.78, .82] influence English 3,633 17 .85 .047 .85 .049 .922 .217 .922 .221 [.84, .86] Non-English 2,678 10 .74 .062 .75 .073 .860 .249 .866 .270 [.71, .77] Social All samples 5,993 25 .77 .080 .77 .084 .875 .283 .880 .290 [.75, .79] astuteness English 3,315 15 .82 .046 .82 .051 .906 .214 .906 .226 [.80, .84] Non-English 2,678 10 .70 .060 .71 .079 .837 .245 .843 .281 [.68, .72] Apparent All samples 5,993 25 .72 .088 .70 .097 .849 .297 .838 .311 [.70, .74] sincerity English 3,315 15 .75 .101 .72 .116 .866 .318 .849 .341 [.72, .78] Non-English 2,678 10 .68 .048 .67 .049 .825 .219 .819 .221 [.66, .70] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt mean and standard deviation do not weigh the reliability esti- included in our analysis, we reported (a) sample size mates by sample size of each study included in the analysis weighted mean reliability estimates, (b) sample size weighted and each reliability coefficient is weighted the same, the standard deviation estimates, (c) unweighted mean reliability sample size weighted mean gives the best estimate of the estimates, (d) unweighted standard deviation estimates, (e) mean reliability while the unweighted mean helps ensure sample size weighted square root of the reliability mean, (f) that the results of the analysis are not skewed by a few large sample size weighted standard deviation of the square root of samples (Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996). In addition, reliabilities, (g) unweighted square root of the reliability the mean and standard deviation of the square root of the reli- mean, (h) unweighted standard deviation of the square root abilities were also calculated as the mean of the square root of the reliabilities, and (i) the sample size weighted (80%) of the reliabilities differ slightly from the square root of the confidence interval for the sample size weighted mean reli- mean of the reliabilities. Thus, for each of the distributions ability estimate. Confidence intervals were calculated by 8 SAGE Open Table 5. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the Overall PSI by Geographic Location. Geographic location n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] United States 8,460 42 .90 .026 .90 .026 .949 .161 .949 .161 [.89, .91] Germany 4,305 22 .87 .033 .88 .039 .933 .182 .938 .197 [.86, .88] China, Thailand, and Japan 2,108 8 .89 .049 .89 .061 .943 .221 .943 .245 [.87, .91] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 6. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of Overall PSI by Sample Population. Sample type n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] Non-student samples 13,411 67 .89 .048 .89 .061 .943 .219 .941 .247 [.88, .90] All student samples 2,576 10 .89 .018 .89 .018 .943 .135 .943 .135 [.88, .90] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 7. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the PSI by Sample Gender Composition. Gender composition n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] 0%-25% male 1,243 6 .88 .022 .88 .024 .917 .148 .926 .155 [.87, .89] 25%-50% male 6,676 30 .89 .053 .88 .076 .940 .230 .935 .276 [.88, .90] 50%-75% male 5,166 23 .89 .033 .89 .040 .941 .182 .942 .200 [.88, .90] 75%-100% male 992 5 .87 .037 .88 .039 .910 .192 .917 .197 [.85, .89] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt multiplying the ratio of the weighted sample standard devia- the specific PSI dimensions is significantly lower than the tion (SD ) to the square root of the number of samples (k) by average reliability estimate of the full 18-item PSI, t(98) = wt 1.28 and adding and subtracting the resulting product from 10.31, p < .001. the sample weighted mean (M ) to create the upper and The results from Table 2 indicate that the weighted reliabil- wt lower bound reliability estimates. ity coefficient alpha for the shortened six-item PSI scale was The results from Table 1 indicate that the sample weighted .81 (k = 11, N = 2,123) and was comparable with the 18-item coefficient alpha for the 18-item PSI scale across the samples PSI, which had a weighted reliability alpha of .89 (k = 77, N = included in the meta-analysis that reported an alpha coeffi- 15,987). However, an independent t test with the overall sam- cient for the entire 18-item scale was .89 (k = 77, N = 15,987). ple weighted reliability coefficient as the dependent variable Each of the four PSI subdimensions had sample weighted and scale version as the independent variable revealed that the coefficient alpha estimates greater than .70, with an average 18-item PSI had a significantly higher overall reliability coef- coefficient alpha of .78 across dimensions (k = 26, N = ficient than the six-item PSI, t = 3.80, p < .001. In addition, 6,205). Specifically, the networking ability dimension of the results indicated that the lower bound 80% confidence interval PSI had the highest sample weighted reliability estimate (α = for the 18-item PSI (α = .88) was greater than the upper bound .85, k = 27, N = 6,524) of the four PSI subdimensions while 80% confidence interval for the six-item PSI (α = .84), indicat- the apparent sincerity dimension had the lowest (α = .72, k = ing that the 18-item PSI likely has a higher average reliability 25, N = 5,993). Although the sample weighted coefficient estimate across samples than the six-item PSI. alpha across the four dimensions is respectable, results indi- Results from Table 3 indicate that the sample weighted cated that the average sample weighted reliability estimate of reliability coefficient alpha for samples that administered the Jacobson and Viswesvaran 9 full 18-item PSI using a five-option response option was .89 weighted coefficient alpha of .89 (k = 8, N = 2,108). Thus, (k = 28, N = 5,445) and did not differ from that for a seven- results indicated that the weighted alpha coefficient esti- option response option which was also .89 (k = 48, N = mates of the full 18-item PSI were quite acceptable in each of 10,351). Thus, utilizing a five-option response scale instead the three geographic locations. of a seven-option response scale did not impact the estimated Results from Table 6 indicate that the sample weighted reliability of the 18-item PSI measure. Results from Table 3 coefficient alpha estimate of the full 18-item PSI for all-stu- also indicate the weighted reliability coefficients for each of dent samples that were administered the PSI in academic set- the four PSI dimensions across samples that used a five- tings was .89 (k = 10, N = 2,576), same as that in nonacademic option response scale as well as samples that utilized a settings .89 (k = 67, N = 13,411). Thus, the results indicated seven-option response scale. The weighted reliability coef- that the sample-weighted average reliability estimate of the ficient across the four PSI subdimensions for samples that 18-item PSI did not differ between all-student samples that utilized a five-option response scale was .77 while the were administered the PSI in academic settings and employee weighted reliability coefficient across the four dimensions samples that were administered the PSI in nonacademic among samples that utilized a seven-option response scale settings. was .79, indicating that like the full 18-item PSI scale, the Finally, Table 7 summarizes the overall reliability of the weighted reliability estimate of the four PSI dimensions did 18-item PSI by the sample gender composition. Results from not substantially differ between samples that utilized a five- a one-way ANOVA with sample gender composition as the option response scale and samples that utilized a seven- independent variable and the weighted reliability coefficient option response scale. of the overall 18-item PSI scale as the dependent variable The results from Table 4 indicate that the sample weighted indicated that the gender composition of the sample did not reliability coefficient alpha for the full 18-item PSI adminis- significantly affect the weighted reliability estimate of the tered in English was .90 (k = 43, N = 8,824) and was not 18-item PSI scale, F = .203, p = .894. The similar weighted significantly different than the weighted reliability coeffi- reliability coefficients between samples with different gen- cient alpha for the translated non-English versions of the full der compositions seem to indicate that the gender composi- 18-item PSI which was .88 (k = 34, N = 7,163), t = 1.22, p = tion of the sample does not significantly affect the overall .227. In addition, Table 5 also indicates the sample weighted estimated reliability of the 18-item PSI scale. reliability coefficient estimates for the four PSI scale dimen- A six-factor ANOVA was subsequently conducted with sions for English and non-English samples. The averaged PSI scale length, language administered, geographic loca- reliability estimates across the four individual scales of the tion, response format, sample population type, and sample PSI administered in English was noticeably greater (α = .83) gender proportion as predictor variables and the sample than the averaged reliability estimates across the scales weighted Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the overall PSI administered in non-English languages (α = .73). English- scale as the dependent variable to test for the combined administered versions of the 18-item PSI had a significantly effects for the six predictors on the total PSI’s reliability. higher coefficient alpha of the social astuteness dimension Results indicated that the six predictor variables significantly than non-English versions of the scale, t = 4.34, p < .001. impacted the weighted reliability of the overall PSI scale, F English versions of the 18-item PSI also had significantly = 2.68, p = .010. More specifically, the length of the PSI higher coefficient alphas for the networking ability dimen- measure (six-item vs. the 18-item version) was significantly sion of the scale than non-English versions of the PSI, t = associated with the sample weighted Cronbach’s alpha coef- 2.71, p = .012. Similarly, English versions of the 18-item PSI ficient after controlling for the language of administration, also had significantly higher coefficient alphas for the inter- response scale type, sample population type, sample gender personal influence dimension than non-English versions of demographics, and geographic location, F = 13.27, p < .001. the PSI, t = 4.21, p < .001. However, the language of the PSI, the response scale type, The results from Table 5 summarize the reliability coeffi- sample population type, the gender composition of the sam- cient estimates of the full 18-item PSI by geographic loca- ple, and the geographic location that the PSI was adminis- tion. Results from a one-way ANOVA that was conducted tered in were each not significantly related to the overall using the geographic location as the independent variable reliability of the PSI scale. and the weighted alpha reliability coefficient as the depen- Subsequently, four 5-factor ANOVA were conducted dent variable indicated that the geographic location did not using the language of administration, geographic location, significantly impact the overall reliability of the PSI, F = .83, response format, sample population type, and sample gender p = .438. More specifically, samples that were administered proportion as predictor variables and the sample weighted the PSI in the United States had a sample weighted coeffi- reliability estimate of each of the four PSI subdimensions as cient alpha of .90 (k = 42, N = 8,460), samples that were the dependent variable to test for the combined effects of the administered the PSI in Germany had a weighted coefficient five predictors on each of the four PSI subdimensions. Scale alpha of .87 (k = 22, N = 4,305), and samples that were length was not included as a predictor in each in the analysis administered the PSI in China, Taiwan, and Japan had a of the four PSI dimensions because only 18-item versions of 10 SAGE Open the PSI reported independent reliability coefficients for each sincerity subdimension. See Table 4 to compare the sample- of the dimensions. For the networking ability dimension of weighted reliability estimates for each of the PSI dimensions the PSI, results indicated that the language of administration, administered to English samples and non-English samples. geographic location, response option format, sample popula- tion type, and the sample gender composition accounted for Discussion a marginally significant amount of variance in the reliability coefficients, F = 13.37, p = .054. The language the PSI was The primary objective of the present research was to utilize administered in accounted for a significant amount of the RG techniques to investigate the magnitude and variabili- variance in the estimated reliability coefficients in network- ties of reliability estimates that were reported across exist- ing ability, F = 13.36, p = .004. Specifically, those who ing studies using of the PSI developed by Ferris et al. received an English version of the PSI (M = .87, SD = .055) (2005). Across the samples that used and reported reliabil- had significantly higher reliability ratings compared with ity estimates for the full Ferris et al. (2005) PSI measure, those who received a non-English version of the PSI (M = the sample-weighted alpha coefficient of the 18-item PSI .82, SD = .038), t(25) = 2.71, p = .012. However, the other was .89 (SD = .044). Given that previous research has found four predictors were not significantly related to the reliability that most psychometric tests have average alpha coeffi- of the networking ability dimension of the PSI. cients that fall within the range of .75 to .83 (Nunnally, For the interpersonal influence dimension of the PSI, 1978) and many professionals apply the general principle results indicated that the five predictors accounted for a sig- that requires a reliability of .70 before