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This study used Bolman and Deal’s framework to examine the leadership frames of a vice-chancellor in a private university in Malaysia. Qualitative methods comprised interviews with the vice-chancellor and six of his staff reporting directly to him, document analysis, and observations. Atlas.ti was used to code the leadership frames. Content analysis revealed that the vice-chancellor exhibited three frames, showing a multi-frame leadership style. It reflects the vice-chancellor implements an effective leadership style and a high level of cognitive ability, which is important for the organizational effectiveness. Keywords Bolman and Deal, leadership frames, leadership effectiveness use multiple frames is required where leaders adapt their Introduction styles to the context in which they are operating. Leadership is an important topic of research in organizational Leadership styles are approaches used by various leaders studies. Research on leadership has been multi-dimensional to guide people, and these vary according to the situation, in nature where evaluation is made based on different per- leader, or task to be accomplished. Although there are numer- spectives (Bennis, 1995; Bolman & Deal, 1984; Covey, 1989; ous organizational theories, Bolman and Deal’s four-frame Kouzes & Posner, 2007; Sergiovanni, 1984). Hoy and Miskel model of leadership is suitable for this study because of its (2001) defined leadership as the ability to support and enable prevalent use in educational research, particularly research a group of people to accomplish a common task. focused on higher education settings. The Importance of Studies in Leadership Styles Bolman and Deal’s Four-Frame Model Past research conducted on frame preference in relationship In this study, multi-frame leadership is shown when a leader to leadership effectiveness by Bolman and Deal (1991b) uses three or more frames, based on Bolman and Deal’s show that managers often use only one or two frames, but (1984) four frames of leadership. The four frames in Bolman effective leaders use three or more frames (multi-frames). and Deal’s (1984) four-frame leadership theory are struc- Bensimon, Neumann, and Birnbaum (1989) suggested that tural, human resource, political, and symbolic. The structural the ability to use several frames and switch from one to frame emphasizes goals and efficiency. It assumes that lead- another may reflect a higher level of cognitive ability. This ers operate by defining clear, established goals. The organi- model has proven how leaders’ thinking relates to leadership zations differentiate people into specific roles, and coordinate effectiveness, and that a multi-frame orientation yields the diverse activities through policies, rules, and chain of com- most effective leaders. Goleman (2000) emphasized that mand. Structural leaders value analysis and data, keep their leaders cannot rely on just one or two leadership styles, but eye on the bottom line, set clear directions, hold people must become proficient in as many as they can. The most effective leaders switch flexibly among the leadership styles. Bolman and Deal’s (1984) framework shows similarity to 1 UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Bensimon et al.’s (1989) and Goleman’s (2000) studies. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Successful leaders may need to operate within most or all of Corresponding Author: these frameworks depending on circumstances. The effective Mabel Tan, Centre for Pre-University Studies, UCSI University, 1, Jln leader will need multiple tools, the skill to use each of them, Menara Gading, UCSI Heights, Kuala Lumpur, 56000, Malaysia. and the wisdom to match frames to situations. The ability to Email: mabeltan@ucsiuniversity.edu.my This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License Creative Commons CC BY: (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (http://www.uk.sagepub.com/aboutus/openaccess.htm). 2 SAGE Open accountable for results, and try to solve organizational prob- Literature Review lems with either new policies and rules through restructuring Kezar and Carducci (2007) examined presidential leadership (Bolman & Deal, 1991a). essential to advancing campus diversity efforts. They inves- The human resource frame focuses attention on human tigated leadership strategies for advancing campus-wide needs and assumes that organizations that meet basic needs diversity efforts and how presidents can facilitate the will work better than those that do not. Human resource lead- advancement of diversity initiatives. The research questions ers value relationships and feelings and seek to lead through in Kezar and Carducci’s study included facilitation and empowerment. They tend to define problems in individual or interpersonal terms and look for ways to Research Question 1: What is the role of the college adjust the organization to fit people—or to adjust the people president in advancing a diversity agenda? to fit the organization. When the “fit” between the individual Research Question 2: What strategies do presidents and the organization is poor, one or both will suffer, whereas identify as important to facilitating a diversity agenda? a good fit between individual and organization benefits both (Bolman & Deal, 1991a, 1997). The political frame assumes that organizations are coali- Kezar and Carducci used qualitative methodology with tions composed of individuals and interest groups competing phone interviews and coding. Their sample was 27 presi- for scarce resources. There are enduring differences in the dents who had significant presidential experience and made values and beliefs of groups and individuals and these differ- significant progress advancing a diversity agenda, repre- ences lead to conflict. Conflict is seen as a normal by-prod- sented different institutional types or sectors in a variety of uct of collective action. Political leaders spend much of their settings, and had a reputation for being reflective about their time networking, creating coalitions, building a power base, leadership strategies. Kezar and Carducci used Boyatzis’ bargaining, and negotiating compromises (Bolman & Deal, (1998) thematic analysis, which involved both deductive and 1991a, 1997). inductive coding. Using Bolman and Deal’s four-frame The symbolic frame sees a chaotic world in which mean- approach, Kezar and Carducci (2007) noted that the human ing and predictability are social creations and facts are inter- resource frame was particularly important to presidents in pretative