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Whole wheat cracker fortified with biocalcium and protein hydrolysate powders from salmon frame: characteristics and nutritional value

Whole wheat cracker fortified with biocalcium and protein hydrolysate powders from salmon frame:... Objectives: This study aimed to develop whole wheat crackers fortified with biocalcium (BC) and protein hydrolysate (PH) powders from salmon frame at varying substitution levels. Materials and Methods: Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and protein hydrolysate PH powders from salmon frame was produced. BC and PH powders or their mixtures at different ratios (3:1, 1:1, 1:3) were used to fortify the dough mix at a substitution level of 16.67% based on the whole wheat flour content. The physical, textural, sensory, and nutritional profiles of the crackers produced were examined and compared with crackers without fortification. Results: The weight, colour, textural properties, and thickness of the crackers varied with the addition of different ratios of BC and PH powders. The incorporation of BC/PH at ratio (3:1) showed no negative effect on sensory properties. The crackers thus produced possessed higher protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and cholesterol but lower carbohydrate, sugar, fibre, and energy value than the control crackers without fortification. The crackers contained 0.026–0.045 mg/100 g polyunsaturated fatty acid. Developed crackers had a denser structure and were less porous than the control crackers as shown in scanning electron microscopic images. In scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic (SEM-EDX) analysis, the crackers fortified with BC/PH at ratio (3:1) had higher calcium and phosphorus contents and intensity than the control. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that the addition of BC and PH powders obtained from salmon frame represent a promising means of increasing the nutritive values of crackers. Key words: whole wheat cracker; biocalcium; protein hydrolysate; salmon frame; fortification. to be worth 66 billion USD (Han et al., 2010). Although the market Introduction is relatively saturated, the high demand for healthy food presents op- The worldwide market for snack foods, including corn chips, pea- portunities for the development of snack foods with a high nutritive nuts, potato chips, crackers, and meat snacks was estimated in 2003 © The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 192 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 value. In previous work, crackers made from whole wheat fortified textural, sensory, and nutritional profiles of the crackers produced were with biocalcium (BC) from tuna bone (Benjakul and Karnjanapratum, examined and compared with crackers without fortification. 2018), biscuits fortified with shrimp oil containing high polyunsatur - ated fatty acids and astaxanthin (Takeungwongtrakul and Benjakul, Materials and Methods 2017), high fibre sponge cake fortified with cabbage leaf powder Materials (Prokopov et  al., 2015), wheat flour-blend cookies enriched with protein from malted soybean (Bashir et al., 2015) and wheat cookies All the ingredients including sugar, commercial whole wheat flour fortified with amaranth flour (Sindhuja et al., 2005) have all been de- (Imperial, KCG Corporation Co., Ltd, Bangkok, Thailand), salt, un- veloped for introduction into the market to promote healthy foods. salted butter (Orchid, Indofood Sukses Makmur Tbk, Jawa Tengah, Protein hydrolysate (PH) from fish-processing wastes are a good Indonesia), baking powder, and peanut butter (Jif, J.M. Smucker source of health promoting ingredients due to the presence of bio- Company, OH) were procured from a supermarket in Songkhla logically active peptides (Sinthusamran et al., 2019). PH is also rich Province, Thailand. in amino acids which play a vital role in the physiological activity of the human body (Chalamaiah et  al., 2012). Recently, Idowu Preparation of PH powder et al. (2019) prepared PH from salmon frame in two forms namely, Salmon (Salmo salar) frames were obtained from Kingfisher Holdings ‘mince’ and ‘chunk’ using proteases (alcalase and papain). The PH Ltd, Songkhla, Thailand and were cut into 4–5 cm pieces, termed ‘chunk from chunk with alcalase showed a higher nutritive value, compared frames’ using an electric sawing machine. They were subjected to hy- to its mince counterpart as indicated by a higher amount of amino drolysis using proteases (alcalase and papain) as detailed by Idowu et al. acids. This PH could therefore be used as a supplement to improve (2019). After hydrolysis, the mixture was centrifuged at 4000g for 15 min the amino acid content in baked foods. (Beckman, JE-AVANTI, Fullerton, CA). The supernatant was freeze-dried Apart from PH, poultry and fishery wastes such as egg shells and using a freeze dryer (CoolSafe 55, ScanLaf A/S, Lynge, Denmark) and the fish bones have been used to develop new products such as BC (Hassan, PH powder produced was used for the preparation of crackers. 2015; Benjakul et al., 2017). It was discovered that BC (rich in calcium and phosphorus), obtained from fish processing wastes, such as bones, Preparation of BC powder possessed high amounts of phosphopeptides associated with high Fish bone residues obtained after hydrolysis were the raw material used amounts of soluble Ca salts in the gastrointestinal tract, thus increasing for the production of BC powder. The bones were subjected to alkaline the intake of calcium (Jung and Kim, 2007). This was in agreement treatment (2 M NaOH, at 50°C, for 30 min) and thoroughly washed as with the study of Malde et  al. (2010), who reported that piglets fed described by Benjakul et al. (2017). Thereafter, the bones were defatted salmon bone containing phosphopeptides showed higher Ca absorption by treatment with hexane, bleached with sodium hypochlorite and than piglets fed with calcium carbonate without phosphopeptides. BC hydrogen peroxide. The samples were dried in a rotary tray dryer (at obtained from salmon frame contains high amounts of minerals such 50°C, for 5 h) and ground into a powder with the aid of a ball mill (PM as calcium and phosphorus. Thus, BC from fish processing waste such 100, 127 Retsch GmbH, Haan, Germany). The BC powder obtained as salmon frame could be used to fortify snack foods such as crackers. was sieved using a sieve shaker (Vibratory Sieve Shaker analysette3Pro, Healthy foods including snacks containing dietary fibre have gained FRITSCHGmbH, Deutschland, Germany) to obtain a particle size of significant interest and the demand for them has grown. Whole wheat less than 75 µm. The BC powder was used to fortify the crackers. food products can be regarded as health-promoting foods because they are rich in fibre. Fibres has a physiological effect on transit time and Impact of BC and PH powders on the characteristics faecal bulk and the consumption of whole wheat products has been and properties of whole wheat crackers endorsed as being beneficial to health (Campbell et al., 1991). Crackers made from whole wheat flour are generally crunchy with a hard texture Production of whole wheat crackers and in addition to fibre supplementation, other aspects of the nutritive Whole wheat crackers were prepared using the traditional method and value of crackers can also be improved. Thus, the addition of BC and formulation detailed by Benjakul and Karnjanapratum (2018) with a PH powders obtained from salmon frame represent a promising means slight modification. The original dough formulation used to produce of increasing the nutritive values of crackers. Nevertheless, the amount the whole wheat crackers based on dough weight was: 1.4% salt, and proportions of BC and PH powders incorporated into crackers 2.1% baking powder, 2.6% sugar, 6.0% peanut butter, 13.8% butter, could alter their quality as well as their acceptability to consumers. This 14.1% water, and 60% whole wheat flour. Meanwhile, wheat flour study aimed to develop whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH was substituted with BC, PH or their mixtures at a level of 16.67% of powders from salmon frame at varying substitution levels. The physical, whole wheat flours (w/w) for other formulations as given in Table 1. Table 1 Ingredients and formulation of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders or their mixture at different ratios. Ingredients Salt (g) Baking Sugar (g) Peanut Butter (g) Water (g) Whole wheat BC (g) PH (g) formulation powder (g) butter (g) flour (g) BC 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 10 — BC/PH (3:1) 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 7.5 2.5 BC/PH (1:1) 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 5.0 5.0 BC/PH (1:3) 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 2.5 7.5 PH 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 — 10 Control 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 60.0 — — *Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 193 The ingredients were mixed in a dough mixer (KitchenAid casserole Chemical composition, energy value, and mineral profile multifunctional 5k, KitchenAid, Benton Harbor, MC) for 3 min. The The crackers were analysed for protein, fat, ash, cholesterol, dietary fibre, cracker dough was sheeted to a thickness of 0.3 mm with rectangular and total carbohydrate contents (AOAC, 2002). Ca and P in the crackers shape (2.4 × 7.0 cm ). The shaped cracker dough was baked in an elec- were determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spec- tric oven (Mamaru MR-1214, Mamaru Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand) trometer (ICP-OES) (Model Optima 4300 DV, Perkin Elmer, Shelton, at 140°C for 40 min. The crackers were cooled at room temperature MA) as illustrated by Feist and Mikula (2014). For determination of for 1 h after baking. Thereafter, they were subjected to analyses. fatty acid profile in the samples, lipids were firstly extracted from the samples according to the method of Bligh and Dyer (1959). The fatty acids were determined as detailed by Muhammed et al. (2015). Analyses Physical and textural properties Physical parameters such as weight, length, and thickness of the Scanning electron microscopy crackers were determined as described by Saha et  al. (2011). The Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to visualise the micro- fracturability and cutting force of the crackers were measured with structure of crackers as described by Benjakul and Karnjanapratum the aid of a texture analyser (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, (2018). Surrey, UK) as described by Benjakul and Karnjanapratum (2018). The colour of the samples was determined using a colourimeter Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray (ColorFlex, Hunter Lab Reston, VA) as guided by Takeungwongtrakul spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) et al. (2015). Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectros- copy was used to determine the elemental profile of crackers as de- tailed by Lin et al. (2011). Water activity and moisture content Water activity metre (4TEV, Aqualab, Pullman, WA) was used to Statistical analysis measure water activity (aw) and moisture content was also deter- mined (AOAC, 2002). Experiments were run in triplicate with completely randomised de- sign (CRD) for characteristics and textural properties of crackers. T-tests were used to determine the chemical composition and energy Sensory evaluation value of the crackers. Data were subjected to analysis of variance Sensory evaluation of cracker samples was conducted by 50 un- (ANOVA) and mean comparisons were carried out using Duncan’s trained panellists. Odour, colour, appearance, texture, taste, flavour, multiple range test. All analysis were performed using the SPSS and overall acceptability/likeness were assessed using a nine- package (SPSS for Windows, Inc., Chicago, IL). point hedonic scale, in which a score of 1  =  not like very much, 5  =  neither like nor dislike, and 9  =  like extremely (Benjakul and Karnjanapratum, 2018). The samples were randomly marked Results and Discussion with three-digit codes and served. Between the samples, the panel- lists were asked to rinse their mouth with water (Carr et al., 2001; Characteristics and textural properties of the whole Benjakul and Karnjanapratum, 2018). wheat crackers fortified with different ratios of BC and PH powders Characterization of the selected whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powders Weight and dimensions Crackers fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture at 16.67% substitu- Physical parameters, such as length weight, thickness, and width of tion of wheat flour were prepared as described previously. Control the whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powders from crackers were also prepared using a typical formulation without BC salmon frame at various ratios are given in Table 2. Similar weights and PH powders. Thereafter, both samples were subjected to analyses. (4.05–4.36  g) were observed for all the whole wheat crackers (P > Table 2 Characteristics and textural properties of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders or their mixture at different ratios. Parameters Control BC BC/PH (3:1) BC/PH (1:1) BC/PH (1:3) PH d e c b a a L* 77.38 ± 0.73 84.24 ± 0.90 62.28 ± 0.96 59.43 ± 0.28 56.50 ± 0.75 55.48 ± 0.36 c a a b d d a* 8.32 ± 0.75 4.98 ± 0.24 4.77 ± 0.50 6.89 ± 0.46 11.28 ± 0.37 10.63 ± 0.05 cd b a c d cd b* 32.36 ± 0.45 29.82 ± 0.87 25.91 ± 0.47 31.60 ± 0.83 33.08 ± 0.84 32.86 ± 0.91 b a c e f d ΔE* 37.24 ± 0.96 31.55 ± 0.48 38.90 ± 0.81 49.22 ± 0.50 51.32 ± 0.31 43.30 ± 0.95 c b a c d c ΔC* 32.19 ± 0.55 29.37 ± 0.99 22.49 ± 0.39 31.12 ± 0.83 33.42 ± 0.82 32.06 ± 0.10 e a b d d c Water activity 0.29 ± 0.00 0.21 ± 0.00 0.24 ± 0.00 0.26 ± 0.00 0.27 ± 0.00 0.25 ± 0.01 a a a a a a Weight (g) 4.36 ± 0.31 4.33 ± 0.16 4.30 ± 0.06 4.26 ± 0.05 4.20 ± 0.03 4.05 ± 0.12 f a b d e c Moisture (%) 2.88 ± 0.05 2.17 ± 0.03 2.44 ± 0.02 2.66 ± 0.10 2.73 ± 0.09 2.50 ± 0.10 c a ab ab bc a Length (cm) 7.30 ± 0.07 7.13 ± 0.01 7.15 ± 0.03 7.19 ± 0.01 7.23 ± 0.03 7.11 ± 0.01 e a b c d a Thickness (mm) 0.41 ± 0.31 0.31 ± 0.14 0.33 ± 0.25 0.35 ± 0.17 038 ± 0.11 0.30 ± 0.01 c a ab ab b a Width (cm) 2.81 ± 0.05 2.52 ± 0.01 2.55 ± 0.01 2.62 ± 0.05 2.67 ± 0.08 2.50 ± 0.06 b f e d c a Cutting Force (N) 11.62 ± 0.24 20.62 ± 0.43 18.29 ± 0.32 15.48 ± 0.26 13.49 ± 0.44 10.89 ± 0.50 e a b c d f Fracturability (mm) 2.37 ± 0.08 1.34 ± 0.04 1.61 ± 0.04 1.88 ± 0.09 2.18 ± 0.06 2.55 ± 0.02 *Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Different lowercase superscripts in the same row indicate significant difference (P<0.05) Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 194 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 0.05). There was no difference in weight between the control and study, the incorporation of BC powder at increasing levels was more the crackers incorporated with BC and PH powders, irrespective of likely to result in the decrease in length and width of the resulting the BC/PH ratio (P > 0.05). The incorporation of different ratios of crackers. Similarly, PH powder also showed an interfering effect on BC and PH affected the thickness and the addition of BC/PH (1:3) the starch or wheat proteins, in which a strong network could not yielded the highest thickness (P  <  0.05). However, the thickness of be formed. PH powder is composed of small peptides obtained after all the crackers with BC, PH, and their mixtures added were lower the cleavage of polypeptides by enzymatic hydrolysis. PH possessed than that of the control (P < 0.05). No difference exist between those high solubility, but may have a low ability to absorb at the oil/water added with BC or PH alone (P > 0.05). In terms of length, the in- interface (Intarasirisawat et al., 2012), when lipids are added as ingre- corporation of both powders led to a decrease (P  <  0.05), except dients in crackers. Therefore, their contribution to the dough, particu- for the sample with BC/PH (1:3) mixture, which showed a similar larly by binding with lipids added to the whole wheat crackers, was length to that of the control (P > 0.05). The widths of the crackers limited. BC and PH powders exhibited a combined effect in weak- fortified with BC, PH, or the mixtures were lower than that of the ening the wheat flour dough due to their interference with the normal control (P  <  0.05). The substitution of wheat flour with both pow- sulphydryl/disulphide interchange reactions during wheat flour dough ders more likely led to the reduction in the amounts of amylose and development. Overall, both BC and PH powders affected the anatom- amylopectin, which are the major ingredients being puffed. Benjakul ical parameters or dimensions of the whole wheat crackers. and Karnjanapratum (2018) reported that during baking BC powder could be deposited within the starch gel matrix and possibly interfere Colour with the puffing of the gel network. Thus, the air cell produced could Surface colours of the whole wheat crackers are shown in Figure 1 not be trapped in the puffed crisp crackers. This resulted in the less and Table 2. The crackers fortified with BC powder alone possessed raising. Similar finding was reported by Hassan (2015) for calcium en- higher L* values than others (P < 0.05). However, L* value decreased riched biscuits, in which chicken egg shell powder was incorporated. It with the incorporation of mixed BC and PH powders, especially with was observed that the addition of egg shell powder to the formulation increasing levels of PH powder. Coloured pigments in PH as well as the inhibited the formation of air cells in the crisp puffed biscuit. In this caramelization of sugars during baking mostly caused the decrease in Figure 1. Photographs of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders from salmon frame or their mixture at different ratios. Powders were substituted at 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Table 3 Sensory properties of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders or their mixture at different ratios. Attributes Samples Control BC BC/PH (3:1) BC/PH (1:1) BC/PH (1:3) PH d d d c b a Appearance 7.88 ± 0.72 7.85 ± 0.69 7.81 ± 0.52 6.92 ± 0.66 6.44 ± 0.48 5.98 ± 0.60 d d d c b a Colour 7.55 ± 0.81 7.47 ± 0.76 7.42 ± 0.81 6.47 ± 0.79 6.21 ± 0.85 5.88 ± 0.77 e de d c b a Odour 7.27 ± 1.01 7.22 ± 0.99 7.18 ± 1.00 6.76 ± 1.03 6.26 ± 0.84 5.90 ± 0.82 e d d c b a Texture 7.44 ± 0.78 7.33 ± 0.84 7.35 ± 0.75 7.20 ± 0.74 7.03 ± 0.69 6.68 ± 0.60 d d d c b a Taste 7.71 ± 1.00 7.62 ± 1.01 7.60 ± 0.94 6.88 ± 0.90 5.82 ± 0.88 5.24 ± 0.80 e d d c b a Flavour 7.81 ± 0.81 7.71 ± 0.77 7.70 ± 0.84 6.81 ± 0.88 6.16 ± 0.80 5.86 ± 0.78 d d d c b a Overall acceptability/likeness 7.52 ± 0.91 7.46 ± 0.94 7.44 ± 0.89 6.86 ± 0.95 6.15 ± 0.88 5.87 ± 0.82 *Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Different lowercase superscripts in the same row indicate significant difference (P < 0.05). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 195 Table 4 Chemical composition and energy value of whole wheat lightness (Figure 1). PH is rich in free amino groups and the increase cracker and cracker fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture. in levels of PH led to a higher degree of nonenzymatic browning so called Maillard reaction observed in the crackers. Similar observation Composition/energy Samples was reported by Gani et al. (2015) when whey and casein PH were value incorporated into cookies. In the present study, no difference in light- Control BC/PH fortified ness was observed when BC/PH (1:3) mixtures and PH only were cracker incorporated (P > 0.05). Similar trend was found in a* (redness). For a b Protein (g/100 g) 11.88 12.24 b* (yellowness), cracker added with BC powder had slightly higher a b Total fat (g/100 g) 15.39 16.54 value than that incorporated with BC/PH mixtures (3:1) (P < 0.05). b a Total carbohydrate (g/100 g) 66.70 61.00 Decrease in b* (yellowness) values was observed with incorporation b a Total sugar (g/100 g) 6.24 5.18 of BC powder. The salmon bone BC powder used in this study had b a Total fibre (g/100 g) 2.04 1.68 a b a creamy whitish colour and its addition also lowered the portion Ash (g/100 g) 3.99 8.54 a b of sugar in the cracker dough. This might reduce browning reaction Calcium (g/100 g) 0.12 2.04 a b such as caramelization, etc. during baking. As a result, the increase in Phosphorus (g/100 g) 0.35 1.00 a b Sodium (g/100 g) 1.05 1.13 L* value of the cracker with only BC powder was obtained. Varying a b Cholesterol (mg/100 g) 35.26 36.93 ΔE* values were observed at different ratios of BC/PH. No difference Energy value (kcal/100 g) 452.83 441.82 in ΔC* value between control, cracker added with BC/PH mixture (1:1) and BC powder (P > 0.05). Overall, incorporation of BC and Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour.  