they utilize a mea- nificant amount of variance in the reliability coefficients, F = sure, the average alpha of the full 18-item PSI obtained in 3.91, p = .029. The language the PSI was administered in was the current RG study provides substantial evidence that significantly associated with reliability estimates, F = 21.15, supports the measurement integrity of the scale. In addi- p = .001. Similar to the networking ability subdimension, tion, each of the four subdimensions of the PSI demon- samples that were administered English versions of the PSI strated moderate to high sample weighted alpha reliability (M = .85, SD = .049) had a significantly higher estimated coefficients (α > .70). Thus, the reported reliability coeffi- reliability coefficient for the interpersonal influence subdi- cients of the full Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item measure and mension compared with samples that were administered each of the four PSI subscale dimensions seems to justify non-English versions of the PSI (M = .75, SD = .079), t(25) its implementation in organizational and research settings, = 4.21 p < .001. However, the response scale type, sample although what is considered to be an acceptable mean reli- population type, gender composition of the sample, and geo- ability coefficient can be a somewhat subjective inference graphic location were each not significantly related to the that is often ultimately determined by the context of a study reliability of the interpersonal influence dimension of the (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). PSI. For the social astuteness dimension of the PSI, the five Contributions to Theory and Implications for predictors accounted for a significant amount of variance in Practice Regarding the Reliability of the PSI the reliability coefficients, F = 4.48, p = .026. The language the PSI was administered in accounted for a significant Although the estimated reliability of the 18-item PSI and its amount of variance in the reliability estimates, F = 22.14, p dimensions seemed to be acceptable on average, results of = .002. Similar to the networking ability and interpersonal the current study also indicated that the estimated reliability influence dimensions of the PSI, samples that were adminis- of the full 18-item PSI measure (Ferris et al., 2005) was sig- tered English versions of the PSI (M = .77, SD = .051) had a nificantly greater than the average weighted reliability esti- significantly higher estimated reliability coefficient for the mate for the six-item unidimensional PSI scale (Ferris et al., social astuteness subdimension compared with samples that 1999) as well as each of the four specific PSI subdimensions. were administered non-English versions of the PSI (M = .61, Among the samples that were administered the shortened SD = .079), t(23) = 4.34, p < .001. six-item version of the PSI (Ferris et al., 1999), the average Finally, for the apparent sincerity dimension of the PSI, weighted estimated alpha reliability coefficient was .81 (SD the five predictors did not account for a significant amount of = .072) which was significantly lower than that of the 18-item variation in the reliability estimates, F = .79, p = .617. Thus, PSI (M = .89, SD = .044). In addition, and due to the six- wt unlike the other three dimensions, the language the PSI was item unidimensional Ferris et al. (1999) PSI’s lack of content administered in did not account for a significant amount of validity evidence and failure to include item statements rep- variance in the estimated reliability coefficients for the resenting manifestations of the networking ability and appar- apparent sincerity subdimension of the PSI, F = .31, p = .595. ent sincerity dimensions of the political skill construct, future Our results seemed to indicate that the language the PSI is researchers and practitioners should generally seek to admin- administered in may significantly affect the estimated reli- ister the Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item version of the PSI in ability of the networking ability, social astuteness, and inter- research samples, especially when gathering data to help personal influence dimensions of the PSI but not the apparent guide organizational decisions. Jacobson and Viswesvaran 11 Results of the current study also indicated that the esti- Given the influence of score reliabilities on effect size mated reliability of the full 18-item PSI measure (Ferris (Hellman et al., 2006; Wilkinson & Task Force on Statistical et al., 2005) was greater than the average weighted reli- Inference, 1999), the use of shorter PSI versions seems to ability estimate for each of the four PSI subdimensions clearly be a decision that should be made after careful con- (apparent sincerity, networking ability, interpersonal influ- sideration. Although shortened unidimensional scales of the ence, and social astuteness). The length of the instrument PSI may seem to have acceptable psychometric properties, used for measurement could be a possible explanation for such scales were developed for the purposes of preliminary the difference in reliability between the full PSI and spe- construct exploration of political skill, have suboptimal cific PSI dimensions as the majority of the studies included internal consistency, and often do not adequately measure in the analysis included a summing the four dimensions of each of the four political skill dimensions as well as the into a single composite score. The relationship between Ferris et al. (2005) full 18-item PSI measure (Ferris, Rogers, reliability estimates and the number of items can be Blass, & Hochwarter, 2009). Thus, the Ferris et al. (2005) described as convex, with the reliability increasing rapidly 18-item PSI should be preferred over the shortened Ferris as the number of items increases up to a certain point, but et al. (1999) six-item unidimensional PSI scale. increases being relatively small after a certain amount of items. The measures included in the current analysis were Reliability of the Four PSI Dimensions long enough that the presence of additional items and the Spearman–Brown formula did not seem to make an appre- As far as the four dimensions of the PSI (networking abil- ciable difference in the overall reliability estimated for the ity, interpersonal influence, social astuteness, and apparent four PSI subdimensions. An additional potential explana- sincerity), results indicated that the language the measure tion for higher alpha coefficients for ratings of the overall is administered in may have an effect on the reliability PSI is related to the broad construct of political skill com- coefficients of the networking ability, interpersonal influ- pared with the four PSI subdimensions that more narrowly ence, and social astuteness dimensions of the PSI. defined facets of political skill. Indeed, previous research Specifically, our results indicated that the sample-weighted has found evidence that broader constructs are generally reliability coefficients of the networking ability, interper- more reliably rated than more narrowly defined traits, sup- sonal influence, and social astuteness subdimensions of porting the possibility the overarching construct of politi- the PSI were significantly higher in samples that were cal skill may be more easily identified across various types administered English versions of the PSI compared with of behavioral manifestations than the four more narrowly samples that were administered the PSI in a non-English defined dimensions of political skill (Ones & Viswesvaran, language. It may be due to lack of standardization in the 1996; Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). As a result, it seems precise wording in the way the PSI is translated from possible that the findings of the current study reflect simi- English to other languages that affected the estimates. lar findings of previous research that the underlying gen- Previous research has found that translating certain items eral political skill construct may more reliability predict a into different languages can pose a unique challenge to wide range of organizational outcomes than any one of the standardization as the verbatim translation of some words four PSI subdimensions assessed independently. However, may have drastically different meanings in two languages future research is needed to examine how overall scores of and may result in the re-wording of some items in the the full Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item PSI measure and scores translated version of the measure which may potentially of specific PSI subdimensions assessed independently are affect item interpretation across languages (Bartram, 2008; each related to various types of general and specific orga- Oswald, 2008). However, the average Cronbach’s alpha nizational outcomes. reliability estimate of the translated social astuteness sub- Potential fluctuation of reliability coefficients was evi- scale seemed to be adequate and the average overall reli- dent in the full 18-item PSI measure along three of the four ability of translated non-English versions of the full PSI dimensions. For the full Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item PSI mea- scale is not significantly different compared with the over- sure, results indicated that sample type (e.g., all-student sam- all reliability of English versions of the PSI. However, ples or employees), response style type (e.g., five-option or future practitioners including only select dimensions of the seven-option self-reported Likert-type scale), the gender PSI without the full 18-item Ferris et al. (2005) PSI, espe- makeup of the sample, the geographic location of the sample, cially when using translated non-English versions of the and whether or not the PSI was administered in English or subscales, should be concerned about the reliability of another language did not significantly affect the overall reli- their assessments. The present study also found that the ability of the PSI scale. However, as previously mentioned, full 18-item PSI scale (Ferris et al., 2005) seems to have results did indicate that samples that used the full 18-item generally high internal consistency across student and PSI scale had significantly higher overall reliability coeffi- employee samples, English and non-English samples, pre- cients than samples that used the shortened six-item version dominantly male and predominantly female samples, and of the PSI scale. when using both five- and seven-option response scales. 12 SAGE Open depending on racial and ethnic group membership (Blass, Limitations and Directions for Future Research Brouer, Perrewé, & Ferris, 2007). However, the results of the Although the average reliability estimates of the PSI mea- current study indicated that there were no significant overall sure and each dimension of the PSI were calculated and cer- differences in the weighted reliability of the full 18-item PSI tain moderating variables that could explain the variability scale based on language or geographic location, providing were studied, there were certain limitations regarding the evidence that the measurement error of the PSI may likely not lack of reliability and sample information that may have hin- significantly differ based on ethnic group membership. dered the scope of this reliability generalization study. As Although none of the potential sources of measurement previously mentioned, most of the samples included in this error relating to sample differences individually significantly study did not provide estimates of reliability for each of the impacted the overall reliability of the PSI measure, the results PSI dimensions (social astuteness, networking ability, inter- of the current reliability generalization study of the PSI did personal influence, and apparent sincerity) in addition to the seem to generally indicate that more homogeneous or demo- overall PSI scale. The majority of the 101 samples included graphically similar samples consisting of participants that in the analysis only indicated the Cronbach’s alpha of the full were taken from relatively homogeneous populations gener- PSI measure without reporting the reliability coefficients for ally tended to have a slightly lower degree of variability the four PSI subdimensions, which limited the number of regarding the PSI’s interitem reliability compared with more samples that were included in the analysis of the reliability of heterogeneous samples that consist of individual participants the four PSI dimensions. For example, there were only 27 taken from a more demographically diverse population. As a samples in the articles we included that reported a reliability result, a general implication for future practitioners and for networking ability, 27 that reported a reliability coeffi- researchers implementing the PSI is to employ data collec- cient for interpersonal influence, 25 that reported a reliability tion strategies that maximize the homogeneity of the sample coefficient for social astuteness, and 25 samples that reported population whenever possible such as sampling employee a reliability coefficient for apparent sincerity. participants working at the same organization or with the In addition, although 101 samples were included in the same occupation type to mitigate any potential differences in final analysis of this reliability generalization of the PSI measurement error in the sample that would generally be scale, many of the samples were missing information relat- more likely to occur from utilizing data collection strategies ing to gender and race that limited the use of gender and that yield more heterogeneous samples. Future studies exam- race as potential predictor variables in the analysis. ining potential differences in the overall reliability estimates Although gender was included as a predictor variable in