rather than objective. Organizations develop moving a diversity agenda forward. While this article high- symbols and culture that shape human behavior unobtru- lighted human resources strategies, the political and sym- sively and provide a shared sense of mission and identity. bolic strategies need to be better integrated into presidential Symbols are created to reduce confusion. Myths, rituals, cer- leadership as well. Future research is needed to better under- emonies, and sagas help people to find meaning from their stand the perspectives of individuals throughout a campus. experience. Symbolic leaders instill a sense of enthusiasm Doing more in-depth case studies of each campus to explore and commitment through charisma and drama. They pay the themes would have added important depth and richness diligent attention to myth, ceremony, stories, and other sym- to this study. bolic forms (Bolman & Deal, 1991a). Bensimon et al. (1989) examined the cognitive frames of This qualitative study on the leadership style of the vice- 32 college presidents and the extent to which these college chancellor in a private university uses Bolman and Deal’s presidents incorporate single or multiple frames in their (2008) four-frame model. Vice-chancellors lead the effort to descriptions of the meaning of good leadership. Bensimon help their universities grow and respond to significant used qualitative research method to examine the interview changes within the system of higher education. As the vision data of 32 university presidents. This allowed the identifica- and mission of a new private university is being shaped, the tion of their cognitive frames that reflected their espoused vice-chancellor will need to respond to each situation with theories of leadership. Data were abstracted from the total appropriate flexibility and responsiveness to change with a interview transcript, based on their ability to respond to the multi-frame perspective. As the student population grows following analytic question: How does President X define and issues arising become more complex, there is a greater good presidential leadership? Content analysis was used to need to employ multi-faceted leadership styles. There is lim- code references to elements of the four frames. Two distinct ited literature on qualitative research using this model being components were analyzed—the process of providing direc- carried out in private universities in Malaysia. This research tion for the institution and the leadership tactics used. hopes to fill the gap found in the existing research and litera- Presidents were considered to use a frame if their responses ture on the vice-chancellor’s leadership styles within private contained at least two references to that particular frame. universities in Malaysia. Presidents could thus depict themselves as espousing from The research objectives in this study are to identify lead- one to four frames. Of the 32 presidents, 13 (41%) espoused ership style implemented by the vice-chancellor and to com- single frame, 11 (34%) espoused two frames, 7 (22%) pare leadership style of the vice-chancellor as seen by the espoused three frames, and 1 (3%) espoused four frames. In vice-chancellor and his direct reports. the first part, the three frame categories using excerpts from Tan et al. 3 the interviews were described. Single-frame, paired-frame, Method and multi-frame theories were analyzed in-depth based on This qualitative study was conducted with semi-structured the interview responses. The findings showed that multi- interviews with the vice-chancellor and six of the vice-chan- frame orientations may be infrequent in presidents. Espousing cellor’s team who reported directly to him. First-hand knowl- a four-frame orientation is probably exceptional because few edge and personal experiences were obtained through the individuals display the cognitive complexity implied by this participants’ own words (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992) regarding orientation. Bensimon concluded that new presidents cluster the leadership of the vice-chancellor. It was necessary to use in the single-frame category while the more experienced interviewing as a tool to obtain information that could not be presidents clustered in multi-frame categories. Eleven out of observed such as feelings, thoughts, and impressions. 16 experienced presidents espoused theories classified as Interviews were triangulated with supporting documents and paired or multi-frame. In contrast, half of the new presidents observation. Documents included speeches written and given were clustered in the single-frame category. This could sug- by the vice-chancellor during two occasions in the university gest that the more experienced presidents were able to shift and observations captured using photographs taken on the among frames with greater ease. Espousing a multi-frame same two occasions. Observations included photographs theory implies the ability to shift frames in response to taken at the two events including one of the vice-chancellor circumstances. sitting among the stage party members during the universi- In another study comparing principal leadership in the ty’s convocation ceremony in his full official robes. Other East with the West, Lin and Shouse (2006) interviewed 15 photographs showed the vice-chancellor giving an inspiring elementary and junior high school principals in Taiwan. The 1.5 hr speech complete with slides at the vice-chancellor’s purpose of this study was to examine what leadership really distinguished guest lecture series. means within the context of change from a rigid hierarchical setting to one more dependent on distributive collegial authority. Lin and Shouse also examined what these princi- Participants pals perceive as the most profound or fundamental chal- The main participant was the vice-chancellor of a private lenges they’ve had to face in the wake of school reform, to university in Malaysia with a strong corporate background, a what extent they find meaning in Western concepts of leader- strong global presence, and an impressive academic resume. ship, and adopted these in attempting to implement the man- The other six interviewees reported directly to the vice-chan- dated reforms. The 15 elementary and junior high school cellor: one was a deputy vice-chancellor, two were vice pres- principals in Taiwan were interviewed over several months. idents, and three were deans of faculties. All the seven Qualitative methods using semi-structure interviews and interviews were held in the offices of the respective inter- observation