Different lowercase PH powders affected the colour of the cracker samples, depending on superscripts in the same row indicate significant difference (P < 0.05). the ratios of BC/PH powders in the dough mixture. *The conversion factor is 6.25. Water activity and moisture content Table 5 Fatty acid composition of whole wheat cracker and cracker Water activity and moisture content of the whole wheat crackers fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture. are given in Table 2. Water activity decreased with varying ratios Fatty acid Control BC/PH fortified of both powders. Increasing level of BC powder lowered the water (mg/100 g) cracker activity (P < 0.05). However, addition of PH powder had no impact on water activity. PH powder is hygroscopic in nature whereas the C4:0 (Butyric) 0.066 ± 0.02 0.082 ± 0.01 BC powder is dry and contains mainly inorganic matters which im- C6:0 (Caproic) 0.062 ± 0.04 0.072 ± 0.05 pedes gel network formation. This result correlated well with the C8:0 (Caprylic) 0.045 ± 0.00 0.052 ± 0.00 C10:0 (Capric) 0.096 ± 0.01 0.11 ± 0.03 moisture content of the crackers. The increase in water activity and C11:0 (Undecanoic) 0.013 ± 0.02 0.015 ± 0.01 moisture content with higher proportions of PH than BC could be C13:0 (Tridecanoic) ND 0.0072 ± 0.02 due to more hydrophilic sites being generated during hydrolysis of C14:1 (Myristoleic) ND 0.042 ± 0.01 PH, which resulted in competition for the limited free water in the C16:1 (Palmitoleic) ND 0.010 ± 0.05 dough. Moisture content has an influence on mouthfeel, while water C17:1 cis 10 (cis-10- 0.0065 ± 0.02 0.013 ± 0.05 activity has been identified as an index of shelf-life and the storage Heptadecanoic) stability of crackers (Cervenka et al., 2006; O’Brien, 2008). C18:1 cis 9 (Oleic) 0.077 ± 0.04 0.091 ± 0.02 C18:2 trans 9,12 (Linolaidic) 0.0074 ± 0.01 0.0078 ± 0.00 C18:2 cis 9,12 (Linoleic) ND 0.012 ± 0.01 Cutting force and fracturability C20:1 cis 11 (cis-11- ND 0.0083 ± 0.02 Cutting force and fracturability are important textural proper- Eicosenoic) ties of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powders (C21:0) Heneicosanoic 0.027 ± 0.00 0.032 ± 0.01 obtained from salmon frame (Table 2). When molar teeth com- C20:3 cis 8,11,14 (cis-8,11, 0.0061 ± 0.03 0.0065 ± 0.02 press a food, the force applied is regarded to as cutting force. 14-Eicosatrienoic) The capacity to disintegrate food into pieces when it is bitten Cis-11, 14-Eicosadienoic ND 0.0050 ± 0.01 C23:0 (Tricosanoic) 0.0069 ± 0.03 0.0072 ± 0.02 by incisors is regarded as fracturability (Paula and Conti-Silva, C22:2 cis 13,16 (cis-13,16- 0.0058 ± 0.01 0.0065 ± 0.01 2014). An increase in cutting force with a coincidental decrease in Docosadienoic) fracturability of whole wheat crackers was observed as more BC C20:5 cis 5,8,11,14,17 EPA 0.0066 ± 0.02 0.0069 ± 0.03 powder was added (P < 0.05). However, the incorporation of PH (cis-5,8,11,14,17- powder slightly lowered the cutting force, but slightly increased Eicosatrienoic) the fracturability (P  <  0.05). The sample with only BC powder Saturated fatty acid (SFA) 0.31 ± 0.11 0.38 ± 0.15 incorporated showed the highest cutting force but the lowest Monounsaturated fatty acid 0.083 ± 0.04 0.16 ± 0.06 fracturability of 20.62  N and 1.34  mm (P  <  0.05), respectively. (MUFA) Benjakul and Karnjanapratum (2018) reported the effect of the in- Polyunsaturated fatty acid 0.026 ± 0.04 0.045 ± 0.03 corporation of BC powder from precooked tuna bone in crackers (PUFA) at varying levels, whereby the crackers obtained became more brittle and harder in texture with increasing substitution levels of ND, not detected. BC powder. Thus, the crackers obtained became more compact in structure by filling of gap in cracker crumb, particularly at higher inhibited the incorporation of air bubbles. This was evidenced by levels of BC. The low amount of water used for the formulation led the increased cutting force when BC powder was added. When PH to a lower degree of gelatinisation of amylose and amylopectin, and powder alone was added to the crackers, cutting force of 10.89 N this influenced the gel structure formation (Tako et al., 2014). The was obtained. It could be as a result of the weakening of the wheat BC powder might have disrupted the gel network formation and flour dough due to interference by short chain peptides, which Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 196 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 impeded the occurrence of sulphydryl/disulphide interchange reac- was added, there was no effect on the taste, appearance, colour, tions or disulphide bond formation during the development of the odour, and overall likeness (P > 0.05), compared with the control wheat flour dough. The increase in fracturability with the addition sample. However, the flavour and texture likeness scores were de- of PH powder rather than BC powder can be attributed to the in- creased when more BC powder was added. Due to the similar sen- creased number of hydrophilic sites generated during hydrolysis, sory property between the control and that of BC/PH powders (3:1) which were available to compete for the limited free water in the ratio, cracker fortified with the mixture of BC and PH powders (3:1) dough. This correlated well with the moisture content and water was selected for further study. activity indices presented in Table 2. Therefore, the fortification of the dough with BC and PH powders clearly affected the cutting Chemical composition and nutritional value of force and fracturability of the crackers. whole wheat crackers fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture Sensory properties Addition of BC and PH powders into the whole wheat crackers at Chemical compositions and energy values different levels affected likeness scores differently (Table 3). It was The chemical compositions of the whole wheat cracker fortified observed that the incorporation of both powders, particularly with with BC/PH (3:1) mixture and the control cracker are given in increasing PH levels resulted in decrease in all the attributes tested, Table 4. Carbohydrate (66.67 g/100g), total fat (15.39 g/100 g) and including appearance, colour, odour, texture, taste, flavour, and protein (11.88  g/100  g) were the main constituents in the control. overall acceptability of the crackers. Generally, lower levels of PH Whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powder consisted powder resulted in the higher likeness score, compared with higher of lower carbohydrate content (61.00  g/100  g) but higher choles- levels of PH (P < 0.05). The highest level of PH powder incorporated terol (36.93 mg/100 g), higher total fat (16.54 g/100 g), and higher resulted in the lowest likeness score for all the attributes. This was protein (12.24 g/100 g). In addition, the total sugar (6.24 g/100 g) probably as a result of bitterness of the hydrolysate. Idowu et  al. and total fibre (2.04  g/100  g) in the control were higher than the (2019) reported that bitterness of hydrolysate obtained from salmon total sugar (5.18 g/100 g) and total fibre (1.68 g/100 g) in BC/PH frame occurred as a result of formation of peptides containing bulky fortified sample. Fortification of whole wheat cracker with BC and hydrophobic groups towards their C-terminal. Peptides containing PH powders therefore had an impact on compositions, especially hydrophobic groups such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, leucine, carbohydrate in the dough as well as in the resulting cracker. This valine, isoleucine, and tyrosine at C-terminal contribute to the bitter- was accompanied by increases in protein, fat, ash, and cholesterol ness (Yarnpakdee et al., 2015). Thus, the bitterness could be detected contents. Calcium and phosphorus were increased by 17- and 8-fold, by the panellists, leading to the decreased likeness score of crackers respectively, compared with those detected in the control. This cor- fortified with higher levels of PH powder. When BC powder alone related well with higher ash content of the BC/PH fortified sample, Figure 2. Scanning electron microscopic photographs of surface (a and b) and cross-section (c and d) of whole wheat cracker and BC/PH (3:1) fortified crackers. a and b: ×50 magnification, c and d: ×50 magnification. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 197 Figure 3. Elemental profile (a and c) and mappings of different elements (b and d) on cross-section of whole wheat cracker and BC/PH (3:1) fortified cracker as analysed by SEM-EDX. compared with the control (Table 4). A slight increase in sodium (Na) acid (C21: 0) in varying proportions. Tricosanoic acid was found in was noticeable in the BC/PH fortified sample (P < 0.05). Generally, both samples with capric, butyric, caproic, and caprylic acids being BC and PH powders are rich sources of protein and minerals, re- dominant, while tridecanoic acid was found only in the BC/PH forti- spectively (Benjakul et  al., 2017; Idowu et  al., 2019). Thus, the fied sample. Hu et al. (1999) suggested that SFAs with a chain length marked increase in components, such as proteins, Ca, P, and Na con- of C12:0–C16:0 are able to accelerate atherogenesis. For monoun- tents were obtained. The energy values of the whole wheat crackers saturated fatty acids, myristoleic, palmitoleic, and cis-11-eicosenoic were calculated using the Atwater factors of 9, 4, and 4 kcal/g for were not detected in the control cracker but were observed in varying fat, protein, and carbohydrate, respectively (Prokopov et al., 2015). amounts in the BC/PH fortified sample. Oleic acid was the dom- The energy values in the BC/PH fortified sample was lower than that inant monounsaturated fatty acid found in both samples. Naturally of the control sample (P < 0.05). The incorporation of BC and PH occurring vegetable oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids which con- powders in the formulation diluted the carbohydrate. Thus, the en- tain only non-conjugated double bonds in the cis configuration. Since ergy were reduced, compared with the control. The results showed unsalted margarine and peanut butter were used as ingredients in the that the addition of BC and PH powders to whole wheat crackers crackers, the unsaturated components could have been isomerized to affected the chemical composition and lowered energy values of the the trans form during baking or even the extraction process, as a crackers. result of oxidation, conversion during heating and by partial hydro- genation (Perez-Serradilla et  al., 2007). This could have resulted in Fatty acid composition the formation of the quantities of trans fatty acids observed in both Fatty acid compositions expressed as mg/100 g total fatty acid of the samples. Compared with the cis unsaturated fatty acids, the chemical control cracker and the BC/PH fortified sample are given in Table 5. stability, physiological (atherogenic effects), structure, and physical Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) (0.31–0.38 mg/100 g) were observed as properties of trans fatty acids resemble those of SFAs (Mensink and the dominant fatty acids in both samples. SFAs detected in the sam- Katan, 1990). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are biologically ples included butyric (C4:0), caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), capric and nutritionally important (Kandhro et  al., 2008). The PUFA con- (C10:0), undecanoic (C11:0), tridecanoic (C13:0), and heneicosanoic tent of both samples ranged from 0.026 to 0.045 (mg/100  g). EPA Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 198 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 Project Office of the Higher Education Commission and the Graduate School, was found in both samples, but slightly higher content was found in Prince of Songkla University. the BC/PH fortified samples. This result corresponded to the higher fat and cholesterol observed in the BC/PH fortified cracker than in the control cracker as given in Table 4. Thus, fortification with BC and Conflict of Interest PH powders influenced the fatty acid profile of the resulting crackers. The authors declared no conflict of interest. SEM images of whole wheat crackers References Images of the surface and cross-sectional areas of the control and BC/ PH fortified whole wheat crackers using scanning electron microscopy AOAC. (2002). Official Methods of Analysis. 16th edn. Association of Official are shown in Figure 2. The structure of the fortified sample showed a Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC. Bashir, A., Ashraf, S. A., Khan, M. A., Azaz-Ahmad-Azad, Z. R. (2015). De- remarkable difference to that of the control sample. The surface of the velopment and compositional analysis of protein enriched soybean-pea- control (Figure 2a) showed an open structure with a porous matrix, a wheat flour blended cookies. Asian Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 7: 76–83. rough crumb, more gaps and air cells, compared with that of the BC/ Benjakul, S., Karnjanapratum, S. (2018). Characteristics and nutritional value PH fortified sample (Figure 2b). This result correlated well with that of of whole wheat cracker fortified with tuna bone bio-calcium powder. Food cross section of the control (Figure 2c) and the fortified samples (Figure Chemistry, 259: 181–187. 2d). Generally, the larger the volume of air which could be entrapped Benjakul, S., Mad-Ali, S. (2017). Characteristics of biocalcium powders from and retained in the dough matrix of the cracker, the more porous and pre-cooked tongol (Thunnus tonggol) and yellowfin (Thunnus albacores) open structure that resulted from expansion during baking. However, tuna bones. Food Biophysics, 12: 412–421. incorporated powders, particularly BC powder, filled the voids or air Benjakul,  S., Mad-Ali,  S., Senphan,  T., Sookchoo,  P. (2017). Biocalcium cells in the crumb of the cracker, hence yielding a dense structure. In powder from precooked skipjack tuna bone: production and its character- istics. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 41: 124–129. addition, the dispersal of BC and PH powders throughout the dough Bligh, E. G., Dyer, W. J. (1959). A rapid method of total lipid extraction and matrix plausibly interrupted the aeration property of the cracker purification. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 37: 911– dough during baking. Thus, the physical and textural characteristics of the crackers were determined by their internal structure. Campbell, J., Hauser, M., Hill, S. (1991). Nutritional characteristic of organic, freshly stoneground, sourdough and conventional breads. Ecological Agri- SEM-EDX spectroscopy culture Projects, 35: 1–6. Carr,  B.  T., Craig-Petsinger,  D., Hadlich,  S. (2001). A case study in relating Element distribution and their contents in the control (Figure 3a and sensory descriptive data to product concept fit and consumer vocabulary. 3b) and BC/PH fortified whole wheat crackers (Figure 3c and 3d) were Food Quality and Preference, 12: 407–412. evaluated by SEM-EDX. Based on element distribution and mapping, Cervenka,  L., Brožková,  I., Vytrasova,  J. (2006). Effects of the principal in- both samples composed of carbon and oxygen as the most dominant gredients of biscuits upon water activity. Journal of Food and Nutrition elements. Higher amounts and higher intensities of inorganic elem- Research, 45: 39–43. ents, including Ca and P were observed in BC/PH fortified sample than Chalamaiah,  M., Dinesh  Kumar,  B., Hemalatha,  R., Jyothirmayi,  T. (2012). that of the control sample. Calcium was only identified in SEM-EDX Fish protein hydrolysates: proximate composition, amino acid compos- image of the fortified sample, which was in accordance with higher ition, antioxidant activities and applications: a review. Food Chemistry, ash content (Table 4). SEM-EDX analytical technique has been used 135: 3020–3038. for qualitative measurement of elements in food products (Parween Choël, M., Deboudt, K., Osán, J., Flament, P., Van Grieken, R. (2005). Quan- titative determination of low-Z elements in single atmospheric particles et al., 2016). It was noted that SEM-EDX has limitation (Choël et al., on boron substrates by automated scanning electron microscopy-energy- 2005). Its detection limit, which varies from 1% to 10% (wt), re- dispersive X-ray spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry, 77: 5686–5692. sulted in the inability of other elements present in the compound to Feist,  B., Mikula,  B. (2014). Preconcentration of heavy metals on activated be measured, particularly light elements. Consequently, elements with carbon and their determination in fruits by inductively coupled plasma low contents such as nitrogen could not be detected in the crackers. optical emission spectrometry. Food Chemistry, 147: 302–306. Overall, the results indicated that fortification of the crackers with BC Gani, A., et al. (2015). Effect of whey and casein protein hydrolysates on rheo- and PH powders affected their elemental composition. logical, textural and sensory properties of cookies. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52: 5718–5726. Han, J. J., Janz, J. A., Gerlat, M. (2010). Development of gluten-free cracker Conclusion snacks using pulse flours and fractions. Food Research International, 43: 627–633. In general, the qualities of the whole wheat crackers with the incorp- Hassan, N. M. M. (2015). Chicken eggshell powder as dietary calcium source oration of BC and PH powders depended on the substitution ratios of in biscuits. World Journal of Dairy and Food Sciences, 10: 199–206. the individual powders. Mixtures of BC/PH (3:1) was recommended Hu, F. B. et al. (1999). Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation as the appropriate ratio for fortification in which 16.67% substitution to the risk of coronary heart disease in women. The American Journal of of whole wheat flour was used. Crackers obtained from BC/PH (3:1) Clinical Nutrition, 70: 1001–1008. mixtures contained higher chemical composition, especially protein, Idowu,  A.  T., Benjakul,  S., Sinthusamran,  S., Sookchoo,  P., Kishimura,  H. Ca and P. Additionally, unsaturated fatty acid content was also higher (2019). Protein hydrolysate from salmon frames: production, characteris- in comparison with the control. However, no adverse effect on sensory tics and antioxidative activity. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 43: e12734. attributes, colour, and texture were detectable in the final product. Intarasirisawat, R., Benjakul, S., Visessanguan, W., Wu, J. (2012). Antioxidative and functional properties of protein hydrolysate from defatted skipjack (Katsuwonous pelamis) roe. Food Chemistry, 135: 3039–3048. Funding Jung,  W.  K., Kim,  S.  K. (2007). Calcium-binding peptide derived from pepsinolytic hydrolysates of hoki (Johnius belengerii) frame. European This research was supported by the Higher Education Research Promotion Food Research and Technology, 224: 763–767. and Thailand’s Education Hub for Southern Region of ASEAN Countries Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 199 Kandhro, A., Sherazi, S., Mahesar, S. A. (2008). Monitoring of fat content, free Prokopov, T., Goranova, Z., Baeva, M., Slavov, A. (2015). Effects of powder fatty acid and fatty acid profile including trans fat in Pakistani biscuits. from white cabbage outer leaves on sponge cake quality. International Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 85: 1057–1061. Agrophysics, 29: 493–499. Lin, Y. S., Wei, C. T., Olevsky, E. A., Meyers, M. A. (2011). Mechanical prop- Saha, S., Gupta, A., Singh, S., Bharti, N., Singh, K.P. (2011). Compositional and erties and the laminate structure of arapaima gigas scales. 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Chemical, physical, rheological and sensory properties of biscuit forti- Muhammed, M. A., Domendra, D., Muthukumar, S. P., Sakhare, P. Z., Bhaskar, N. fied with protein hydrolysate from cephalothorax of Pacific white shrimp. (2015). Effects of fermentatively recovered fish waste lipids on the growth and Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2: 1–10. composition of broiler meat. British Poultry Science, 56: 79–87. Takeungwongtrakul,  S., Benjakul,  S. (2017). Biscuits fortified with micro- O’Brien, R.D. (2008). Fats and Oils: Formulating and Processing for Applica- encapsulated shrimp oil: characteristics and storage stability. Journal of tions. 2nd edn. CRC Press, London. Food Science and Technology, 54: 1126–1136. Parween,  R., Ara,  D., Shahid,  M. (2016). Elemental analysis of cow’s milk Takeungwongtrakul, S., Benjakul, S., Kittikun, A. (2015). Characteristics and applying SEM-EDX spectroscopy technique. 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Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 388: 451–462. of Food Science and Technology, 52: 3336–3349. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Food Quality and Safety Oxford University Press

Whole wheat cracker fortified with biocalcium and protein hydrolysate powders from salmon frame: characteristics and nutritional value

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Publisher
Oxford University Press
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press.