of the PSI measure between samples based on occupation the analysis by coding the percentage of males in the sam- type, organizational homogeneity, and other potential sources ple quartiles, previous reliability generalization studies of systematic differences in measurement error between have measured gender by coding all male or all female samples are needed to clarify this relationship. samples as 0 and all “mixed” samples with male and female Various moderators effecting the political skill job perfor- participants as 1 (e.g., Vacha-Haase, 1998; Vacha-Haase mance relationship have been identified by researchers, indi- et al., 2000). As none of the 101 samples in the current reli- cating that high levels of political skill are only associated ability generalization indicated they had exclusively all with highest degree of performance without the presence of male or all female samples, samples were broken into four certain conditions (Zettler & Lang, 2015). For example, high groups by their percentage of males (0%-25% male, 25%- levels of political skill are not associated with the highest 50% male, 50%-75% male, and 75%-100% male) which levels of performance when individual conscientiousness is did not allow for absolute distinctions to be made follow- high, there are high levels of procedural and distributive jus- ing the protocol of previous reliability generalization tice in an organization, or organizational politics are high research regarding gender which have compared all male, (Andrews, Kacmar, & Harris, 2009; Blickle, Weber, & all female, and mixed male and female samples (Vacha- Oerder, 2008). In addition, previous moderation analyses Haase, 1998; Vacha-Haase et al., 2000). have found that the highest levels of political skill do not In addition to the absence of all male and all female sam- always yield the highest level of performance, thus the meta- ples, racial and demographic information in the samples were theoretical principle of the TMGT effect “too much of a good not included in this reliability generalization of the PSI scale thing is bad” may apply to the political skill construct as potential moderator variables as racial and ethnic demo- (Andrews et al., 2009). Just as the TMGT effect applies to graphic information was provided in only 30 (28.85%) of the other nonmonotonic relations, it also explains why high 101 possible samples that were included in our analysis. political skill is associated with lower levels of performance Future research on the PSI scale should seek to examine how than medium levels of political skill (Pierce & Aguinis 2013; the effects of gender and race influence the overall reliability Zettler & Lang, 2015). For example, extremely high levels of of the PSI scale, especially as previous studies have found political skill may be associated with increased time net- that subdimensions of political skill (e.g., networking ability) working rather than working, and expending effort for self- may have different inferences and interpreted differently promoting purposes to achieve individual goals at the Jacobson and Viswesvaran 13 expense of the goals of the organization (Zettler & Lang, Bartram, D. (2008). Global norms: Towards some guidelines for aggregating personality norms across countries. International 2015). Given the PSI has a curvilinear relationship with job Journal of Testing, 8, 315-333. performance, it also seems possible that the reliability of the Bendig, A. W. (1954). Reliability and the number of rating scale PSI may also fluctuate between those with different scores categories. Journal of Applied Psychology, 38, 38-40. on the measure, indicating heteroskedasticity. Thus, it may Bing, M. N., Davison, H. K., Minor, I., Novicevic, M., & Frink, D. be that the reliability of the PSI may be more or less reliable D. (2011). The prediction of task and contextual performance for those that report having high political skill compared by political skill: A meta-analysis and moderator test. Journal with those that report having little political skill. Thus, future of Vocational Behavior, 79, 563-577. research could also seek to clarify if the reliability of the PSI *Blass, F. R., Brouer, R. L., Perrewé, P. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2007). is heteroskedastic and fluctuates across different scores on Politics understanding and networking ability as a function of the measure. mentoring: The roles of gender and race. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14, 93-105. *Blickle, G., Diekmann, C., Schneider, P. B., Kalthöfer, Y., & Conclusion Summers, J. K. (2012). When modesty wins: Impression man- agement through modesty, political skill, and career success— In conclusion, the results of the present reliability generaliza- A two-study investigation. European Journal of Work and tion study provide novel insights to the organizational poli- Organizational Psychology, 21, 899-922. doi:10.1080/13594 ticking literature by indicating that the (Ferris et al., 2005) 32X.2011.603900 full 18-item PSI scale has an acceptable weighted Cronbach’s *Blickle, G., Ferris, G. R., Munyon, T. P., Momm, T., Zettler, I., alpha reliability coefficient across all of the samples that Schneider, P. B., & Buckley, M. R. (2011). A multi-source, were identified in existing literature, a finding that adds to multi-study investigation of job performance prediction by the body of research examining the measurement integrity of political skill. Applied Psychology: An International Review, the PSI. The examination of the reliability of the PSI and its 60, 449-474. *Blickle, G., John, J., Ferris, G. R., Momm, T., Liu, Y., Haag, R., & dimensions are vital to the construction of generalizable the- Oerder, K. (2012). Fit of political skill to the work context: A ories of political skill in future research. In practice and in two-study investigation. Applied Psychology: An International research, the accurate implementation and administrative use Review, 61, 295-322. of political skill assessments depend on the reliability of *Blickle, G., Kane-Frieder, R., Oerder, K., Wihler, A., von Below, political skill measures. Thus, the results of the current meta- A., Schütte, N., & Ferris, G. R. (2013). Leader behaviors as analysis offer valuable and novel insights of the psychomet- mediators of the leader characteristics-follower satisfaction ric characteristics of the PSI that can be utilized by future relationship. Group & Organization Management, 38, 601- researchers and practitioners. 629. doi:10.1177/1059601113503183 *Blickle, G., Kramer, J., Schneider, P. B., Meurs, J. A., Ferris, G. R., Mierke, J., . . . Momm, T. D. (2011). 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L., & *Zhao, H., Peng, Z., & Sheard, G. (2013). Workplace ostracism and Thatcher, J. B. (2007). The moderating role of subordinate hospitality employees’ counterproductive work behaviors: The political skill on supervisors’ impressions of subordinate ingra- joint moderating effects of proactive personality and political tiation and ratings of subordinate interpersonal facilitation. skill. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 33, Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 848-855. 219-227. Vacha-Haase, T. (1998). Reliability generalization: Exploring *Zhou, Z. E., Yang, L. Q., & Spector, P. E. (2015). Political skill: variance in measurement error affecting score reliability A proactive inhibitor of workplace aggression exposure and an across studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, active buffer of the aggression-strain relationship. Journal of 58, 6-20. Occupational Health Psychology, 20, 405-419. Vacha-Haase, T., Henson, R. K., & Caruso, J. C. (2002). Reliability *Zinko, R. (2013). A continued examination of the inverse rela- generalization: Moving toward improved understanding tionship between political skill and strain reactions: Exploring and use of score reliability. Educational and Psychological reputation as a mediating factor. Journal of Applied Social Measurement, 62, 562-569. Psychology, 43, 1750-1759. Jacobson and Viswesvaran 17 Author Biographies Chockalingam Viswesvaran, is the director of the Industrial/ Organizational psychology program and a tenured professor in the Ryan K. Jacobson, is currently an Industrial-Organizational psy- psychology department at Florida International University. chology PhD candidate conducting dissertation research at Florida Viswesvaran is a well-known and frequently cited researcher in the International University, having attained his MS in Industrial/ field of Industrial/Organizational psychology and serves on the edito- Organizational psychology in 2016. His primary research interests rial boards of Journal of Applied Psychology, Educational and focus on how organizational policies influence reporting behavior Psychological Measurement, Journal of Organizational Behavior, of sexual harassment in the workplace, using an intersectional per- Journal of Personnel Psychology, Journal of Business and Psychology spective to examine perceptions of candidate competence and hire- and is the Editor of the International Journal of Selection and ability as a function of the race and gender of the candidate, exam- Assessment. Dr. Viswesvaran is also a fellow of the Society for ining the utility of political skill measures as predictors of job Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) as well as a Fellow performance, and examining how specific organizational outcomes of Division 5 (measurement) and Division 14 (Industrial- organiza- are related to employee bystander perceptions of counterproductive tional psychology) of the American Psychological Association. behavior in the workplace. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png SAGE Open SAGE http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/sage/a-reliability-generalization-study-of-the-political-skill-inventory-siHvdl3ijd

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Abstract

Measures of political skill have been shown to be significant predictors of job performance across a variety of occupations and have consistently been related to positive work-related behaviors and outcomes. A reliability generalization study was conducted on the Political Skill Inventory (PSI), currently the most frequently utilized measuring instrument for assessing the construct of political skill, to determine the weighted mean internal consistency reliability estimate of the PSI and its four dimensions across samples while also examining the effect of six potential sources of measurement error that may impact the internal consistency reliability of the PSI and its four dimensions. Across the samples that reported a reliability estimate for the Ferris et al. 18-item PSI measure, the weighted mean reliability coefficient alpha of the PSI was .89 (k = 77, N = 15,987) and that for the six-item measure of the PSI was .81 (k = 11, N = 2,123). Potential sources of measurement error variance that could impact the typical score reliability of the PSI and three of the four PSI subscale dimensions were identified and are discussed. Keywords Political Skill Inventory, reliability generalization, political skill predictor An increasing amount of research regarding the correlates specifically, the political skill construct has received an and consequences of organizational politics has been con- increasing amount of attention from organizations in recent ducted in recent years as internal politics have proven to be years because of the generally strong relationship measures quite pervasive in the private as well as the public sector jobs political skills have with job performance across a variety of (Zettler & Lang, 2015). In recent years, research on organi- industries (e.g., Blickle, Ferris, et al., 2011; Ferris et al., zational politicking has focused on the construct of political 2007; Zettler & Lang, 2015; etc.). The main explanation for skill and how it can predict job performance in organizations the general success of political skill in predicting job perfor- (Ferris, Treadway, Brouer, & Munyon, 2012). Political skill mance is largely based on the reasoning that individual can be briefly defined as a comprehensive pattern of “social employees with high levels of political skill are able to competencies, with cognitive, affective, and behavioral man- quickly identify and understand the subtle and hidden inten- ifestations” (Ferris et al., 2007, p. 291). Examples of political tions and needs of their organization, co-workers, supervi- skill manifestations include networking with others, influ- sors, and customers and also possess the competence to encing others, and perceiving close attention to other’s non- strategically modify their own behavior to influence their verbal behaviors (Ferris et al., 2005). Thus, political skill can workplace environment to their advantage (Zettler & Lang, help perform essential job functions related to organizational 2015). Previous research has also suggested that those with goals and researchers have become increasingly interested in political skill improve their own performance by getting col- measuring and validating the political skill construct (Ferris leagues to assist them, assertively controlling negotiations et al., 2012). The Political Skill Inventory (PSI) is the most and sales, and enhancing social networks that help them per- frequently used measure for assessing political skill as it is form better (i.e., back-up staff and technical equipment; currently defined as a construct (Ferris et al., 2012; Zettler & Zettler & Lang, 2015). In support of these findings, many Lang, 2015). As the PSI is the most frequently used measure studies (e.g., Blickle, Ferris et al., 2011; Ferris et al., 2007) of political skill as a construct, a reliability generalization of including a meta-analysis (Being, Davison, Minor, the scale was conducted to examine