were used to collect the data. Criterion-based viewees. Interviews allowed individuals to share their under- purposeful sampling was used to increase general represen- standing regarding leadership and its value in higher tativeness of participants and settings. Interview protocols education. were designed to get the principals’ views of leadership and education reform, as well as their perceptions about teachers, parents, and students’ concern (Lin & Shouse, 2006). For Data Collection data analysis, the whole text and material was read, and ini- tial codes were formed (open coding). They then identified An interview protocol was prepared to match the research themes and grouped statements into units (axial coding) by objectives and research questions in this study. The interview hand and by computer. In addition, the responses of the prin- questions were semi-structured so as to allow other questions cipals were organized into two ways, one by participants and to emerge during the interviewing process and additional one by research questions. For data interpretation, they ideas could be explored. The use of the interview guide developed a description of leadership concepts and chal- allowed more structure, which in turn eased the researcher’s lenges principals faced for implementing school reform. The task of organizing and analyzing interview data. The general findings showed that the interviewed principals recognized atmosphere in all interviews was very casual, with the inter- the importance of principal leadership but they were increas- viewees giving full attention at that time. In addition to their ingly influenced by Western theories of vision building, sym- ability to concentrate, their communication skills and their bolic leadership, and a focus on task and relationship. ability for self-reflection contributed greatly to the quality of Education reform had caused principals to rethink and even the interviews. Each interview conducted took approxi- change their leadership practice (Lin & Shouse, 2006). In mately 30 minutes. A tape recorder was used with permission general, the principals are open to Western models of leader- from those interviewed. ship and a more flexible model of shared vision and shared Interviews were supported with analysis of documents com- leadership. In my opinion, more than a Western model of prising a speech and a public lecture on topics of leadership. organizations and leadership is needed, given the importance Documents were useful as a secondary data source. These of private universities in developing countries. were official speeches given by the vice-chancellor during 4 SAGE Open convocation ceremonies and keynote addresses on the topic of Table 1. Criteria for Coding Frame Responses. leadership during the vice-chancellor distinguished guests’ lec- Leadership frame Frame-related keywords ture series. The speeches were also recorded with permission from the vice-chancellor and transcribed verbatim. Structural Goals, rules, roles, policies, strategy, clear, logical thinking, accountability, Used in conjunction with interviews and document analy- attention to detail, clear structure, chain sis, observations were also conducted to triangulate emerg- of command, analytical, technical, clear ing findings (Merriam, 1998). The observations were carried decisions out during the two specified events as a complete participant Human resource Relationships, needs, empowerment, where “the researcher is a member of the group being studied support, sensitive, concern for others, and conceals his or her observer role from the group so as not builds trust, open, collaborative, to disrupt the natural activity of the group” (Merriam, 1998, participative, helpful, responsive, receptive to ideas and input, recognition for good p. 100). work, good interpersonal skills, good As a complete participant who was able to see things first- listener, coach and develop people, caring hand, the researcher was able to use her own knowledge and Political Power, conflict, influence or manipulate experience in interpreting what was observed. An observa- others, ability to mobilize people and tion protocol was prepared with the research questions in resources, skillful and shrewd negotiator, mind so that it would narrow down and focus on specific persuasive, anticipates and deals with interactions and behaviors of the person or the activity. Field organizational conflict, gets support from notes with descriptions, direct quotations, and observer com- people in power, strong support base, succeeds in conflicts, strong alliances, ments were recorded soon after the observations (Merriam, tough, aggressive 1998). For that purpose, the researcher carried around her Symbolic Culture, rituals, ceremonies, symbols, journal and recorded her observations as soon as possible story-telling, celebrations, able to excite after an observation. and motivate, inspirational, energize and inspire, charismatic, imaginative, creative, sense of mission, generates enthusiasm, Data Analysis generates loyalty Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four leadership frames were used as guiding questions during the semi-structured interviews. The purpose was to identify how many and which of the four sources was constantly compared with all other codes to iden- leadership frames were perceived as the vice-chancellor’s tify similarities, differences, and general patterns. At the third preferred frames. Identities of the interview participants level of analysis, data were reduced and a matrix was com- were kept confidential. Four main levels of data analysis piled with the four leadership frames as thematic codes. This were employed. At the first level of analysis, all the inter- allowed the researcher to determine whether there was a pat- views were recorded with permission and were transcribed tern among interview responses, speeches, and observations. verbatim. Transcribing the interviews verbatim provided a At the final level of analysis, content analysis for the four lead- complete database for analysis (Merriam, 2009). At the sec- ership frames was carried out to allow for a quantitative output ond level of analysis, the data obtained were uploaded into from the interviews. Occurrences of the quotes matching each the computer-aided software Atlas.ti (Version 7). This soft- of the codes were counted and tabulated. ware was used for the purpose of qualitative data analysis of the transcribed interviews, documents, and observations. Trustworthiness of the Study Coding was done using the Atlas.ti software. Seven inter- views, two