ISSN
2399-1399
eISSN
2399-1402
DOI
10.1093/fqsafe/fyz012
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Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to develop whole wheat crackers fortified with biocalcium (BC) and protein hydrolysate (PH) powders from salmon frame at varying substitution levels. Materials and Methods: Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and protein hydrolysate PH powders from salmon frame was produced. BC and PH powders or their mixtures at different ratios (3:1, 1:1, 1:3) were used to fortify the dough mix at a substitution level of 16.67% based on the whole wheat flour content. The physical, textural, sensory, and nutritional profiles of the crackers produced were examined and compared with crackers without fortification. Results: The weight, colour, textural properties, and thickness of the crackers varied with the addition of different ratios of BC and PH powders. The incorporation of BC/PH at ratio (3:1) showed no negative effect on sensory properties. The crackers thus produced possessed higher protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and cholesterol but lower carbohydrate, sugar, fibre, and energy value than the control crackers without fortification. The crackers contained 0.026–0.045 mg/100 g polyunsaturated fatty acid. Developed crackers had a denser structure and were less porous than the control crackers as shown in scanning electron microscopic images. In scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic (SEM-EDX) analysis, the crackers fortified with BC/PH at ratio (3:1) had higher calcium and phosphorus contents and intensity than the control. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that the addition of BC and PH powders obtained from salmon frame represent a promising means of increasing the nutritive values of crackers. Key words: whole wheat cracker; biocalcium; protein hydrolysate; salmon frame; fortification. to be worth 66 billion USD (Han et al., 2010). Although the market Introduction is relatively saturated, the high demand for healthy food presents op- The worldwide market for snack foods, including corn chips, pea- portunities for the development of snack foods with a high nutritive nuts, potato chips, crackers, and meat snacks was estimated in 2003 © The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 192 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 value. In previous work, crackers made from whole wheat fortified textural, sensory, and nutritional profiles of the crackers produced were with biocalcium (BC) from tuna bone (Benjakul and Karnjanapratum, examined and compared with crackers without fortification. 2018), biscuits fortified with shrimp oil containing high polyunsatur - ated fatty acids and astaxanthin (Takeungwongtrakul and Benjakul, Materials and Methods 2017), high fibre sponge cake fortified with cabbage leaf powder Materials (Prokopov et  al., 2015), wheat flour-blend cookies enriched with protein from malted soybean (Bashir et al., 2015) and wheat cookies All the ingredients including sugar, commercial whole wheat flour fortified with amaranth flour (Sindhuja et al., 2005) have all been de- (Imperial, KCG Corporation Co., Ltd, Bangkok, Thailand), salt, un- veloped for introduction into the market to promote healthy foods. salted butter (Orchid, Indofood Sukses Makmur Tbk, Jawa Tengah, Protein hydrolysate (PH) from fish-processing wastes are a good Indonesia), baking powder, and peanut butter (Jif, J.M. Smucker source of health promoting ingredients due to the presence of bio- Company, OH) were procured from a supermarket in Songkhla logically active peptides (Sinthusamran et al., 2019). PH is also rich Province, Thailand. in amino acids which play a vital role in the physiological activity of the human body (Chalamaiah et  al., 2012). Recently, Idowu Preparation of PH powder et al. (2019) prepared PH from salmon frame in two forms namely, Salmon (Salmo salar) frames were obtained from Kingfisher Holdings ‘mince’ and ‘chunk’ using proteases (alcalase and papain). The PH Ltd, Songkhla, Thailand and were cut into 4–5 cm pieces, termed ‘chunk from chunk with alcalase showed a higher nutritive value, compared frames’ using an electric sawing machine. They were subjected to hy- to its mince counterpart as indicated by a higher amount of amino drolysis using proteases (alcalase and papain) as detailed by Idowu et al. acids. This PH could therefore be used as a supplement to improve (2019). After hydrolysis, the mixture was centrifuged at 4000g for 15 min the amino acid content in baked foods. (Beckman, JE-AVANTI, Fullerton, CA). The supernatant was freeze-dried Apart from PH, poultry and fishery wastes such as egg shells and using a freeze dryer (CoolSafe 55, ScanLaf A/S, Lynge, Denmark) and the fish bones have been used to develop new products such as BC (Hassan, PH powder produced was used for the preparation of crackers. 2015; Benjakul et al., 2017). It was discovered that BC (rich in calcium and phosphorus), obtained from fish processing wastes, such as bones, Preparation of BC powder possessed high amounts of phosphopeptides associated with high Fish bone residues obtained after hydrolysis were the raw material used amounts of soluble Ca salts in the gastrointestinal tract, thus increasing for the production of BC powder. The bones were subjected to alkaline the intake of calcium (Jung and Kim, 2007). This was in agreement treatment (2 M NaOH, at 50°C, for 30 min) and thoroughly washed as with the study of Malde et  al. (2010), who reported that piglets fed described by Benjakul et al. (2017). Thereafter, the bones were defatted salmon bone containing phosphopeptides showed higher Ca absorption by treatment with hexane, bleached with sodium hypochlorite and than piglets fed with calcium carbonate without phosphopeptides. BC hydrogen peroxide. The samples were dried in a rotary tray dryer (at obtained from salmon frame contains high amounts of minerals such 50°C, for 5 h) and ground into a powder with the aid of a ball mill (PM as calcium and phosphorus. Thus, BC from fish processing waste such 100, 127 Retsch GmbH, Haan, Germany). The BC powder obtained as salmon frame could be used to fortify snack foods such as crackers. was sieved using a sieve shaker (Vibratory Sieve Shaker analysette3Pro, Healthy foods including snacks containing dietary fibre have gained FRITSCHGmbH, Deutschland, Germany) to obtain a particle size of significant interest and the demand for them has grown. Whole wheat less than 75 µm. The BC powder was used to fortify the crackers. food products can be regarded as health-promoting foods because they are rich in fibre. Fibres has a physiological effect on transit time and Impact of BC and PH powders on the characteristics faecal bulk and the consumption of whole wheat products has been and properties of whole wheat crackers endorsed as being beneficial to health (Campbell et al., 1991). Crackers made from whole wheat flour are generally crunchy with a hard texture Production of whole wheat crackers and in addition to fibre supplementation, other aspects of the nutritive Whole wheat crackers were prepared using the traditional method and value of crackers can also be improved. Thus, the addition of BC and formulation detailed by Benjakul and Karnjanapratum (2018) with a PH powders obtained from salmon frame represent a promising means slight modification. The original dough formulation used to produce of increasing the nutritive values of crackers. Nevertheless, the amount the whole wheat crackers based on dough weight was: 1.4% salt, and proportions of BC and PH powders incorporated into crackers 2.1% baking powder, 2.6% sugar, 6.0% peanut butter, 13.8% butter, could alter their quality as well as their acceptability to consumers. This 14.1% water, and 60% whole wheat flour. Meanwhile, wheat flour study aimed to develop whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH was substituted with BC, PH or their mixtures at a level of 16.67% of powders from salmon frame at varying substitution levels. The physical, whole wheat flours (w/w) for other formulations as given in Table 1. Table 1 Ingredients and formulation of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders or their mixture at different ratios. Ingredients Salt (g) Baking Sugar (g) Peanut Butter (g) Water (g) Whole wheat BC (g) PH (g) formulation powder (g) butter (g) flour (g) BC 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 10 — BC/PH (3:1) 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 7.5 2.5 BC/PH (1:1) 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 5.0 5.0 BC/PH (1:3) 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 2.5 7.5 PH 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 50.0 — 10 Control 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.0 13.8 14.1 60.0 — — *Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 193 The ingredients were mixed in a dough mixer (KitchenAid casserole Chemical composition, energy value, and mineral profile multifunctional 5k, KitchenAid, Benton Harbor, MC) for 3 min. The The crackers were analysed for protein, fat, ash, cholesterol, dietary fibre, cracker dough was sheeted to a thickness of 0.3 mm with rectangular and total carbohydrate contents (AOAC, 2002). Ca and P in the crackers shape (2.4 × 7.0 cm ). The shaped cracker dough was