the variability of reli- ability coefficients in studies that used the PSI. Florida International University, Miami, USA For the past decade, the political skill construct has Corresponding Author: received promising empirical support, generating increased Ryan K. Jacobson, Department of Psychology, Florida International attention by both researchers and practitioners, thus advanc- University, 11200 SW 8th Street, DM 258, Miami, FL 33199, USA. ing the understanding of organizational behavior. More Email: rjaco033@fiu.edu Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open Novicevic, & Frink, 2011) have all found a significant posi- construct exploration (Ferris et al., 2005). As a result, the tive correlation between political skill and job performance six-item scale attempted to measure the political skill con- across a number of different job types (Bing, Davison, Minor, struct by examining two primary dimensions that were theo- Novicevic, & Frink, 2011). The primary objective of the retically related to the construct: social astuteness and present research is to investigate the typical magnitude and interpersonal influence (Ahearn et al., 2004; Ferris et al., variabilities of reliability coefficient estimates reported 1999; Ferris et al., 2005). However, the original six-item PSI across existing studies that administered the PSI—one of the measure (Ferris et al., 1999) addressed the social astuteness most widely used measures of the political skill construct. and interpersonal influence dimensions of the political skill Political skill has been broadly defined as “the ability to construct without separating the two dimensions into inde- effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowl- pendent factors. The original six-item PSI did not include edge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s items for the purposes of assessing the networking ability personal or organizational objectives” (Ahearn, Ferris, and apparent sincerity dimensions of the political skill con- Hochwarter, Douglas, & Ammeter, 2004, p. 311). As a result, struct reflected in the organizational politics literature political skill involves the combination of social astuteness (Ahearn et al., 2004; Ferris et al., 2005). with the ability to adjust behavior to different situations to Although the original unidimensional six-item version of achieve personal or organizational goals using a manner that the PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) provided initial construct evi- is perceived as sincere, inspires trust and motivation, and dence supporting the existence of the underlined latent polit- influences the responses of others (Ferris et al., 2005). More ical skill construct, the call for a more comprehensive, specifically, effective communication, friendships, network content-valid measure that adequately assessed each of the building, alliances, and coalition building are critical for four primary dimensions of political skill theorized by orga- individuals to navigate the politics of organizations to effec- nizational politicking literature led to the development of the tively achieve desired outcomes and represent an important full 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005). To maximize the con- aspect of political skill in the organizational politics litera- tent validity of the 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005), a pool of ture (Ahearn et al., 2004; Ferris et al., 1999; Pfeffer, 1992). 40 items was generated with each item intended to generally The other major aspect of political skill represented in the asses the political skill construct and to reflect the specific organizational politics literature is genuineness and the dimensions associated with political skill (Ferris et al., 1999). appearance of trustworthiness (Ferris et al., 2005). More spe- The items included in the 18-item PSI scale (Ferris et al., cifically, the ability to maintain the appearance of sincerity 2005) were selected from the 40-item pool based on the allows politically skilled individuals to achieve a high level results from item analyses in which only the items (a) with of interpersonal influence with individuals at work because the highest item-to-total correlations, (b) not significantly they are able to inspire trust that motivates others to assist correlated with the Social Desirability Scale total score, and them with achieving and providing resources for their orga- (c) that did not cross-load highly onto more than one factor nizational or personal goals (Ahearn et al., 2004). Thus, the were retained. A factor analysis of the 18 items of the PSI four primary dimensions of the political skill construct captured the four-factor solution, with each of the four fac- reflected in the organizational politics literature are social tors representing a theoretical dimension of the political skill astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and construct: networking ability (six items), interpersonal influ- apparent sincerity. The social astuteness dimension refers to ence (four items), social astuteness (five items), and apparent the ability to accurately perceive as well as comprehend sincerity (three items). Of the six items included in the Ferris social situations and interpersonal interactions while the et al. (1999) PSI, only three were retained as part of the apparent sincerity dimension refers to the individual ability 18-item version of the measure: “I am able to make most to be perceived by others as being honest, authentic, sincere, people feel comfortable and at ease around me” (interper- genuine, and possessing no ulterior motives (Ferris et al., sonal influence), “it is easy for me to develop good rapport 2005; Pfeffer, 1992). The interpersonal influence dimension with most people” (interpersonal influence), and “I under- involves the ability to appropriately adapt and adjust behav- stand people very well” (social astuteness; Ferris et al., ior to each situation to achieve a desired response or out- 2005). come, and the networking ability dimension refers to the Convergent and discriminant validity evidence for the capability or capacity to easily develop friendships and cre- two measures can be found in the literature. For example, ate strong beneficial alliances and coalitions to create and Ferris et al. (2005) found evidence that total score of both the take advantage of opportunities (Ferris et al., 2005; Pfeffer, six-item and 18-item PSI measures were strongly correlated 1992). with self-monitoring, consciousness, trait anxiety, and social The first measure that was developed to assess the politi- desirability which have each been previously hypothesized cal skill construct was the unidimensional, six-item PSI scale to be related to the political skill construct. However, Ferris (Ferris et al., 1999). Although the unidimensional six-item et al. (2005) also found that the 18-item PSI was more related PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) had acceptable psychometric proper- to the influence tactics of upward appeal and coalition in ties, it was created for the primary purposes of preliminary addition to being less related to the influence tactic of Jacobson and Viswesvaran 3 assertiveness than the six-item PSI, which indicates the according to sample characteristics, administration proce- 18-item PSI may more comprehensively capture the political dures, and so on. skill construct. The small relationship between the six-item The reliability of the test for a population can be defined PSI with the influence tactics of appeal and coalition along as the ratio of true score variance to observed score variance, with the significant relationship between the six-item PSI or as the squared correlation between true and observed with assertiveness may likely demonstrate potential improve- scores (Lord, 1959; Nunnally, 1978). In actual practice, how- ments of the 18-item PSI over the original six-item measure, ever, true scores can never be determined; therefore, the reli- as it has been hypothesized that those high in political skill ability is typically estimated by coefficients of internal will be more likely to engage in the more subtle and less consistency, test–retest, alternate forms, and other reliability direct influence tactics of appeal and coalition while avoid- methods mentioned in the psychometric literature (Dimitrov, ing more overt influence tactics such as assertiveness, which 2002; Vacha-Haase, 1998; Vacha et al., 2000). For this reli- involves demanding ordering and checking up on others to ability generalization study, however, given the limited num- exercise influence (Ferris et al., 2005; Kipins, Schmidt, & ber of studies that reported other types of reliability, the Wilkinson, 1980). internal consistency reliability coefficient of Cronbach’s The full 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005) is currently the alpha alone was investigated in this study. As Cronbach’s most frequently implemented measure of the political skill alpha will generally increase as the intercorrelations among construct in research being administered to over 76 samples test items increase and the intercorrelations of test items tend in multiple languages with the six-item unidimensional ver- to increase when all of the test items measure the same sion of the PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) being the next most underlying construct, higher values of alpha are generally frequently administered political skill measure. Thus, as the thought to indicate that a particular set of test items measure six-item PSI and 18-item PSI scales are the most frequently a single construct. Although several researchers (e.g., implemented and empirically validated measures of the Cronbach, 1951; Nunnally, 1978, etc.) have shown that alpha political skill construct found in existing research, both ver- values can be considerably high even when the set of items sions of the scale were included in the current study to measure multiple unrelated latent constructs, our use of alpha determine the reliability estimates of each. However, due to in this reliability generalization study of the PSI seems the substantial body of evidence indicating adequate psy- appropriate given researchers have generally agreed that chometric properties and the inclusion of all four dimen- alpha is most appropriately utilized when the items in a test sions reflecting the political skill construct in the 18-item measure a single construct (Nunnally, 1978). PSI Ferris et al. (2005) scale, the reliability coefficients obtained from the 18-item PSI represent the primary focus Reliability Generalization of this generalization study. Thus, the reliability coeffi- cients obtained from the 18-item Ferris et al. (2005) PSI are Reliability generalization (RG) reflects a meta-analytic reported separately in the results from the reliability coef- approach to quantify reliability scores across samples and ficients obtained from the unidimensional six-item Ferris examine the variability of the reliability estimates et al. (1999) PSI. Among the samples that were included in (Thompson & Vacha-Haase, 2000; Vacha-Haase, 1998; this reliability generalization study that administered the Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). Reliability coefficients are 18-item PSI, reliability coefficients were often reported collected across studies to calculate central tendency and separately for each of the four dimensions in addition to the variability. Sample characteristics can be tabulated in an reliability coefficient for the entire PSI scale. Reliability attempt to account for the variability in reliability estimates estimates reported for the four dimensions were only (e.g., Thompson & Vacha-Haase, 2000; Yin & Fan, 2000; obtained from samples that administered the 18-item ver- etc.). In addition, the current reliability generalization study sion of the PSI as the six-item PSI measure is unidimen- utilizes general linear modeling to provide indications of sional and does not distinguish between any of the four PSI when the use of the PSI is more or less favorable in terms dimensions. of expected measurement error. More specifically, sample gender distribution, the number of items included in the measure, sample population, language, geographic loca- Reliability tion, and the number of response options are all examined Reliability refers to “the results obtained with an evaluation in the current study as potential factors that might influence instrument and not to the instrument itself” (Gronlund & the score reliability obtained from the PSI. Thus, the find- Linn, 1990, p. 78). The psychometric literature is clear that ings of the current study could likely serve as an additional reliability is based on scores gathered from a measurement source of information and reference for future practitioners scale and will vary from sample to sample (Thompson & and researchers in that it may shed light on potential con- Vacha-Haase, 2000; Vacha-Haase, Henson, & Caruso, 2002; textual moderators that may lower (or raise) the reliability Vacha-Haase, Kogan, & Thompson, 2000). Thus, it is infor- of the PSI measure depending on different sample and situ- mative to investigate how the reliability of a measure varies ational circumstances. 