speeches, and observations made as a complete The following strategies were employed to ensure trustwor- participant were uploaded as primary documents into the thiness in this study: hermeneutics unit (HU) of the software. Deductive coding was used by identifying parts of the Triangulation. Multiple sources of data were used to deter- transcripts that resonated with the four leadership frames mine the leadership frames of the vice-chancellor and its mentioned—structural, human resource, political, and sym- impact on organizational climate in the university. Interviews bolic. Indicators for coding the interview transcripts are sum- were conducted, documents were analyzed, and observations marized in Table 1. The coding system is simple and allowed were made to provide more depth in support of the quantita- the researcher to make reliable judgments about the presence tive data obtained by the results of the survey. or absence of frames as perceived by the interviewed partici- pants and by the vice-chancellor. Member checks. The raw data in the form of transcripts were The data were analyzed using constant comparative returned to each participant with the request that they review method, where data from the interviews, documents collected, it to ensure the accuracy of the information recorded during and observations were compared. Each code from the various the interviews. On review, the participants signed on a form Tan et al. 5 stating that they had reviewed the transcription and were sat- It’s about clarity of thought; it’s about clarity of your strategy. It’s all about clarity. So, when you are clear about the strategy, isfied that the information was indeed accurate. you have the ability to overcome dilemma. Most of the time we have dilemma because we’re not clear and we’re not focused. Researcher’s bias. The researcher assumed the stance of a (P8: para 41) complete participant while collecting information as an observer. According to Merriam (1998), this may cause a Similarly, excerpts from the interview with the rest of the “loss of perspective on the group, being labeled a spy or Participants B to F supported what Participant A said about traitor when research activities are revealed, and the ques- the vice-chancellor being clearly focused on the outcome. tionable ethics of deceiving the other participants” (Mer- riam, 1998, p. 100). A researcher should examine and Participant B: “He is definitely a person who is very clear about carefully scrutinize his or her own familiarity with the topic what goals he has to set.” (P2: para 57) and its source for a possible bias (Creswell, 2008). Higher education researchers share the problem of being insiders Participant C: “Establishing clear strategic intent and within their area of research. The interviewers and inter- documenting it and indoctrinating it.” (P3: para 26) viewees may be working in the same field and very often know each other. The aim was, as much as possible, to ben- Participant D: “VC has several strengths . . . a strong analytical efit from the researcher’s inside knowledge and, as much as mind, he is very clear about things, has clarity of thought, possible, minimize the bias of studying one’s own tremendous problem-solving skills. He can close cases very university. well.” (P4: para 26) Participant E: “He’s quite focused I would say. Being a focused Fieldwork journal. The researcher kept a journal detailing the person, he has good follow-up on targets, on deadlines, timing, observations and thoughts of the researcher during the data time-lines and so on.” (P5: para 68) gathering process. Participant F: “Like VC keeps saying the structure must fit the Results strategy to fit the vision. Once you have that in place and then you get the people to achieve that vision that you set out to do.” Structural Frame (P6: para 76) Excerpts from the interview with Participant A clearly Likewise, the vice-chancellor himself was able to evalu- showed that one of the vice-chancellor’s preferred leadership ate clarity of outcome-based focus as one of his leadership frames is the structural frame. From the interview with strengths: Participant A, the vice-chancellor is seen to be very focused on the outcome in the processes that has to take place in the I’m very good at conceptualizing a vision, then I articulate and university: share the vision continuously, repetitively, and tenaciously with the people whom I want them to buy-in the vision. Then, I will I see a man who is thoroughly focused in achieving what he sit down with everyone to make sure everyone has got the ability needs to achieve without giving in to things based on his to achieve the common vision in their respective roles. So, my emotions. (P1: para 17) strength is conceptualizing a goal, coaching and supporting a team to achieve the goal. And that is my leadership strength. He can sit in a meeting, and people will be talking and talking, (P7: para 18) and in the end he will summarize everything for you because he’s paying close attention to what is said because he is focused And again triangulating this with Observation 1 where the on the outcome that needs to be achieved. (P1: para 66) vice-chancellor gave a public lecture, someone in the audi- ence commented, The man who talks, who thinks about rules, policies, roles, and goals, come out very clearly when you pay close attention to his To successfully lead his team, a good leader must have a clear and public lectures. (P1: para 21) focused vision. I think that’s very important because there are different politics and issues in every organization. (P12: para 31) Triangulating this last quote with the documented speech 1 where the vice-chancellor gave a public lecture, the struc- tural frame comes across clearly in outcome-focused, goal- Human Resource Frame focused processes. Here the vice-chancellor has the following to say: Excerpts from the interview with Participant A also showed that another one of the vice-chancellor’s preferred leadership First of all, it is important all of us must have very clear and frame is the human resource frame. From the interview with focused directions and strategy. (P8: para 139) Participant A, the vice-chancellor is seen placing emphasis 6 SAGE Open Table 2. Interview Questions and the Corresponding Leadership Frames. Interview questions Leadership frame 1. How would you describe an effective leader? 2. What would you consider to be VC’s leadership strengths? 