baked in an elec- were determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spec- tric oven (Mamaru MR-1214, Mamaru Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand) trometer (ICP-OES) (Model Optima 4300 DV, Perkin Elmer, Shelton, at 140°C for 40 min. The crackers were cooled at room temperature MA) as illustrated by Feist and Mikula (2014). For determination of for 1 h after baking. Thereafter, they were subjected to analyses. fatty acid profile in the samples, lipids were firstly extracted from the samples according to the method of Bligh and Dyer (1959). The fatty acids were determined as detailed by Muhammed et al. (2015). Analyses Physical and textural properties Physical parameters such as weight, length, and thickness of the Scanning electron microscopy crackers were determined as described by Saha et  al. (2011). The Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to visualise the micro- fracturability and cutting force of the crackers were measured with structure of crackers as described by Benjakul and Karnjanapratum the aid of a texture analyser (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, (2018). Surrey, UK) as described by Benjakul and Karnjanapratum (2018). The colour of the samples was determined using a colourimeter Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray (ColorFlex, Hunter Lab Reston, VA) as guided by Takeungwongtrakul spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) et al. (2015). Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectros- copy was used to determine the elemental profile of crackers as de- tailed by Lin et al. (2011). Water activity and moisture content Water activity metre (4TEV, Aqualab, Pullman, WA) was used to Statistical analysis measure water activity (aw) and moisture content was also deter- mined (AOAC, 2002). Experiments were run in triplicate with completely randomised de- sign (CRD) for characteristics and textural properties of crackers. T-tests were used to determine the chemical composition and energy Sensory evaluation value of the crackers. Data were subjected to analysis of variance Sensory evaluation of cracker samples was conducted by 50 un- (ANOVA) and mean comparisons were carried out using Duncan’s trained panellists. Odour, colour, appearance, texture, taste, flavour, multiple range test. All analysis were performed using the SPSS and overall acceptability/likeness were assessed using a nine- package (SPSS for Windows, Inc., Chicago, IL). point hedonic scale, in which a score of 1  =  not like very much, 5  =  neither like nor dislike, and 9  =  like extremely (Benjakul and Karnjanapratum, 2018). The samples were randomly marked Results and Discussion with three-digit codes and served. Between the samples, the panel- lists were asked to rinse their mouth with water (Carr et al., 2001; Characteristics and textural properties of the whole Benjakul and Karnjanapratum, 2018). wheat crackers fortified with different ratios of BC and PH powders Characterization of the selected whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powders Weight and dimensions Crackers fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture at 16.67% substitu- Physical parameters, such as length weight, thickness, and width of tion of wheat flour were prepared as described previously. Control the whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powders from crackers were also prepared using a typical formulation without BC salmon frame at various ratios are given in Table 2. Similar weights and PH powders. Thereafter, both samples were subjected to analyses. (4.05–4.36  g) were observed for all the whole wheat crackers (P > Table 2 Characteristics and textural properties of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders or their mixture at different ratios. Parameters Control BC BC/PH (3:1) BC/PH (1:1) BC/PH (1:3) PH d e c b a a L* 77.38 ± 0.73 84.24 ± 0.90 62.28 ± 0.96 59.43 ± 0.28 56.50 ± 0.75 55.48 ± 0.36 c a a b d d a* 8.32 ± 0.75 4.98 ± 0.24 4.77 ± 0.50 6.89 ± 0.46 11.28 ± 0.37 10.63 ± 0.05 cd b a c d cd b* 32.36 ± 0.45 29.82 ± 0.87 25.91 ± 0.47 31.60 ± 0.83 33.08 ± 0.84 32.86 ± 0.91 b a c e f d ΔE* 37.24 ± 0.96 31.55 ± 0.48 38.90 ± 0.81 49.22 ± 0.50 51.32 ± 0.31 43.30 ± 0.95 c b a c d c ΔC* 32.19 ± 0.55 29.37 ± 0.99 22.49 ± 0.39 31.12 ± 0.83 33.42 ± 0.82 32.06 ± 0.10 e a b d d c Water activity 0.29 ± 0.00 0.21 ± 0.00 0.24 ± 0.00 0.26 ± 0.00 0.27 ± 0.00 0.25 ± 0.01 a a a a a a Weight (g) 4.36 ± 0.31 4.33 ± 0.16 4.30 ± 0.06 4.26 ± 0.05 4.20 ± 0.03 4.05 ± 0.12 f a b d e c Moisture (%) 2.88 ± 0.05 2.17 ± 0.03 2.44 ± 0.02 2.66 ± 0.10 2.73 ± 0.09 2.50 ± 0.10 c a ab ab bc a Length (cm) 7.30 ± 0.07 7.13 ± 0.01 7.15 ± 0.03 7.19 ± 0.01 7.23 ± 0.03 7.11 ± 0.01 e a b c d a Thickness (mm) 0.41 ± 0.31 0.31 ± 0.14 0.33 ± 0.25 0.35 ± 0.17 038 ± 0.11 0.30 ± 0.01 c a ab ab b a Width (cm) 2.81 ± 0.05 2.52 ± 0.01 2.55 ± 0.01 2.62 ± 0.05 2.67 ± 0.08 2.50 ± 0.06 b f e d c a Cutting Force (N) 11.62 ± 0.24 20.62 ± 0.43 18.29 ± 0.32 15.48 ± 0.26 13.49 ± 0.44 10.89 ± 0.50 e a b c d f Fracturability (mm) 2.37 ± 0.08 1.34 ± 0.04 1.61 ± 0.04 1.88 ± 0.09 2.18 ± 0.06 2.55 ± 0.02 *Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Different lowercase superscripts in the same row indicate significant difference (P<0.05) Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 194 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 0.05). There was no difference in weight between the control and study, the incorporation of BC powder at increasing levels was more the crackers incorporated with BC and PH powders, irrespective of likely to result in the decrease in length and width of the resulting the BC/PH ratio (P > 0.05). The incorporation of different ratios of crackers. Similarly, PH powder also showed an interfering effect on BC and PH affected the thickness and the addition of BC/PH (1:3) the starch or wheat proteins, in which a strong network could not yielded the highest thickness (P  <  0.05). However, the thickness of be formed. PH powder is composed of small peptides obtained after all the crackers with BC, PH, and their mixtures added were lower the cleavage of polypeptides by enzymatic hydrolysis. PH possessed than that of the control (P < 0.05). No difference exist between those high solubility, but may have a low ability to absorb at the oil/water added with BC or PH alone (P > 0.05). In terms of length, the in- interface (Intarasirisawat et al., 2012), when lipids are added as ingre- corporation of both powders led to a decrease (P  <  0.05), except dients in crackers. Therefore, their contribution to the dough, particu- for the sample with BC/PH (1:3) mixture, which showed a similar larly by binding with lipids added to the whole wheat crackers, was length to that of the control (P > 0.05). The widths of the crackers limited. BC and PH powders exhibited a combined effect in weak- fortified with BC, PH, or the mixtures were lower than that of the ening the wheat flour dough due to their interference with the normal control (P  <  0.05). The substitution of wheat flour with both pow- sulphydryl/disulphide interchange reactions during wheat flour dough ders more likely led to the reduction in the amounts of amylose and development. Overall, both BC and PH powders affected the anatom- amylopectin, which are the major ingredients being puffed. Benjakul ical parameters or dimensions of the whole wheat crackers. and Karnjanapratum (2018) reported that during baking BC powder could be deposited within the starch gel matrix and possibly interfere Colour with the puffing of the gel network. Thus, the air cell produced could Surface colours of the whole wheat crackers are shown in Figure 1 not be trapped in the puffed crisp crackers. This resulted in the less and Table 2. The crackers fortified with BC powder alone possessed raising. Similar finding was reported by Hassan (2015) for calcium en- higher L* values than others (P < 0.05). However, L* value decreased riched biscuits, in which chicken egg shell powder was incorporated. It with the incorporation of mixed BC and PH powders, especially with was observed that the addition of egg shell powder to the formulation increasing levels of PH powder. Coloured pigments in PH as well as the inhibited the formation of air cells in the crisp puffed biscuit. In this caramelization of sugars during baking mostly caused the decrease in Figure 1. Photographs of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders from salmon frame or their mixture at different ratios. Powders were substituted at 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Table 3 Sensory properties of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC, PH powders or their mixture at different ratios. Attributes Samples Control BC BC/PH (3:1) BC/PH (1:1) BC/PH (1:3) PH d d d c b a Appearance 7.88 ± 0.72 7.85 ± 0.69 7.81 ± 0.52 6.92 ± 0.66 6.44 ± 0.48 5.98 ± 0.60 d d d c b a Colour 7.55 ± 0.81 7.47 ± 0.76 7.42 ± 0.81 6.47 ± 0.79 6.21 ± 0.85 5.88 ± 0.77 e de d c b a Odour 7.27 ± 1.01 7.22 ± 0.99 7.18 ± 1.00 6.76 ± 1.03 6.26 ± 0.84 5.90 ± 0.82 e d d c b a Texture 7.44 ± 0.78 7.33 ± 0.84 7.35 ± 0.75 7.20 ± 0.74 7.03 ± 0.69 6.68 ± 0.60 d d d c b a Taste 7.71 ± 1.00 7.62 ± 1.01 7.60 ± 0.94 6.88 ± 0.90 5.82 ± 0.88 5.24 ± 0.80 e d d c b a Flavour 7.81 ± 0.81 7.71 ± 0.77 7.70 ± 0.84 6.81 ± 0.88 6.16 ± 0.80 5.86 ± 0.78 d d d c b a Overall acceptability/likeness 7.52 ± 0.91 7.46 ± 0.94 7.44 ± 0.89 6.86 ± 0.95 6.15 ± 0.88 5.87 ± 0.82 *Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour. Different lowercase superscripts in the same row indicate significant difference (P < 0.05). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 195 Table 4 Chemical composition and energy value of whole wheat lightness (Figure 1). PH is rich in free amino groups and the increase cracker and cracker fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture. in levels of PH led to a higher degree of nonenzymatic browning so called Maillard reaction observed in the crackers. Similar observation Composition/energy Samples was reported by Gani et al. (2015) when whey and casein PH were value incorporated into cookies. In the present study, no difference in light- Control BC/PH fortified ness was observed when BC/PH (1:3) mixtures and PH only were cracker incorporated (P > 0.05). Similar trend was found in a* (redness). For a b Protein (g/100 g) 11.88 12.24 b* (yellowness), cracker added with BC powder had slightly higher a b Total fat (g/100 g) 15.39 16.54 value than that incorporated with BC/PH mixtures (3:1) (P < 0.05). b a Total carbohydrate (g/100 g) 66.70 61.00 Decrease in b* (yellowness) values was observed with incorporation b a Total sugar (g/100 g) 6.24 5.18 of BC powder. The salmon bone BC powder used in this study had b a Total fibre (g/100 g) 2.04 1.68 a b a creamy whitish colour and its addition also lowered the portion Ash (g/100 g) 3.99 8.54 a b of sugar in the cracker dough. This might reduce browning reaction Calcium (g/100 g) 0.12 2.04 a b such as caramelization, etc. during baking. As a result, the increase in Phosphorus (g/100 g) 0.35 1.00 a b Sodium (g/100 g) 1.05 1.13 L* value of the cracker with only BC powder was obtained. Varying a b Cholesterol (mg/100 g) 35.26 36.93 ΔE* values were observed at different ratios of BC/PH. No difference Energy value (kcal/100 g) 452.83 441.82 in ΔC* value between control, cracker added with BC/PH mixture (1:1) and BC powder (P > 0.05). Overall, incorporation of BC and Substitution level was 16.67% of whole wheat flour.  Different lowercase PH powders affected the colour of the cracker samples, depending on superscripts in the same row indicate significant difference (P < 0.05). the ratios of BC/PH powders in the dough mixture. *The conversion factor is 6.25. Water activity and moisture content Table 5 Fatty acid composition of whole wheat cracker and cracker Water activity and moisture content of the whole wheat crackers fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture. are given in Table 2. Water activity decreased with varying ratios Fatty acid Control BC/PH fortified of both powders. Increasing level of BC powder lowered the water (mg/100 g) cracker activity (P < 0.05). However, addition of PH powder had no impact on water activity. PH powder is hygroscopic in nature whereas the C4:0 (Butyric) 0.066 ± 0.02 0.082 ± 0.01 BC powder is dry and contains mainly inorganic matters which im- C6:0 (Caproic) 0.062 ± 0.04 0.072 ± 0.05 pedes gel network formation. This result correlated well with the C8:0 (Caprylic) 0.045 ± 0.00 0.052 ± 0.00 C10:0 (Capric) 0.096 ± 0.01 0.11 ± 0.03 moisture content of the crackers. The increase in water activity and C11:0 (Undecanoic) 0.013 ± 0.02 0.015 ± 0.01 moisture content with higher proportions of PH than BC could be C13:0 (Tridecanoic) ND 0.0072 ± 0.02 due to more hydrophilic sites being generated during hydrolysis of C14:1 (Myristoleic) ND 0.042 ± 0.01 PH, which resulted in competition for the limited free water in the C16:1 (Palmitoleic) ND 0.010 ± 0.05 dough. Moisture content has an influence on mouthfeel, while water C17:1 cis 10 (cis-10- 0.0065 ± 0.02 0.013 ± 0.05 activity has been identified as an index of shelf-life and the storage Heptadecanoic) stability of crackers (Cervenka et al., 2006; O’Brien, 2008). C18:1 cis 9 (Oleic) 0.077 ± 0.04 0.091 ± 0.02 C18:2 trans 9,12 (Linolaidic) 0.0074 ± 0.01 0.0078 ± 0.00 C18:2 cis 9,12 (Linoleic) ND 0.012 ± 0.01 Cutting force and fracturability C20:1 cis 11 (cis-11- ND 0.0083 ± 0.02 Cutting force and fracturability are important textural proper- Eicosenoic) ties of whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powders (C21:0) Heneicosanoic 0.027 ± 0.00 0.032 ± 0.01 obtained from salmon frame (Table 2). When molar teeth com- C20:3 cis 8,11,14 (cis-8,11, 0.0061 ± 0.03 0.0065 ± 0.02 press a food, the force applied is regarded to as cutting force. 14-Eicosatrienoic) The capacity to disintegrate food into pieces when it is bitten Cis-11, 14-Eicosadienoic ND 0.0050 ± 0.01 C23:0 (Tricosanoic) 0.0069 ± 0.03 0.0072 ± 0.02 by incisors is regarded as fracturability (Paula and Conti-Silva, C22:2 cis 13,16 (cis-13,16- 0.0058 ± 0.01 0.0065 ± 0.01 2014). An increase in cutting force with a coincidental decrease in Docosadienoic) fracturability of whole wheat crackers was observed as more BC C20:5 cis 5,8,11,14,17 EPA 0.0066 ± 0.02 0.0069 ± 0.03 powder was added (P < 0.05). However, the incorporation of PH (cis-5,8,11,14,17- powder slightly lowered the cutting force, but slightly increased Eicosatrienoic) the fracturability (P  <  0.05). The sample with only BC powder Saturated fatty acid (SFA) 0.31 ± 0.11 0.38 ± 0.15 incorporated showed the highest cutting force but the lowest Monounsaturated fatty acid 0.083 ± 0.04 0.16 ± 0.06 fracturability of 20.62  N and 1.34  mm (P  <  0.05), respectively. (MUFA) Benjakul and Karnjanapratum (2018) reported the effect of the in- Polyunsaturated fatty acid 0.026 ± 0.04 0.045 ± 0.03 corporation of BC powder from precooked tuna bone in crackers (PUFA) at varying levels, whereby the crackers obtained became more brittle and harder in texture with increasing substitution levels of ND, not detected. BC powder. Thus, the crackers obtained became more compact in structure by filling of gap in cracker crumb, particularly at higher inhibited the incorporation of air bubbles. This was evidenced by levels of BC. The low amount of water used for the formulation led the increased cutting force when BC powder was added. When PH to a lower degree of gelatinisation of amylose and amylopectin, and powder alone was added to the crackers, cutting force of 10.89 N this influenced the gel structure formation (Tako et al., 2014). The was obtained. It could be as a result of the weakening of the wheat BC powder might have disrupted the gel network formation and flour dough due to interference by short chain peptides, which Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 196 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 impeded the occurrence of sulphydryl/disulphide interchange reac- was added, there was no effect on the taste, appearance, colour, tions or disulphide bond formation during the development of the odour, and overall likeness (P > 0.05), compared with the control wheat flour dough. The increase in fracturability with the addition sample. However, the flavour and texture likeness scores were de- of PH powder rather than BC powder can be attributed to the in- creased when more BC powder was added. Due to the similar sen- creased number of hydrophilic sites generated during hydrolysis, sory property between the control and that of BC/PH powders (3:1) which were available to compete for the limited free water in the ratio, cracker fortified with the mixture of BC and PH powders (3:1) dough. This correlated well with the moisture content and water was selected for further study. activity indices presented in Table 2. Therefore, the fortification of the dough with BC and PH powders clearly affected the cutting Chemical composition and nutritional value of force and fracturability of the crackers. whole wheat crackers fortified with BC/PH (3:1) mixture Sensory properties Addition of BC and PH powders into the whole wheat crackers at Chemical compositions and energy values different levels affected likeness scores differently (Table 3). It was The chemical compositions of the whole wheat cracker fortified observed that the incorporation of both powders, particularly with with BC/PH (3:1) mixture and the control cracker are given in increasing PH levels resulted in decrease in all the attributes tested, Table 4. Carbohydrate (66.67 g/100g), total fat (15.39 g/100 g) and including appearance, colour, odour, texture, taste, flavour, and protein (11.88  g/100  g) were the main constituents in the control. overall acceptability of the crackers. Generally, lower levels of PH Whole wheat crackers fortified with BC and PH powder consisted powder resulted in the higher likeness score, compared with higher of lower carbohydrate content (61.00  g/100  g) but higher choles- levels of PH (P < 0.05). The highest level of PH powder incorporated terol (36.93 mg/100 g), higher total fat (16.54 g/100 g), and higher resulted in the lowest likeness score for all the attributes. This was protein (12.24 g/100 g). In addition, the total sugar (6.24 g/100 g) probably as a result of bitterness of the hydrolysate. Idowu et  al. and total fibre (2.04  g/100  g) in the control were higher than the (2019) reported that bitterness of hydrolysate obtained from salmon total sugar (5.18 g/100 g) and total fibre (1.68 g/100 g) in BC/PH frame occurred as a result of formation of peptides containing bulky fortified sample. Fortification of whole wheat cracker with BC and hydrophobic groups towards their C-terminal. Peptides containing PH powders therefore had an impact on compositions, especially hydrophobic groups such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, leucine, carbohydrate in the dough as well as in the resulting cracker. This valine, isoleucine, and tyrosine at C-terminal contribute to the bitter- was accompanied by increases in protein, fat, ash, and cholesterol ness (Yarnpakdee et al., 2015). Thus, the bitterness could be detected contents. Calcium and phosphorus were increased by 17- and 8-fold, by the panellists, leading to the decreased likeness score of crackers respectively, compared with those detected in the control. This cor- fortified with higher levels of PH powder. When BC powder alone related well with higher ash content of the BC/PH fortified sample, Figure 2. Scanning electron microscopic photographs of surface (a and b) and cross-section (c and d) of whole wheat cracker and BC/PH (3:1) fortified crackers. a and b: ×50 magnification, c and d: ×50 magnification. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 Whole wheat cracker fortified with BC and PH, 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 197 Figure 3. Elemental profile (a and c) and mappings of different elements (b and d) on cross-section of whole wheat cracker and BC/PH (3:1) fortified cracker as analysed by SEM-EDX. compared with the control (Table 4). A slight increase in sodium (Na) acid (C21: 0) in varying proportions. Tricosanoic acid was found in was noticeable in the BC/PH fortified sample (P < 0.05). Generally, both samples with capric, butyric, caproic, and caprylic acids being BC and PH powders are rich sources of protein and minerals, re- dominant, while tridecanoic acid was found only in the BC/PH forti- spectively (Benjakul et  al., 2017; Idowu et  al., 2019). Thus, the fied sample. Hu et al. (1999) suggested that SFAs with a chain length marked increase in components, such as proteins, Ca, P, and Na con- of C12:0–C16:0 are able to accelerate atherogenesis. For monoun- tents were obtained. The energy values of the whole wheat crackers saturated fatty acids, myristoleic, palmitoleic, and cis-11-eicosenoic were calculated using the Atwater factors of 9, 4, and 4 kcal/g for were not detected in the control cracker but were observed in varying fat, protein, and carbohydrate, respectively (Prokopov et al., 2015). amounts in the BC/PH fortified sample. Oleic acid was the dom- The energy values in the BC/PH fortified sample was lower than that inant monounsaturated fatty acid found in both samples. Naturally of the control sample (P < 0.05). The incorporation of BC and PH occurring vegetable oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids which con- powders in the formulation diluted the carbohydrate. Thus, the en- tain only non-conjugated double bonds in the cis configuration. Since ergy were reduced, compared with the control. The results showed unsalted margarine and peanut butter were used as ingredients in the that the addition of BC and PH powders to whole wheat crackers crackers, the unsaturated components could have been isomerized to affected the chemical composition and lowered energy values of the the trans form during baking or even the extraction process, as a crackers. result of oxidation, conversion during heating and by partial hydro- genation (Perez-Serradilla et  al., 2007). This could have resulted in Fatty acid composition the formation of the quantities of trans fatty acids observed in both Fatty acid compositions expressed as mg/100 g total fatty acid of the samples. Compared with the cis unsaturated fatty acids, the chemical control cracker and the BC/PH fortified sample are given in Table 5. stability, physiological (atherogenic effects), structure, and physical Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) (0.31–0.38 mg/100 g) were observed as properties of trans fatty acids resemble those of SFAs (Mensink and the dominant fatty acids in both samples. SFAs detected in the sam- Katan, 1990). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are biologically ples included butyric (C4:0), caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), capric and nutritionally important (Kandhro et  al., 2008). The PUFA con- (C10:0), undecanoic (C11:0), tridecanoic (C13:0), and heneicosanoic tent of both samples ranged from 0.026 to 0.045 (mg/100  g). EPA Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article-abstract/3/3/191/5554235 by DeepDyve user on 04 December 2019 198 Idowu et al., 2019, Vol. 3, No. 3 Project Office of the Higher Education Commission and the Graduate School, was found in both samples, but slightly higher content was found in Prince of Songkla University. the BC/PH fortified samples. This result corresponded to the higher fat and cholesterol observed in the BC/PH fortified cracker than in the control cracker as given in Table 4. Thus, fortification with BC and Conflict of Interest PH powders influenced the fatty acid profile of the resulting crackers. The authors declared no conflict of interest. SEM images of whole wheat crackers References Images of the surface and cross-sectional areas of the control and BC/ PH fortified whole wheat crackers using scanning electron microscopy AOAC. (2002). Official Methods of Analysis. 16th edn. Association of Official are shown in Figure 2. The structure of the fortified sample showed a Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC. Bashir, A., Ashraf, S. A., Khan, M. A., Azaz-Ahmad-Azad, Z. R. (2015). De- remarkable difference to that of the control sample. The surface of the velopment and compositional analysis of protein enriched soybean-pea- control (Figure 2a) showed an open structure with a porous matrix, a wheat flour blended cookies. Asian Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 7: 76–83. rough crumb, more gaps and air cells, compared with that of the BC/ Benjakul, S., Karnjanapratum, S. (2018). Characteristics and nutritional value PH fortified sample (Figure 2b). This result correlated well with that of of whole wheat cracker fortified with tuna bone bio-calcium powder. Food cross section of the control (Figure 2c) and the fortified samples (Figure Chemistry, 259: 181–187. 2d). Generally, the larger the volume of air which could be entrapped Benjakul, S., Mad-Ali, S. (2017). Characteristics of biocalcium powders from and retained in the dough matrix of the cracker, the more porous and pre-cooked tongol (Thunnus tonggol) and yellowfin (Thunnus albacores) open structure that resulted from expansion during baking. However, tuna bones. Food Biophysics, 12: 412–421. incorporated powders, particularly BC powder, filled the voids or air Benjakul,  S., Mad-Ali,  S., Senphan,  T., Sookchoo,  P. (2017). Biocalcium cells in the crumb of the cracker, hence yielding a dense structure. In powder from precooked skipjack tuna bone: production and its character- istics. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 41: 124–129. addition, the dispersal of BC and PH powders throughout the dough Bligh, E. G., Dyer, W. J. (1959). A rapid method of total lipid extraction and matrix plausibly interrupted the aeration property of the cracker purification. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 37: 911– dough during baking. Thus, the physical and textural characteristics of the crackers were determined by their internal structure. Campbell, J., Hauser, M., Hill, S. (1991). Nutritional characteristic of organic, freshly stoneground, sourdough and conventional breads. Ecological Agri- SEM-EDX spectroscopy culture Projects, 35: 1–6. Carr,  B.  T., Craig-Petsinger,  D., Hadlich,  S. (2001). A case study in relating Element distribution and their contents in the control (Figure 3a and sensory descriptive data to product concept fit and consumer vocabulary. 3b) and BC/PH fortified whole wheat crackers (Figure 3c and 3d) were Food Quality and Preference, 12: 407–412. evaluated by SEM-EDX. Based on element distribution and mapping, Cervenka,  L., Brožková,  I., Vytrasova,  J. (2006). Effects of the principal in- both samples composed of carbon and oxygen as the most dominant gredients of biscuits upon water activity. Journal of Food and Nutrition elements. 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Its detection limit, which varies from 1% to 10% (wt), re- dispersive X-ray spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry, 77: 5686–5692. sulted in the inability of other elements present in the compound to Feist,  B., Mikula,  B. (2014). Preconcentration of heavy metals on activated be measured, particularly light elements. Consequently, elements with carbon and their determination in fruits by inductively coupled plasma low contents such as nitrogen could not be detected in the crackers. optical emission spectrometry. Food Chemistry, 147: 302–306. Overall, the results indicated that fortification of the crackers with BC Gani, A., et al. (2015). Effect of whey and casein protein hydrolysates on rheo- and PH powders affected their elemental composition. logical, textural and sensory properties of cookies. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52: 5718–5726. Han, J. J., Janz, J. A., Gerlat, M. (2010). Development of gluten-free cracker Conclusion snacks using pulse flours and fractions. 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