4 SAGE Open Research Question 2: Will the average internal consis- Factors That Influence Reliability tency reliability of the PSI scales that utilize 5 response Number of Items options significantly differ from the PSI scales that utilize 7 response options? As mentioned previously, as the 18-item PSI (Ferris et al., 2005) and the six-item PSI (Ferris et al., 1999) are the most frequently implemented and empirically validated mea- Language sures of the political skill construct, both versions of the Increasing number of organizations are using personality PSI were included in the current study to determine the assessment for selection purposes in international contexts reliability estimates of each as well as potential contextual (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). When measuring a construct variables that may impact the overall scale reliability of for occupational assessment (e.g., as part of a job selection each. Although implementing the shortened six-item ver- procedure), organizations will often use various adaptations sion of the PSI may be practically appealing to many orga- of the same instrument to assess people from various coun- nizations and researchers due to the reduced time and cost tries and will then make direct comparisons between these involved during administration, many researchers have people (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). This raises a need to contended that the 18-item PSI more accurately reflects compare the results of people who have completed an instru- the theoretical definition of the political construct by ment in different countries or using different language ver- explicitly including items for each of the four subdimen- sions (Bartram, 2008). The goals of translating a test are to sions. In terms of reliability, research has shown consis- preserve (a) translinguistic and (b) transcultural meaning of tently that there is a tendency for the internal consistency test items—so that candidates read and respond to equivalent of a measure to increase when the number of items measures (Daouk, Rust, & McDowall, 2005). However, this increases as alpha is a function of the average interterm is not always possible as some items may sound stronger or correlation and the number of items in a measure (Hellman, weaker in a target language, and as a result, wording some- Fuqua, & Worley, 2006). times must be changed to reflect the same strength of the item in both language versions of a test (Bartram, 2008; Research Question 1: Will the average internal consis- Daouk et al., 2005). Thus, the measurement error of the test tency reliability estimate of the full 18-item PSI be sig- may differ across language versions of a measure due to dif- nificantly higher than that of the shortened six-item ferences in translation of items. version of the PSI? Research Question 3: Will the average internal consis- Number of Response Options tency reliability of the PSI administered in English differ from translated non-English versions of the PSI? Given the high prevalence of Likert-type scales in organi- zational research, determining the optimal number of response options for participants to maximize internal con- Geographic Location sistency is an important consideration during the construc- tion of such scales (Mattel & Jacoby, 1971, 1972). Early In addition to language, cultural differences between the work on response format by Bendig (1954) provided evi- various geographic locations a test is administered in may dence that the internal consistency reliability of a test may lead to systematic differences in measurement error not be affected much by the number of alternatives pro- between samples from different geographic locations vided in Likert-type scales. Providing many response (Bartram, 2008; Daouk et al., 2005; Mushquash & Bova, options may not increase reliability if raters consistently 2007; Oswald, 2008). Specifically, decrements in reliability utilize only a small proportion of them. In some instances, and validity may arise when a measurement instrument that research has found that reducing the number of response has been developed in a particular culture is applied to options to an extreme degree can result in lowered esti- other cultural groups for which it was not originally mates of reliability (Mattel & Jacoby, 1971, 1972). For intended (Mushquash & Bova, 2007; Oswald, 2008). Thus, example, Schmidt and Hunter (1998) found that the aver- cultural differences between geographic locations regard- age correlation of items was significantly reduced when ing the targeted latent construct of political skill and its four the response options were reduced from multiple to dichot- subdimensions may lead to systematic differences in the omous response options. However, as all of the PSI mea- measurement error of the PSI between samples from differ- sures included in the current reliability generalization ent geographic locations. study utilize response options from either 1 to 5 or 1 to 7 Likert-type scale, it seems unlikely that there would be a Research Question 4: Will average internal consistency significant difference in the average internal consistency reliability estimates of the PSI significantly differ between reliability estimates between the two. different geographic locations? Jacobson and Viswesvaran 5 Sample Population Method By knowing in which types of populations a measure gen- Following the methods suggested by Vacha-Haase (1998), erally has demonstrated low reliability, researchers and reliability generalization was completed to (a) calculate the practitioners can make more informed decisions when eval- typical reliability of scores of a test across studies, (b) exam- uating test scores. Indeed, previous RG studies have found ine the amount of variability in reliability coefficients for the varying reliability coefficients for the same measure and given test, and (c) identify the sources of variability in the subscales administered to different types of sample popula- reliability coefficients across studies. The keywords tions such as students and employees (e.g., Dimitrov, 2002; “Political Skill Inventory” were entered in a search using the Hellman et al., 2006; Vacha-Haase, 1998; Vacha-Haase “tests and measurements” search option in the PsycINFO et al., 2000, etc.). As the PSI was designed to measure database. From this initial search, we located 98 original employee political skill in the workplace setting, determin- journal articles that reportedly included the PSI as a measure ing if it has an acceptable reliability across samples consist- in their study. For this study, of the 98 articles, we included ing of all employees is an important contribution of the only those that met the following criteria: (a) the study current RG study. In addition, the current study investigates administered the PSI scale, (b) a reliability coefficient was if the PSI is more or less reliable when it is administered to reported in the study, (c) the reliability coefficient reported employees in occupational settings compared with when it was from their own local sample (reliability coefficients is administered to full- or part-time students in academic cited from previous studies were excluded), and (d) the study settings. was available in English. Of all of the studies in the original search list, only one was written in a language other than Research Question 5: Will the average internal consis- English (Marinho-Araujo, 2014), and as no translated ver- tency reliability of PSI scores of all-employee samples sion could be found, it was left out of our analyses. Two more administered in occupational settings significantly differ studies were left out of the analysis because they used a sam- from the PSI scores of full- and part-time student samples ple of school-aged children 6 to 12 years of age and a modi- administered in academic settings? fied version of the PSI (Lavi & Slone, 2011, 2012). The remaining 95 studies which met these four qualifications were included in the current reliability generalization study. Sample Gender Distribution In the 95 studies, there were reliability coefficients reported Previous research has demonstrated the demographic com- for 101 separate samples. position of a sample can affect the internal consistency of a In addition, separate reliability coefficients were often measure. For example, one investigation found that more reported separately for each of the four dimensions in addi- homogeneous groups that were administered the Coppersmith tion to the reliability coefficient for the entire PSI scale. For Self-Esteem Inventory yielded higher reliability coefficients example, Zettler and Lang (2015) reported reliability coeffi- than heterogeneous samples (Lane, White, & Henson, 2002). cients for the entire PSI, network ability, interpersonal influ- One demographic variable that may be especially important ence, social astuteness, and apparent sincerity, and found that to consider when administering an organizational measure to aside from the political skill dimensions of interpersonal a sample is gender as previous research has indicated that influence and social astuteness, all internal consistency esti- differences in measurement error between countries and lan- mates were acceptable in their sample (α > .70). For this reli- guages are smaller on average than differences in measure- ability generalization study of the PSI, whenever reliability ment error between males and females on international coefficients were reported for the entire PSI and its dimen- selection tests (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). For example, sions, all five of these reliability coefficients were recorded. Oswald (2008) found there were significant gender differ- However, each dimension and total score were separately ences in scoring and reliability between men and women par- analyzed, and as such, there is no violation of the indepen- ticipants in all but one of the 32 scales contained in the dence assumption in the computation of the means reported Occupational Personality Questionnaire Inventory (OPQ32i) in this article. Following the protocol outlined by previous reliability that describe an individual’s preferred and typical behavior at generalization studies (e.g., Vacha-Haase, 1998, Vacha- work (Oswald, 2008). As a result of potential differences in Haase et al., 2000), six features were included as predictor measurement error based on gender, it is important to deter- variables that may predict a significant amount of variability mine if there are systematic differences in internal consis- in the reliabilities reported across the studies. The predictor tency reliability estimates of PSI scores based on the gender variables included in this study were the following: (a) the composition of a sample (Bartram, 2008; Oswald, 2008). length of the PSI scale (full 18-item PSI scale coded as 0 and Research Question 6: Will the average internal consis- the Ferris et al., 1999, six-item unidimensional PSI scale tency reliability of PSI scores significantly differ based on coded as 1), (b) language in which PSI was administered the gender composition of the sample? (English coded as 1 and others as 0), (c) response format 6 SAGE Open Table 1. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the 18-Item PSI and the Four Dimensions. Dimension n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt Overall PSI 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] Networking ability 6,524 27 .85 .056 .85 .055 .922 .237 .922 .235 [.84, .86] Interpersonal influence 6,311 27 .80 .076 .81 .075 .896 .276 .901 .274 [.78, .82] Social astuteness 5,993 25 .77 .080 .77 .084 .875 .283 .880 .290 [.75, .79] Apparent sincerity 5,993 25 .72 .088 .70 .097 .849 .297 .838 .311 [.70, .74] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 2. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the 18-Item PSI and Six-Item PSI. PSI scale n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt 18-item PSI 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] Six-item PSI 2,123 11 .81 .072 .81 .074 .899 .272 .902 .272 [.78, .84] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt (seven-option response scale coded as 1 and five-option astuteness dimension, and 25 for the apparent sincerity response scale as 0), (d) the gender mix of the sample (0%- dimension. We summarize in the tables whenever there were 25% males coded as 0, 25%-50% as 1, 50%-75% as 2, and over three reliability confidents reported for each of analysis. 75%-100% as 3), (e) if the study included student or Thus, the tables in our results do not report the reliability employee samples (all-student samples coded 1 and coefficients for the four PSI dimensions unless there was a employee samples coded 0), and (f) geographic location of sufficient number of samples in each of the groups being the sample (samples in the United States coded as 0, samples compared. The source PSI reliability reports are designated in Germany coded as 1, and samples in China, Taiwan, and with asterisks in our references. Japan coded as 2). Upon further examination, there were 101 samples in the Results 95 articles that reported reliability coefficients of the total PSI or at least one of the four subdimensions. Of the 101 The weighted coefficient alpha internal consistency reliabil- samples included in the analysis, 77 samples reported overall ity estimate for the Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item PSI and each scale reliability coefficient for the full 18-item PSI scale, of the four PSI subdimensions are summarized in Table 1. which was analyzed as the overall scale reliability estimate Coefficient alpha internal consistency reliability estimates of the PSI. The remaining samples either reported reliability for the Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item and the Ferris et al. (1999) coefficients of the shortened six-item Ferris et al. PSI mea- six-item PSI are summarized in Table 2, and the coefficient sure or only reported reliability estimates for one or more of alpha internal consistency reliability estimates by response the PSI dimensions from the 18-item PSI without reporting option type are summarized in Table 3. Estimates of coeffi- the overall scale reliability and were not included in analyses cient alpha for samples administered English and non-Eng- of the overall scale reliability. Of the 77 samples that reported lish versions of the PSI are summarized in Table 4, and reliability coefficients of the full 18-item PSI, there was a estimates of coefficient alpha by geographic location are total of 15,987 participants (with sample sizes varying from summarized in Table 5. Table 6 compares estimates of coef- 25 to 558). In addition to reporting the weighted Cronbach’s ficient alphas for all-student samples with employee sam- alpha reliability coefficient of the full 18-item PSI, the ples. Finally, estimates of coefficient alpha by sample gender weighted alpha reliability coefficients of each of the four composition are summarized in Table 7. It should be noted dimensions of the PSI were also reported independently that the four dimensions of the scale are only present in using the samples that reported separate reliability coeffi- Tables 1, 3, and 4, as we did not include results of the analy- cients for the four dimensions. More specifically, of the sam- sis that were based on less than three reliability estimates. ples that reported reliability coefficient estimates for one or The sample size weighted mean and standard deviation more of the PSI dimensions, 27 samples reported a reliability was computed for each distribution analyzed. We also com- coefficient for the networking ability dimension, 27 reported puted the unweighted mean and standard deviation for each for the interpersonal influence dimension, 25 for the social distribution of reliability coefficients. As the unweighted Jacobson and Viswesvaran 7 Table 3. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the PSI by Response Scale Type. Dimension Response option n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt Overall PSI All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] 5-point response option 5,445 28 .89 .037 .89 .039 .943 .197 .943 .197 [.88, .90] 7-point response option 10,351 48 .89 .065 .88 .065 .943 .255 .938 .255 [.88, .90] Networking ability All samples 6,524 27 .85 .056 .85 .055 .922 .235 .922 .237 [.84, .86] 5-point response option 1,116 5 .84 .055 .83 .055 .917 .235 .911 .235 [.81, .87] 7-point response option 5,408 22 .85 .056 .84 .056 .922 .237 .917 .237 [.83, .87] Interpersonal All samples 6,311 27 .80 .076 .81 .075 .896 .276 .901 .274 [.78, .82] influence 5-point response option 951 5 .82 .059 .81 .068 .906 .243 .900 .261 [.79, .85] 7-point response option 5,360 22 .80 .078 .81 .078 .894 .280 .900 .280 [.78, .82] Social astuteness All samples 5,993 25 .77 .080 .77 .084 .875 .283 .880 .290 [.75, .79] 5-point response option 951 5 .72 .087 .72 .097 .849 .295 .849 .311 [.67, .77] 7-point response option 5,042 20 .77 .076 .79 .077 .875 .276 .889 .277 [.75, .79] Apparent sincerity All samples 5,993 25 .72 .088 .70 .097 .849 .297 .838 .311 [.70, .74] 5-point response option 951 5 .69 .084 .68 .093 .831 .290 .825 .305 [.64, .74] 7-point response option 5,042 20 .73 .087 .71 .099 .854 .295 .843 .315 [.71, .75] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 4. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the PSI by Language Version. Dimension Language n k Mwt SDwt Munwt SDunwt Msqwt SDsqwt Msqunwt SDsqunwt 80% CI Overall PSI All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] English 8,824 43 .90 .028 .89 .027 .949 .167 .943 .164 [.89, .91] Non-English 7,163 34 .88 .057 .88 .081 .938 .239 .938 .285 [.87, .89] Networking All samples 6,524 27 .85 .056 .85 .055 .922 .235 .922 .237 [.84, .86 ability English 3,906 17 .88 .051 .87 .055 .938 .226 .933 .235 [.86, .90] Non-English 2,618 10 .81 .040 .82 .038 .90 .200 .906 .195 [.79, .83] Interpersonal All samples 6,311 27 .80 .076 .81 .075 .896 .274 .901 .276 [.78, .82] influence English 3,633 17 .85 .047 .85 .049 .922 .217 .922 .221 [.84, .86] Non-English 2,678 10 .74 .062 .75 .073 .860 .249 .866 .270 [.71, .77] Social All samples 5,993 25 .77 .080 .77 .084 .875 .283 .880 .290 [.75, .79] astuteness English 3,315 15 .82 .046 .82 .051 .906 .214 .906 .226 [.80, .84] Non-English 2,678 10 .70 .060 .71 .079 .837 .245 .843 .281 [.68, .72] Apparent All samples 5,993 25 .72 .088 .70 .097 .849 .297 .838 .311 [.70, .74] sincerity English 3,315 15 .75 .101 .72 .116 .866 .318 .849 .341 [.72, .78] Non-English 2,678 10 .68 .048 .67 .049 .825 .219 .819 .221 [.66, .70] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt mean and standard deviation do not weigh the reliability esti- included in our analysis, we reported (a) sample size mates by sample size of each study included in the analysis weighted mean reliability estimates, (b) sample size weighted and each reliability coefficient is weighted the same, the standard deviation estimates, (c) unweighted mean reliability sample size weighted mean gives the best estimate of the estimates, (d) unweighted standard deviation estimates, (e) mean reliability while the unweighted mean helps ensure sample size weighted square root of the reliability mean, (f) that the results of the analysis are not skewed by a few large sample size weighted standard deviation of the square root of samples (Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996). In addition, reliabilities, (g) unweighted square root of the reliability the mean and standard deviation of the square root of the reli- mean, (h) unweighted standard deviation of the square root abilities were also calculated as the mean of the square root of the reliabilities, and (i) the sample size weighted (80%) of the reliabilities differ slightly from the square root of the confidence interval for the sample size weighted mean reli- mean of the reliabilities. Thus, for each of the distributions ability estimate. Confidence intervals were calculated by 8 SAGE Open Table 5. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the Overall PSI by Geographic Location. Geographic location n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] United States 8,460 42 .90 .026 .90 .026 .949 .161 .949 .161 [.89, .91] Germany 4,305 22 .87 .033 .88 .039 .933 .182 .938 .197 [.86, .88] China, Thailand, and Japan 2,108 8 .89 .049 .89 .061 .943 .221 .943 .245 [.87, .91] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 6. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of Overall PSI by Sample Population. Sample type n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] Non-student samples 13,411 67 .89 .048 .89 .061 .943 .219 .941 .247 [.88, .90] All student samples 2,576 10 .89 .018 .89 .018 .943 .135 .943 .135 [.88, .90] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt Table 7. Internal Consistency Reliability Estimate of the PSI by Sample Gender Composition. Gender composition n k M SD M SD M SD M SD 80% CI wt wt unwt unwt sqwt sqwt squnwt squnwt All samples 15,987 77 .89 .044 .89 .057 .943 .210 .942 .239 [.88, .90] 0%-25% male 1,243 6 .88 .022 .88 .024 .917 .148 .926 .155 [.87, .89] 25%-50% male 6,676 30 .89 .053 .88 .076 .940 .230 .935 .276 [.88, .90] 50%-75% male 5,166 23 .89 .033 .89 .040 .941 .182 .942 .200 [.88, .90] 75%-100% male 992 5 .87 .037 .88 .039 .910 .192 .917 .197 [.85, .89] Note. PSI = Political Skill Inventory; k = number of reliabilities included in the meta-analysis; wt = sample size weighted; unwt = unweighted or frequency weighted; sqwt = square root of the estimates weighted; squnwt = square root of the estimates, unweighted; CI = confidence interval computed as M ± SD / √k (1.28). wt wt multiplying the ratio of the weighted sample standard devia- the specific PSI dimensions is significantly lower than the tion (SD ) to the square root of the number of samples (k) by average reliability estimate of the full 18-item PSI, t(98) = wt 1.28 and adding and subtracting the resulting product from 10.31, p < .001. the sample weighted mean (M ) to create the upper and The results from Table 2 indicate that the weighted reliabil- wt lower bound reliability estimates. ity coefficient alpha for the shortened six-item PSI scale was The results from Table 1 indicate that the sample weighted .81 (k = 11, N = 2,123) and was comparable with the 18-item coefficient alpha for the 18-item PSI scale across the samples PSI, which had a weighted reliability alpha of .89 (k = 77, N = included in the meta-analysis that reported an alpha coeffi- 15,987). However, an independent t test with the overall sam- cient for the entire 18-item scale was .89 (k = 77, N = 15,987). ple weighted reliability coefficient as the dependent variable Each of the four PSI subdimensions had sample weighted and scale version as the independent variable revealed that the coefficient alpha estimates greater than .70, with an average 18-item PSI had a significantly higher overall reliability coef- coefficient alpha of .78 across dimensions (k = 26, N = ficient than the six-item PSI, t = 3.80, p < .001. In addition, 6,205). Specifically, the networking ability dimension of the results indicated that the lower bound 80% confidence interval PSI had the highest sample weighted reliability estimate (α = for the 18-item PSI (α = .88) was greater than the upper bound .85, k = 27, N = 6,524) of the four PSI subdimensions while 80% confidence interval for the six-item PSI (α = .84), indicat- the apparent sincerity dimension had the lowest (α = .72, k = ing that the 18-item PSI likely has a higher average reliability 25, N = 5,993). Although the sample weighted coefficient estimate across samples than the six-item PSI. alpha across the four dimensions is respectable, results indi- Results from Table 3 indicate that the sample weighted cated that the average sample weighted reliability estimate of reliability coefficient alpha for samples that administered the Jacobson and Viswesvaran 9 full 18-item PSI using a five-option response option was .89 weighted coefficient alpha of .89 (k = 8, N = 2,108). Thus, (k = 28, N = 5,445) and did not differ from that for a seven- results indicated that the weighted alpha coefficient esti- option response option which was also .89 (k = 48, N = mates of the full 18-item PSI were quite acceptable in each of 10,351). Thus, utilizing a five-option response scale instead the three geographic locations. of a seven-option response scale did not impact the estimated Results from Table 6 indicate that the sample weighted reliability of the 18-item PSI measure. Results from Table 3 coefficient alpha estimate of the full 18-item PSI for all-stu- also indicate the weighted reliability coefficients for each of dent samples that were administered the PSI in academic set- the four PSI dimensions across samples that used a five- tings was .89 (k = 10, N = 2,576), same as that in nonacademic option response scale as well as samples that utilized a settings .89 (k = 67, N = 13,411). Thus, the results indicated seven-option response scale. The weighted reliability coef- that the sample-weighted average reliability estimate of the ficient across the four PSI subdimensions for samples that 18-item PSI did not differ between all-student samples that utilized a five-option response scale was .77 while the were administered the PSI in academic settings and employee weighted reliability coefficient across the four dimensions samples that were administered the PSI in nonacademic among samples that utilized a seven-option response scale settings. was .79, indicating that like the full 18-item PSI scale, the Finally, Table 7 summarizes the overall reliability of the weighted reliability estimate of the four PSI dimensions did 18-item PSI by the sample gender composition. Results from not substantially differ between samples that utilized a five- a one-way ANOVA with sample gender composition as the option response scale and samples that utilized a seven- independent variable and the weighted reliability coefficient option response scale. of the overall 18-item PSI scale as the dependent variable The results from Table 4 indicate that the sample weighted indicated that the gender composition of the sample did not reliability coefficient alpha for the full 18-item PSI adminis- significantly affect the weighted reliability estimate of the tered in English was .90 (k = 43, N = 8,824) and was not 18-item PSI scale, F = .203, p = .894. The similar weighted significantly different than the weighted reliability coeffi- reliability coefficients between samples with different gen- cient alpha for the translated non-English versions of the full der compositions seem to indicate that the gender composi- 18-item PSI which was .88 (k = 34, N = 7,163), t = 1.22, p = tion of the sample does not significantly affect the overall .227. In addition, Table 5 also indicates the sample weighted estimated reliability of the 18-item PSI scale. reliability coefficient estimates for the four PSI scale dimen- A six-factor ANOVA was subsequently conducted with sions for English and non-English samples. The averaged PSI scale length, language administered, geographic loca- reliability estimates across the four individual scales of the tion, response format, sample population type, and sample PSI administered in English was noticeably greater (α = .83) gender proportion as predictor variables and the sample than the averaged reliability estimates across the scales weighted Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the overall PSI administered in non-English languages (α = .73). English- scale as the dependent variable to test for the combined administered versions of the 18-item PSI had a significantly effects for the six predictors on the total PSI’s reliability. higher coefficient alpha of the social astuteness dimension Results indicated that the six predictor variables significantly than non-English versions of the scale, t = 4.34, p < .001. impacted the weighted reliability of the overall PSI scale, F English versions of the 18-item PSI also had significantly = 2.68, p = .010. More specifically, the length of the PSI higher coefficient alphas for the networking ability dimen- measure (six-item vs. the 18-item version) was significantly sion of the scale than non-English versions of the PSI, t = associated with the sample weighted Cronbach’s alpha coef- 2.71, p = .012. Similarly, English versions of the 18-item PSI ficient after controlling for the language of administration, also had significantly higher coefficient alphas for the inter- response scale type, sample population type, sample gender personal influence dimension than non-English versions of demographics, and geographic location, F = 13.27, p < .001. the PSI, t = 4.21, p < .001. However, the language of the PSI, the response scale type, The results from Table 5 summarize the reliability coeffi- sample population type, the gender composition of the sam- cient estimates of the full 18-item PSI by geographic loca- ple, and the geographic location that the PSI was adminis- tion. Results from a one-way ANOVA that was conducted tered in were each not significantly related to the overall using the geographic location as the independent variable reliability of the PSI scale. and the weighted alpha reliability coefficient as the depen- Subsequently, four 5-factor ANOVA were conducted dent variable indicated that the geographic location did not using the language of administration, geographic location, significantly impact the overall reliability of the PSI, F = .83, response format, sample population type, and sample gender p = .438. More specifically, samples that were administered proportion as predictor variables and the sample weighted the PSI in the United States had a sample weighted coeffi- reliability estimate of each of the four PSI subdimensions as cient alpha of .90 (k = 42, N = 8,460), samples that were the dependent variable to test for the combined effects of the administered the PSI in Germany had a weighted coefficient five predictors on each of the four PSI subdimensions. Scale alpha of .87 (k = 22, N = 4,305), and samples that were length was not included as a predictor in each in the analysis administered the PSI in China, Taiwan, and Japan had a of the four PSI dimensions because only 18-item versions of 10 SAGE Open the PSI reported independent reliability coefficients for each sincerity subdimension. See Table 4 to compare the sample- of the dimensions. For the networking ability dimension of weighted reliability estimates for each of the PSI dimensions the PSI, results indicated that the language of administration, administered to English samples and non-English samples. geographic location, response option format, sample popula- tion type, and the sample gender composition accounted for Discussion a marginally significant amount of variance in the reliability coefficients, F = 13.37, p = .054. The language the PSI was The primary objective of the present research was to utilize administered in accounted for a significant amount of the RG techniques to investigate the magnitude and variabili- variance in the estimated reliability coefficients in network- ties of reliability estimates that were reported across exist- ing ability, F = 13.36, p = .004. Specifically, those who ing studies using of the PSI developed by Ferris et al. received an English version of the PSI (M = .87, SD = .055) (2005). Across the samples that used and reported reliabil- had significantly higher reliability ratings compared with ity estimates for the full Ferris et al. (2005) PSI measure, those who received a non-English version of the PSI (M = the sample-weighted alpha coefficient of the 18-item PSI .82, SD = .038), t(25) = 2.71, p = .012. However, the other was .89 (SD = .044). Given that previous research has found four predictors were not significantly related to the reliability that most psychometric tests have average alpha coeffi- of the networking ability dimension of the PSI. cients that fall within the range of .75 to .83 (Nunnally, For the interpersonal influence dimension of the PSI, 1978) and many professionals apply the general principle results indicated that the five predictors accounted for a sig- that requires a reliability of .70 before they utilize a mea- nificant amount of variance in the reliability coefficients, F = sure, the average alpha of the full 18-item PSI obtained in 3.91, p = .029. The language the PSI was administered in was the current RG study provides substantial evidence that significantly associated with reliability estimates, F = 21.15, supports the measurement integrity of the scale. In addi- p = .001. Similar to the networking ability subdimension, tion, each of the four subdimensions of the PSI demon- samples that were administered English versions of the PSI strated moderate to high sample weighted alpha reliability (M = .85, SD = .049) had a significantly higher estimated coefficients (α > .70). Thus, the reported reliability coeffi- reliability coefficient for the interpersonal influence subdi- cients of the full Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item measure and mension compared with samples that were administered each of the four PSI subscale dimensions seems to justify non-English versions of the PSI (M = .75, SD = .079), t(25) its implementation in organizational and research settings, = 4.21 p < .001. However, the response scale type, sample although what is considered to be an acceptable mean reli- population type, gender composition of the sample, and geo- ability coefficient can be a somewhat subjective inference graphic location were each not significantly related to the that is often ultimately determined by the context of a study reliability of the interpersonal influence dimension of the (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). PSI. For the social astuteness dimension of the PSI, the five Contributions to Theory and Implications for predictors accounted for a significant amount of variance in Practice Regarding the Reliability of the PSI the reliability coefficients, F = 4.48, p = .026. The language the PSI was administered in accounted for a significant Although the estimated reliability of the 18-item PSI and its amount of variance in the reliability estimates, F = 22.14, p dimensions seemed to be acceptable on average, results of = .002. Similar to the networking ability and interpersonal the current study also indicated that the estimated reliability influence dimensions of the PSI, samples that were adminis- of the full 18-item PSI measure (Ferris et al., 2005) was sig- tered English versions of the PSI (M = .77, SD = .051) had a nificantly greater than the average weighted reliability esti- significantly higher estimated reliability coefficient for the mate for the six-item unidimensional PSI scale (Ferris et al., social astuteness subdimension compared with samples that 1999) as well as each of the four specific PSI subdimensions. were administered non-English versions of the PSI (M = .61, Among the samples that were administered the shortened SD = .079), t(23) = 4.34, p < .001. six-item version of the PSI (Ferris et al., 1999), the average Finally, for the apparent sincerity dimension of the PSI, weighted estimated alpha reliability coefficient was .81 (SD the five predictors did not account for a significant amount of = .072) which was significantly lower than that of the 18-item variation in the reliability estimates, F = .79, p = .617. Thus, PSI (M = .89, SD = .044). In addition, and due to the six- wt unlike the other three dimensions, the language the PSI was item unidimensional Ferris et al. (1999) PSI’s lack of content administered in did not account for a significant amount of validity evidence and failure to include item statements rep- variance in the estimated reliability coefficients for the resenting manifestations of the networking ability and appar- apparent sincerity subdimension of the PSI, F = .31, p = .595. ent sincerity dimensions of the political skill construct, future Our results seemed to indicate that the language the PSI is researchers and practitioners should generally seek to admin- administered in may significantly affect the estimated reli- ister the Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item version of the PSI in ability of the networking ability, social astuteness, and inter- research samples, especially when gathering data to help personal influence dimensions of the PSI but not the apparent guide organizational decisions. Jacobson and Viswesvaran 11 Results of the current study also indicated that the esti- Given the influence of score reliabilities on effect size mated reliability of the full 18-item PSI measure (Ferris (Hellman et al., 2006; Wilkinson & Task Force on Statistical et al., 2005) was greater than the average weighted reli- Inference, 1999), the use of shorter PSI versions seems to ability estimate for each of the four PSI subdimensions clearly be a decision that should be made after careful con- (apparent sincerity, networking ability, interpersonal influ- sideration. Although shortened unidimensional scales of the ence, and social astuteness). The length of the instrument PSI may seem to have acceptable psychometric properties, used for measurement could be a possible explanation for such scales were developed for the purposes of preliminary the difference in reliability between the full PSI and spe- construct exploration of political skill, have suboptimal cific PSI dimensions as the majority of the studies included internal consistency, and often do not adequately measure in the analysis included a summing the four dimensions of each of the four political skill dimensions as well as the into a single composite score. The relationship between Ferris et al. (2005) full 18-item PSI measure (Ferris, Rogers, reliability estimates and the number of items can be Blass, & Hochwarter, 2009). Thus, the Ferris et al. (2005) described as convex, with the reliability increasing rapidly 18-item PSI should be preferred over the shortened Ferris as the number of items increases up to a certain point, but et al. (1999) six-item unidimensional PSI scale. increases being relatively small after a certain amount of items. The measures included in the current analysis were Reliability of the Four PSI Dimensions long enough that the presence of additional items and the Spearman–Brown formula did not seem to make an appre- As far as the four dimensions of the PSI (networking abil- ciable difference in the overall reliability estimated for the ity, interpersonal influence, social astuteness, and apparent four PSI subdimensions. An additional potential explana- sincerity), results indicated that the language the measure tion for higher alpha coefficients for ratings of the overall is administered in may have an effect on the reliability PSI is related to the broad construct of political skill com- coefficients of the networking ability, interpersonal influ- pared with the four PSI subdimensions that more narrowly ence, and social astuteness dimensions of the PSI. defined facets of political skill. Indeed, previous research Specifically, our results indicated that the sample-weighted has found evidence that broader constructs are generally reliability coefficients of the networking ability, interper- more reliably rated than more narrowly defined traits, sup- sonal influence, and social astuteness subdimensions of porting the possibility the overarching construct of politi- the PSI were significantly higher in samples that were cal skill may be more easily identified across various types administered English versions of the PSI compared with of behavioral manifestations than the four more narrowly samples that were administered the PSI in a non-English defined dimensions of political skill (Ones & Viswesvaran, language. It may be due to lack of standardization in the 1996; Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). As a result, it seems precise wording in the way the PSI is translated from possible that the findings of the current study reflect simi- English to other languages that affected the estimates. lar findings of previous research that the underlying gen- Previous research has found that translating certain items eral political skill construct may more reliability predict a into different languages can pose a unique challenge to wide range of organizational outcomes than any one of the standardization as the verbatim translation of some words four PSI subdimensions assessed independently. However, may have drastically different meanings in two languages future research is needed to examine how overall scores of and may result in the re-wording of some items in the the full Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item PSI measure and scores translated version of the measure which may potentially of specific PSI subdimensions assessed independently are affect item interpretation across languages (Bartram, 2008; each related to various types of general and specific orga- Oswald, 2008). However, the average Cronbach’s alpha nizational outcomes. reliability estimate of the translated social astuteness sub- Potential fluctuation of reliability coefficients was evi- scale seemed to be adequate and the average overall reli- dent in the full 18-item PSI measure along three of the four ability of translated non-English versions of the full PSI dimensions. For the full Ferris et al. (2005) 18-item PSI mea- scale is not significantly different compared with the over- sure, results indicated that sample type (e.g., all-student sam- all reliability of English versions of the PSI. However, ples or employees), response style type (e.g., five-option or future practitioners including only select dimensions of the seven-option self-reported Likert-type scale), the gender PSI without the full 18-item Ferris et al. (2005) PSI, espe- makeup of the sample, the geographic location of the sample, cially when using translated non-English versions of the and whether or not the PSI was administered in English or subscales, should be concerned about the reliability of another language did not significantly affect the overall reli- their assessments. The present study also found that the ability of the PSI scale. However, as previously mentioned, full 18-item PSI scale (Ferris et al., 2005) seems to have results did indicate that samples that used the full 18-item generally high internal consistency across student and PSI scale had significantly higher overall reliability coeffi- employee samples, English and non-English samples, pre- cients than samples that used the shortened six-item version dominantly male and predominantly female samples, and of the PSI scale. when using both five- and seven-option response scales. 