3. How do you see VC’s leadership in the areas of rules, roles, goals, policies? Structural 4. Are human relationships an important feature in VC’s leading the university? Human resource 5. How does VC handle power and conflict within the university? Political 6. How important is culture and celebration in VC’s leading of the university? Symbolic Note. VC = vice-chancellor. on providing direction by being responsive to individual criticism very well. That is actually one of his strong points.” (P6: para 36) needs, showing high levels of support and concern for peo- ple. He sees leadership as attending to the needs of people The vice-chancellor himself was passionate about invest- and investing in people: ing in people and the importance of a healthy working rela- His ability to mobilize, to motivate the staff and employees, to tionship with his subordinates when he said, look at the vision and mission of the institution, and set a path or develop a strategy to achieve it, through the people. (P1: para 9) Human relationship is very important and leaders cannot get things done by themselves, I cannot get things done by myself. I When you have a need, and you go to him, he responds very can only get things done through my people. So my relationship quickly, he makes time, so you can take that as an indication that with my colleagues, my peers must be there. (P7: para 38) he values human relationships as well. (P1: para 25) When asked about what he thought would be the charac- He is trying to make sure that he invests in other people. So, as teristics of an effective leader, the vice-chancellor said, a direct report, I think I really enjoyed working for him because I’ve learnt to rethink issues, I’ve learnt to place certain things, An effective leader is somebody who can cause, not just one on a different level of importance, I’ve also learnt not to react [but] a group of people that can work together and achieve a emotionally . . . and focus on the outcome. (P1: para 45) common goal, effectively. Then the leader is an effective leader. But most of all, when this group of people, when they . . . after Similarly, excerpts from the interview with the rest of the having achieved their common goal effectively, they think that participants supported what Participant A said about the they have achieved it all by themselves. (P7: para 11) vice-chancellor investing in people (Participant B), being The vice-chancellor was clear about coaching by leading responsive to individual needs (Participant C), and being a from behind, not from the front. Triangulating this quote coach (Participant D). with the documented speech 1 where the vice-chancellor Participant B: “VC believes in if the person has potential then gave a public lecture, he said, the person must be given a chance.” (P2: para 73) The great leaders in the world are those who have led you to Participant C: “I’ve known him to have various staff just walking move from point A to point B, and have you thinking that you to his office, you know, and asking for his time and I’ve seen have arrived there all by yourself. (P8: para 123) him being very considerate and he listens out.” (P3: para 54) In the interview with the vice-chancellor, he was also Participant D: “He emphasizes coaching others how to be a good clear about this: leader. I recall an incident where I mentioned I had to conduct an enquiry, and he corrected me ‘not enquiry; coaching session’. I want them to arrive there by themselves with an invisible hand. He is both a coach and an educator.” (P4: para 26) (P7: para 26) The vice-chancellor is also a leader who builds trust When asked what was most memorable during his office through open and collaborative relationships (Participant E) as the vice-chancellor, he said, and is both friendly and approachable (Participant F). It’s transformation of an individual and collectively more Participant E: “He has a very consultative approach when he individuals—that is most memorable. Those are the most wants to build his strategy.” (P5: para 13) important memorable events to me as a vice-chancellor. It’s not about how good I have transformed the university. It’s how Participant F: “I think he is quite friendly to the staff. I think he much I have transformed individuals. My job as a vice- respects the staff. He doesn’t mind criticism. He accepts chancellor is to transform individual by individual, and hopefully Tan et al. 7 individuals that I have transformed, they then work together collectively and transform the rest. (P7: para 106) What drives my leadership style is entirely based on principle. It’s a principle-driven leadership style. (P7: para 34) And again triangulating this with Observation 1 where the vice-chancellor gave a public lecture, someone in the audi- The vice-chancellor’s view on not going after power was ence commented, also supported by Participant A who reiterated that the vice- chancellor was not after power or position because he was The role of a leader is not so much about letting everyone already a highly self-actualized person: know that you are one. It’s about helping your people grow. (P12: para 32) VC is a very highly self-actualized individual. Position as a VC is an insignificant thing for him. It’s not the position that brings From the few quotes above, it is clear that the vice-chan- value to him. It’s what’s within the office that he can do, he has cellor is a leader who truly values human relationships. He always taught us. You know it’s not so much the person, it’s the shows genuine concern for his people. From the interviews office of the person. For example, the office of the vice- chancellor needs to be respected, not him. (P1: para 33) with the vice-chancellor’s direct reports who may know him a little more than the rest, the vice-chancellor is seen as a From the above quotes, it is seen that the vice-chancellor coach and mentor to them. This is reflected in the interviews is able to manage conflict and opposition but appears to pre- with his direct reports on this aspect of his leadership. fer not to be embroiled in them. This arises from the percep- tion that the vice-chancellor holds on to his principles and is Political Frame not one who goes after power. Although the vice-chancellor Excerpts from the interviews with Participants A to F showed was not perceived to use the political frame, it could also that the political frame is the vice-chancellor’s least preferred have been because there were sufficient resources in the uni- leadership frame. The vice-chancellor is not seen to build versity as politics usually emerges when resources are scarce. strong alliances or power bases. Participant A had the follow- ing to say: Symbolic Frame One of the staff members asked him, based on his experience in Excerpts from the interview with Participants A to F showed the corporate world, how he achieves what he needs to achieve, that the symbolic frame is not reflected as one of the vice- if there’s conflict. He said, ‘You need to see, wait for the tipping chancellor’s preferred leadership frames. This is possibly point to happen.’ Meaning some people may stay, some people because the vice-chancellor did not have sufficient time in may leave because of that, so those who stay are those who the campus, so whatever little time he had was spent in believe in your leadership and will go along with you to achieve meetings and decision making, in the company of the people the plans, those who do not believe what you can achieve, then they will make a choice to leave, and I think that in this he was with (Participant A). It also suggests that whatever institution, we saw instances of that. (P1: para 17) celebration the vice-chancellor initiated is not so much for symbolic purposes, but to arrive at an intended outcome Participant D agreed with Participant A that the vice- (Participant C). chancellor is good at handling conflict, and had the follow- ing to say: Participant A: “I think in context of celebration, he’s not a person who is big on celebrating, you know, like birthdays or anything like that, but it’s just the company, for him he celebrates the VC can resolve conflict very well. He is very clear. He is able to company of the people he’s with.” (P1: para 45) look at the situation. He doesn’t get caught up in emotions. Then he is able to provide solutions. I take my hats off to him—he resolves cases, closes cases very well. (P4: para 42) Participant C: “VC has always been a person that looks at celebrations as an excuse to do something . . . we tend to look at celebrations and sometime we may lose focus of our actual The vice-chancellor himself explained why he preferred intent, so (what) VC does is he makes sure that whatever we not to be embroiled in conflicts while he held the office as celebrate, the culture is always to come back and to refocus on the vice-chancellor: what is the actual intent of doing this.” (P3: para 46) The power and conflict is a very interesting thing. If you don’t However, the vice-chancellor himself feels that he does try to gain power there’s no conflict. It’s a very simple thing. For communicate a strong and challenging vision and sense of me, you notice, I never go after power. So when I lead this mission when he said, university, it’s not because I have power, it’s because number one, I set an example by principle. Second, I walk the talk and I’m very good at conceptualizing a vision, then I articulate and coach my colleagues to do things. So, as long as I do not go after share the vision continuously, repetitively, and tenaciously with power, there will not be conflict. Conflict comes about because the people whom I want them to buy-in the vision. (P7: para 18) there is a struggle of power. (P7: para 46) 8 SAGE Open From the above quotes, it can be seen that the vice-chan- Table 3. The Number of Occurrences of the Four Leadership Frames From Interviews Conducted With Participants A to F. cellor looks at symbols and celebrations as a means to com- municate a sense of vision and mission with his people. This Frame P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 Total reflects the symbolic frame, which includes the ability to Human resource 6 5 5 4 1 1 22 excite and motivate, and to energize and inspire a sense of Political 2 1 1 1 1 1 7 mission. This is further supported in the speeches docu- Structural 14 5 4 1 6 4 34 mented, which showed that the symbolic frame is actually Symbolic 2 2 2 0 0 0 6 one of the vice-chancellor’s preferred leadership frames, besides the structural and human resource frames. This can Note. P1 = primary document 1, Participant A; P2 = primary document be seen in the way the vice-chancellor engaged his audience 2, Participant B; P3 = primary document 3, Participant C; P4 = primary document 4, Participant D; P5 = primary document 5, Participant E; P6 = with stories about “Psy,” Steve Jobs, and many others to primary document 6, Participant F. bring across important lessons for his audience. To be able to inspire through storytelling is one of the indicators of the symbolic frame. Table 4. The Number of Occurrences of the Four Leadership Frames From Vice-Chancellor’s (VC) Interview, Documents, and So, as you can see, this young man, Mr. Park, thirty-thirty four Observations. years of age, Korean, one song, one hit, he made it. More than one billion viewers on YouTube. He earns ten million year-to- Frame P7 P8 P12 P16 P17 Total date. So it is thirty five million ringgit, you know, in our Human resource 8 7 1 1 0 17 Malaysian terms. (P8: para 39) Political 2 0 0 0 0 2 Structural 3 7 2 0 0 12 Steve Jobs, at the very early days, he made a decision, what Symbolic 2 11 0 1 1 15 climate and culture he wanted for the organization. He said we should be pirates and not navy because navy is “command and Note. P7 = primary document 7, VC’s interview; P8 = primary document control.” Pirates are very different thing. How many of you have 8, Speech 1; P12 = primary document 12, Observation 1; P16 = primary worked with pirates before? (P8: para 63) document 16, Speech 2; P17 = primary document 17, Observation 2. The vice-chancellor’s direct reports agreed that the vice- chancellor communicates a strong and challenging vision matching each of the codes. These were quantified and and sense of mission. He is highly charismatic and inspires presented in Tables 3 and 4, and in graphical form in others to do their best sometimes even through inspirational Figures 1 and 2. storytelling. The vice-chancellor also sees beyond current Table 3 and Figure 1 showed the number of occurrences realities to create exciting new opportunities. He is an inspi- of the codes, structural, human resource, political, and sym- ration to others, and serves as an influential model of organi- bolic, based on the interviews with Participants A to F, in zational aspirations and values. table format and a graphical format generated using Excel. In summary, the vice-chancellor is perceived to be strong From the data analysis presented in Table 3 and Figure 1, in three out of the four frames—the structural, human the vice-chancellor was perceived to use the structural resource, and symbolic frames. However, he did not seem to frame and the human resource frame a lot more than the exhibit the political frame much compared with the other other two frames. three frames. Figure 1 showed that during the interviews with Participants A, B, and C, the structural frame and the human resource frame recorded more occurrences. Interviews with Quantitative Output From Qualitative Data Participants D, E, and F showed either the structural frame or Analysis the human resource frame as the major frame exhibited by At the final level of analysis, content analysis of the four the vice-chancellor. Comparatively, both the political frame leadership frames was carried out to allow for a quantita- and the symbolic frames were not exhibited much, a pattern tive output from the interviews. Content analysis is a valu- seen throughout all the interviews with the six participants. able tool for qualitative researchers because it allows the The total from Participants A to F also recorded two of the researcher to simplify and reduce a large amount of data. It four frames with higher number of occurrences—the human uses pre-designed categories in much the same way as resource frame and the structural frame. quantitative researchers use operational definitions at the Content analysis of the four leadership frames was also beginning of the research. It is based on counting and thus analyzed from the interview with the vice-chancellor, the allows quantitative analysis of what was originally qualita- documented speeches made by the vice-chancellor, and the tive data. In this study, the researcher used the Atlas.ti soft- observations conducted by this researcher, using the Atlas. ware to generate the number of occurrences of the quotes ti software. Table 4 and Figure 2 showed the number of Tan et al. 9 from this study supports Mohanan and Shah’s (2011) conten- tion that given the complex nature of the contemporary presi- dency, the use of at least three frames is critical to effectively lead the organization. 25 Human Resource Polical In this study, the vice-chancellor was perceived to use Structural three out of the four frames. The multi-frame leadership style Symbolic is an important indication of leadership effectiveness, which is consistent with Thompson’s (2000) study asserting the 123456 7 benefits of a multi-frame orientation. The vice-chancellor with his multi-frame leadership style is able to influence Figure 1. Graph of quantitative output showing the number organizational effectiveness with his strategies that is out- of occurrences of the four leadership frames from interviews come-focused (structural frame), encourage employee conducted with Participants A to F. involvement and empowerment in decision making (human Note. 1 = Participant A; 2 = Participant B; 3 = Participant C; 4 = resource frame), and inspire them with his stories (symbolic Participant D; 5 = Participant E; 6 = Participant F; 7 = total (A-F). frame). This allows for greater teamwork, commitment, communication, empowerment, and recognition, which may lead to organizational success. The structural frame is recognized in the vice-chancellor’s outcome-focused, goal-focused strategies for the university. Human Resource In institutions of higher learning, efficiency and effective- Polical Structural ness in approaching problems through careful thinking, plan- Symbolic ning, and logical analysis need to be emphasized. The structural frame is about how to organize and structure 123456 groups and teams to get results. The human resource frame is recognized in the vice-chan- cellor as a leader who truly valued human relationships. The Figure 2. Graph of quantitative output showing the number of vice-chancellor showed genuine concern for his people, and occurrences of the four leadership frames from VC’s interview, speeches, and observation. was both a coach and a mentor to some of his direct reports Note. 1 = VC’s interview; 2 = Speech 1; 3 = Observation 1; 4 = Speech 2; during his tenure as vice-chancellor in the university. Leaders 5 = Observation 2; 6 = total (1-5). VC = vice-chancellor. need to show sensitivity and concern for employee’s feelings and needs, and the personal recognition of the work well occurrences of the codes, structural, human resource, polit- done. The human resource frame is about how to tailor orga- ical, and symbolic, based on the interview with the vice- nizations to satisfy human needs, improve human resource chancellor, the speeches, and the observations made, in management, and build positive interpersonal and group table format and a graphical format generated using Excel. dynamics. From the data analysis presented in Table 4 and Figure 2, The symbolic frame is seen in the way the vice-chancellor three of the four frames were clearly seen as the vice-chan- engages his audience with stories and analogies to bring cellor’s preferred frames. These were the human resource, important lessons across. Leaders need to communicate a structural, and symbolic frames. This finding confirms the strong and challenging vision and sense of mission to the earlier conclusion that the vice-chancellor indeed exhibited people. The symbolic frame is about how to shape a culture the same three frames. This means that the vice-chancellor that gives purpose and meaning to work, stage organizational exhibited three out of the four frames (multiple frames). drama for internal and external audiences, and build team Bolman and Deal (1992) suggested that the ability to use spirit through ritual, ceremony, and story. multiple frames is an important indication of leadership The leadership frame that was not exhibited as much by effectiveness. This then indicates that the vice-chancellor is the vice-chancellor in this study was the political frame. This an effective leader as he exhibited multiple frames in his finding is consistent with Tull and Freeman’s (2011) study, leading of the university. where only 1.8% of the participants had the political frame as a preferred frame. Winton and Pollock’s (2013) study on principal leadership in Ontario, Canada, suggests that there Discussion and Conclusion is a need for principal preparation programs to develop aspir- Studies using Bolman and Deal’s model uncovered a rela- ing leaders’ political skills. The political frame is about how tionship between leadership effectiveness and choice of to cope with power and conflict, build coalitions, hone politi- frames used, with multiple frames being associated with cal skills, and deal with internal and external politics. Bennis more effective leadership (Thompson, 2000). The finding (1994) lends credibility and wisdom to the discussion by 10 SAGE Open maintaining that leadership is largely a function of collabora- education. Washington, DC: School of Education and Human Development, The George Washington University. tion and coalition building. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for Further work could include using the Bolman and Deal education: An introduction to theory and methods (2nd ed.). framework to identify and compare the leadership styles of Needham Heights, MA: Allyn Bacon. vice-chancellors in public universities and private universi- Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1984). Modern approaches to under- ties. This would make an interesting study to identify any standing and managing organizations (1st ed.). San Francisco, differences in public and private sectors in leadership frames CA: Jossey-Bass. used by vice-chancellors of these institutions. In addition, Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991a). Images of leadership (NCEL leadership frames of vice-chancellors from academic and Occasional Paper No. 7). The National Center for Educational corporate backgrounds can be compared. This will provide Leadership. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED greater understanding of the way these vice-chancellors run 332345) the universities based on their different backgrounds. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991b). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: The study of how many frames a vice-chancellor uses may Jossey-Bass. be useful criteria for future appointments of vice-chancellors Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1992). Leading and managing: Effects into private universities. In Malaysia, private higher educa- of context, culture, and gender. Educational Administration tion is expanding very rapidly. The demand for places in pri- Quarterly, 28, 314-329. doi:10.1177/0013161x92028003005 vate higher education institutions have increased significantly Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: as the government pushes for a knowledge-based economy Artistry, choice, and leadership (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: before the year 2020. This is a most crucial area for study, Jossey-Bass. especially in the countries that are developing and upgrading Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing organizations: their private colleges to the status of new private universities. Artistry, choice, and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Given the importance of private universities in developing Jossey-Bass. countries, the findings of this study can therefore help to pro- Boyatzis, R. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Thousand Oaks, CA: vide a broader direction to leadership in private higher educa- SAGE. tion in this country. Covey, S. R. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Delimitations of the Study Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, con- ducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. In this study, Bolman and Deal’s framework is used as an ana- Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. lytical tool, not a predictive tool. Using this framework, the Goleman, D. (2000, March-April). Leadership that gets results. researcher is making some association to examine the leader- Harvard Business Review, 2000, 1-15. ship styles of one vice-chancellor of a private university in Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Malaysia. Bolman and Deal’s frame of leadership styles is Theory, research, and practice (6th ed.). New York, NY: used as a point of analysis to demonstrate leader self-awareness. McGraw-Hill. Based on Bolman and Deal’s (1984) four-frame model, if Kezar, A., & Carducci, R. (2007). Cultivating revolutionary edu- cational leaders: Translating emerging theories into action. three or more frames are expressed, leadership effectiveness is Journal of Research on Leadership Education, 2(1), 1-46. perceived. Use of multi-frame orientation is linked to per- doi:10.1177/194277510700200104 ceived leadership effectiveness. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Declaration of Conflicting Interests Lin, K.-P., & Shouse, R. C. (April, 2006). East meets West: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Principal leadership and Taiwan school reform. Paper pre- to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. sented at the AERA Annual meeting Education research in the public interest, San Francisco, CA . Funding Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applica- tions in education (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and authorship of this article. implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Mohanan, M. L., & Shah, A. J. (2011). Having the right tools: References The leadership frames of university presidents. The Coastal Bennis, W. (1994). On becoming a leader. Reading, MA: Perseus. Business Journal, 10(1), 14-30. Bennis, W. (1995). Leadership theory and administrative behavior: Sergiovanni, T. J. (1984). Leadership and excellence in schooling. The problem of authority. Administrative Science Quarterly, Educational Leadership, 41(5), 4-13. 4, 259-260. Thompson, M. D. (2000). Gender, leadership orientation, and effec- Bensimon, E. M., Neumann, A., & Birnbaum, R. (1989). Making tiveness: Testing the theoretical models of Bolman & Deal and sense of administrative leadership: The “L” word in higher Quinn. Sex Roles, 42, 969-992. Tan et al. 11 Tull, A., & Freeman, J. P. (2011). Reframing student affairs lead- been involved in the private higher education industry for more than ership: An analysis of organizational frames of reference and 20 years. Currently, she is the Director, Centre for Pre-University locus of control. Research in the Schools, 18(1), 33-43. Studies at UCSI University Kuala Lumpur. Winton, S., & Pollock, K. (2013). Preparing politically savvy Dr Tie Fatt Hee is a professor in the Faculty of Law, University of principals in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Educational Malaya. His area of expertise is in Company Law, Education Law Administration, 51(1), 40-54. and International Trade Law, Law and Economics. Dr Chua Yan Piaw is a professor in the Institute of Educational Author Biographies Leadership, University of Malaya. He teaches research methods Dr Mabel Tan obtained her PhD in Educational Leadership in and statistics courses to postgraduate studentsat the Unit for 2014 from the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.Dr. Mabel has Enhancement of Academic Performance, University of Malaya.
SAGE Open – SAGE
Published: Mar 23, 2015
Keywords: Bolman and Deal; leadership frames; leadership effectiveness
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