12 SAGE Open depending on racial and ethnic group membership (Blass, Limitations and Directions for Future Research Brouer, Perrewé, & Ferris, 2007). However, the results of the Although the average reliability estimates of the PSI mea- current study indicated that there were no significant overall sure and each dimension of the PSI were calculated and cer- differences in the weighted reliability of the full 18-item PSI tain moderating variables that could explain the variability scale based on language or geographic location, providing were studied, there were certain limitations regarding the evidence that the measurement error of the PSI may likely not lack of reliability and sample information that may have hin- significantly differ based on ethnic group membership. dered the scope of this reliability generalization study. As Although none of the potential sources of measurement previously mentioned, most of the samples included in this error relating to sample differences individually significantly study did not provide estimates of reliability for each of the impacted the overall reliability of the PSI measure, the results PSI dimensions (social astuteness, networking ability, inter- of the current reliability generalization study of the PSI did personal influence, and apparent sincerity) in addition to the seem to generally indicate that more homogeneous or demo- overall PSI scale. The majority of the 101 samples included graphically similar samples consisting of participants that in the analysis only indicated the Cronbach’s alpha of the full were taken from relatively homogeneous populations gener- PSI measure without reporting the reliability coefficients for ally tended to have a slightly lower degree of variability the four PSI subdimensions, which limited the number of regarding the PSI’s interitem reliability compared with more samples that were included in the analysis of the reliability of heterogeneous samples that consist of individual participants the four PSI dimensions. For example, there were only 27 taken from a more demographically diverse population. As a samples in the articles we included that reported a reliability result, a general implication for future practitioners and for networking ability, 27 that reported a reliability coeffi- researchers implementing the PSI is to employ data collec- cient for interpersonal influence, 25 that reported a reliability tion strategies that maximize the homogeneity of the sample coefficient for social astuteness, and 25 samples that reported population whenever possible such as sampling employee a reliability coefficient for apparent sincerity. participants working at the same organization or with the In addition, although 101 samples were included in the same occupation type to mitigate any potential differences in final analysis of this reliability generalization of the PSI measurement error in the sample that would generally be scale, many of the samples were missing information relat- more likely to occur from utilizing data collection strategies ing to gender and race that limited the use of gender and that yield more heterogeneous samples. Future studies exam- race as potential predictor variables in the analysis. ining potential differences in the overall reliability estimates Although gender was included as a predictor variable in of the PSI measure between samples based on occupation the analysis by coding the percentage of males in the sam- type, organizational homogeneity, and other potential sources ple quartiles, previous reliability generalization studies of systematic differences in measurement error between have measured gender by coding all male or all female samples are needed to clarify this relationship. samples as 0 and all “mixed” samples with male and female Various moderators effecting the political skill job perfor- participants as 1 (e.g., Vacha-Haase, 1998; Vacha-Haase mance relationship have been identified by researchers, indi- et al., 2000). As none of the 101 samples in the current reli- cating that high levels of political skill are only associated ability generalization indicated they had exclusively all with highest degree of performance without the presence of male or all female samples, samples were broken into four certain conditions (Zettler & Lang, 2015). For example, high groups by their percentage of males (0%-25% male, 25%- levels of political skill are not associated with the highest 50% male, 50%-75% male, and 75%-100% male) which levels of performance when individual conscientiousness is did not allow for absolute distinctions to be made follow- high, there are high levels of procedural and distributive jus- ing the protocol of previous reliability generalization tice in an organization, or organizational politics are high research regarding gender which have compared all male, (Andrews, Kacmar, & Harris, 2009; Blickle, Weber, & all female, and mixed male and female samples (Vacha- Oerder, 2008). In addition, previous moderation analyses Haase, 1998; Vacha-Haase et al., 2000). have found that the highest levels of political skill do not In addition to the absence of all male and all female sam- always yield the highest level of performance, thus the meta- ples, racial and demographic information in the samples were theoretical principle of the TMGT effect “too much of a good not included in this reliability generalization of the PSI scale thing is bad” may apply to the political skill construct as potential moderator variables as racial and ethnic demo- (Andrews et al., 2009). Just as the TMGT effect applies to graphic information was provided in only 30 (28.85%) of the other nonmonotonic relations, it also explains why high 101 possible samples that were included in our analysis. political skill is associated with lower levels of performance Future research on the PSI scale should seek to examine how than medium levels of political skill (Pierce & Aguinis 2013; the effects of gender and race influence the overall reliability Zettler & Lang, 2015). For example, extremely high levels of of the PSI scale, especially as previous studies have found political skill may be associated with increased time net- that subdimensions of political skill (e.g., networking ability) working rather than working, and expending effort for self- may have different inferences and interpreted differently promoting purposes to achieve individual goals at the Jacobson and Viswesvaran 13 expense of the goals of the organization (Zettler & Lang, Bartram, D. (2008). Global norms: Towards some guidelines for aggregating personality norms across countries. International 2015). Given the PSI has a curvilinear relationship with job Journal of Testing, 8, 315-333. performance, it also seems possible that the reliability of the Bendig, A. W. (1954). Reliability and the number of rating scale PSI may also fluctuate between those with different scores categories. Journal of Applied Psychology, 38, 38-40. on the measure, indicating heteroskedasticity. Thus, it may Bing, M. N., Davison, H. K., Minor, I., Novicevic, M., & Frink, D. be that the reliability of the PSI may be more or less reliable D. (2011). The prediction of task and contextual performance for those that report having high political skill compared by political skill: A meta-analysis and moderator test. Journal with those that report having little political skill. Thus, future of Vocational Behavior, 79, 563-577. research could also seek to clarify if the reliability of the PSI *Blass, F. R., Brouer, R. L., Perrewé, P. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2007). is heteroskedastic and fluctuates across different scores on Politics understanding and networking ability as a function of the measure. mentoring: The roles of gender and race. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14, 93-105. *Blickle, G., Diekmann, C., Schneider, P. B., Kalthöfer, Y., & Conclusion Summers, J. K. (2012). When modesty wins: Impression man- agement through modesty, political skill, and career success— In conclusion, the results of the present reliability generaliza- A two-study investigation. European Journal of Work and tion study provide novel insights to the organizational poli- Organizational Psychology, 21, 899-922. doi:10.1080/13594 ticking literature by indicating that the (Ferris et al., 2005) 32X.2011.603900 full 18-item PSI scale has an acceptable weighted Cronbach’s *Blickle, G., Ferris, G. R., Munyon, T. P., Momm, T., Zettler, I., alpha reliability coefficient across all of the samples that Schneider, P. B., & Buckley, M. R. (2011). A multi-source, were identified in existing literature, a finding that adds to multi-study investigation of job performance prediction by the body of research examining the measurement integrity of political skill. Applied Psychology: An International Review, the PSI. The examination of the reliability of the PSI and its 60, 449-474. *Blickle, G., John, J., Ferris, G. R., Momm, T., Liu, Y., Haag, R., & dimensions are vital to the construction of generalizable the- Oerder, K. (2012). Fit of political skill to the work context: A ories of political skill in future research. In practice and in two-study investigation. Applied Psychology: An International research, the accurate implementation and administrative use Review, 61, 295-322. of political skill assessments depend on the reliability of *Blickle, G., Kane-Frieder, R., Oerder, K., Wihler, A., von Below, political skill measures. Thus, the results of the current meta- A., Schütte, N., & Ferris, G. R. (2013). Leader behaviors as analysis offer valuable and novel insights of the psychomet- mediators of the leader characteristics-follower satisfaction ric characteristics of the PSI that can be utilized by future relationship. Group & Organization Management, 38, 601- researchers and practitioners. 629. doi:10.1177/1059601113503183 *Blickle, G., Kramer, J., Schneider, P. B., Meurs, J. A., Ferris, G. R., Mierke, J., . . . Momm, T. D. (2011). Role of political skill Declaration of Conflicting Interests in job performance prediction beyond general mental abil- The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect ity and personality in cross-sectional and predictive studies. to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41, 488-514. doi:10.111 1/j.1559-1816.2010.00723 Funding *Blickle, G., Kramer, J., Zettler, I., Momm, T., Summers, J. K., The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author- Munyon, T. P., & Ferris, G. R. (2009). Job demands as a mod- ship, and/or publication of this article. erator of the political skill-job performance relationship. The Career Development International, 14, 333-350. *Blickle, G., Meurs, J. A., Wihler, A., Ewen, C., Plies, A., & Günther, References S. (2013). 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Reliability *Zinko, R. (2013). A continued examination of the inverse rela- generalization: Moving toward improved understanding tionship between political skill and strain reactions: Exploring and use of score reliability. Educational and Psychological reputation as a mediating factor. Journal of Applied Social Measurement, 62, 562-569. Psychology, 43, 1750-1759. Jacobson and Viswesvaran 17 Author Biographies Chockalingam Viswesvaran, is the director of the Industrial/ Organizational psychology program and a tenured professor in the Ryan K. Jacobson, is currently an Industrial-Organizational psy- psychology department at Florida International University. chology PhD candidate conducting dissertation research at Florida Viswesvaran is a well-known and frequently cited researcher in the International University, having attained his MS in Industrial/ field of Industrial/Organizational psychology and serves on the edito- Organizational psychology in 2016. His primary research interests rial boards of Journal of Applied Psychology, Educational and focus on how organizational policies influence reporting behavior Psychological Measurement, Journal of Organizational Behavior, of sexual harassment in the workplace, using an intersectional per- Journal of Personnel Psychology, Journal of Business and Psychology spective to examine perceptions of candidate competence and hire- and is the Editor of the International Journal of Selection and ability as a function of the race and gender of the candidate, exam- Assessment. Dr. Viswesvaran is also a fellow of the Society for ining the utility of political skill measures as predictors of job Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) as well as a Fellow performance, and examining how specific organizational outcomes of Division 5 (measurement) and Division 14 (Industrial- organiza- are related to employee bystander perceptions of counterproductive tional psychology) of the American Psychological Association. behavior in the workplace.

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SAGE Open – SAGE

Published: May 10, 2017

Keywords: Political Skill Inventory; reliability generalization; political skill predictor

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A Reliability Generalization Study of the Political Skill Inventory:

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A Reliability Generalization Study of the Political Skill Inventory:

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