Impact of COVID-19 on the food supply chain

Aday,, Serpil; Aday, Mehmet, Seckin

doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyaa024

Impact of COVID-19 on the food supply chain

Aday,, Serpil;Aday, Mehmet, Seckin 2020-12-18 00:00:00 A pandemic is not a new event encountered in the history of humanity because mankind has faced various pandemics in history. The common point of pandemics is their serious negative effects on the global economy. Considering the food supply chain, one of the most important sectors of the economy, it has been seen that COVID-19 has an impact on the whole process from the field to the consumer. In the light of recent challenges in food supply chain, there is now considerable concern about food production, processing, distribution, and demand. COVID-19 resulted in the movement restrictions of workers, changes in demand of consumers, closure of food production facilities, restricted food trade policies, and financial pressures in food supply chain. Therefore, governments should facilitate the movement of workers and agri-food products. In addition, small farmers or vulnerable people should be supported financially. Facilities should change the working conditions and maintain the health and safety of employees by altering safety measures. Food protectionist policies should be avoided to prevent an increase in food prices. In conclusion, each country must realize the severity of the situation and sometimes should tighten or loosen the measures according to the spread of the pandemic. The supply chain also should be flexible enough to respond to the challenges in the food supply chain. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the impact of COVID-19 on the agriculture and food sector and to summarize the recommendations required to reduce and control the effect of the pandemic. Key words: pandemic; COVID-19; agriculture; food; supply chain. (H3N2), and 2009 Pandemic flu (H1N1), that resulted in the human Introduction deaths of around 50 million, 1.5 million, 1 million, and 300 000, re- As the COVID-19 disease spread rapidly to six continents by the spectively (Liu et al., 2020). WHO indicated that this outbreak is not novel coronavirus SARS-nCoV-2, many countries around the world just a public health crisis, but it is a crisis that will touch every sector. have declared state of health emergency. On 11 March 2020, the Therefore, every sector and every individual should be involved in World Health Organization (WHO) declared the rapidly spreading this struggle (WHO, 2020c). As of 5 August 2020, the number of disease as a pandemic and called on countries to plan preparatory cases per 1 million population is given for different regions as fol- and response actions in line with the Global Strategic Preparedness lows: 9 613.03 in Americas, 3 694.43 in Europe, 1 136.41 in South- and Response Plan (WHO, 2020a; Vasavada, 2020). WHO ex- East Asia, 2 167.25 in Eastern Mediterranean, 742.75 in Africa, and plained that a pandemic caused by a coronavirus has not been seen 176.36 in Western Pacific region. The global total of confirmed cases before, and this disease is the first pandemic caused by the corona- has reached to 17 528. 223 per 1 million population and 687.64 per virus. COVID-19 is the fifth pandemic, following 1918 influenza virus (H1N1), 1957 influenza virus (H2N2), 1968 influenza virus 1 million population for corresponding deaths (WHO, 2020b). © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ 167 by-nc/ 4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 168 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 The ‘Strategic preparedness and response plan’ by WHO includes the supply management strategies is also important to meet the con- the health measures that all countries had to prepare for and respond sumer demands (De Sousa Jabbour et al., 2020). Maintaining the to this pandemic. This plan covers what we have learned about the flow of food and commodities throughout the supply chain should virus so far and aims to transform this information into strategic be ensured with the contribution of all stakeholders. Ensuring the action that can guide all national and international partners while confidence of consumers is also essential for food safety and security developing national and regional operational plans. According to (FAO and WHO, 2020). At this time of crisis, food security is asso- this plan, priority steps and actions are outlined in eight main topics: ciated with consumers’ access to food rather than food availability (OECD, 2020b). • Coordination, planning, and monitoring at the country level; Consumers generally do not think much about how the food • Risk communication and community participation; on their tables is produced. However, concerns about food safety • Surveillance, quick response teams, and case investigation; in the midst of the global pandemic have drawn attention to the • Entry points; enormous infrastructure and workforce responsible for creating a • National laboratories; safe and reliable food supply worldwide. Especially at the beginning • Prevention and control of infection; of this global crisis, consumer demand for food has increased and • Situation management; some store shelves have been temporarily emptied and resulted in ex- • Operational support and logistics (WHO, 2020a). cess purchases of essential products. However, despite this unprece- dented demand, the food supply chain remained strong, since many The implementation of these measures caused the closure of work- supply chain actors, including farmers, producers, distributors, and places and educational institutions, and temporary restrictions in retailers, have worked hard to renew shelves (Nicola et al., 2020; travels and social meetings. Flexible working from home and on- Watts, 2020). line meetings have become standard practices nowadays. However, Despite the large scale of the pandemic, there is no report that people who work in the food industry do not have work from home COVID-19 has been transmitted through food consumption to date. option hence they need to keep their typical office routines (Nicola Therefore, as stated by the European Food Safety Authority, there et al., 2020; FAO and WHO, 2020). is no evidence that food poses a risk to public health in relation to As a consequence of the COVID-19 crisis, response plans for COVID-19. However, after the latest infections have been seen in food workers were developed to provide guidance for continuity Xinfandi market due to salmon processing, it can be concluded that of operations in the food processing facilities and manage corona- the risk of the virus that transmitted through foods is lower than virus in the food industry. Especially meat and poultry processing the perceived risk. Considering the survival time of SARS-CoV-2 in industries can be defined as the critical infrastructure in food and different environments such as plastic, steel, or cardboard, it is pos- agriculture. The plan includes a hierarchy of control requirements sible that animal tissues (meat, fish, or poultry) might be a serious for cleaning, sanitation, disinfection of facilities, screening, and source for foodborne transmission. Hygiene controls by food busi- monitoring of workers for COVID-19, managing the sick employees ness operators are designed to prevent contamination of food by and education programs for workers and supervisors to prevent the any pathogen and will therefore aim to prevent contamination of spread of coronavirus (CDC, 2020b). foods by the virus responsible for COVID-19 too (Arellano, 2020; Every industry in the world expects to see how the COVID-19 Dalton, 2020; EC, 2020; Pressman et al., 2020). It was reported that outbreak will affect the manufacturing industry, and the food in- foods were not a source of spread of coronaviruses including MERS dustry is no different from other industries. However, the difference and SARS-CoV due to the acidic environments of the stomach (pH in the food industry from other industries is to produce products < 3.5) in previous outbreaks. However, some cooking and eating that are essential for daily life. Everybody knows that if one factory habits may lead to the reappearance of the coronavirus from animals closes, a certain number of people who works at these factories have to humans (Rizou et al., 2020). the potential to starve, but if processors and distributors are infected, To summarize, four major issues have been raised in the food all people are at risk (Staniforth, 2020). In addition, the food in- industry and the food supply chain during the COVID-19 outbreak. dustry is a very important sector in regard to economy. However, Firstly, people tend to have follow a healthy diet for protecting food sector faces different sets of challenges compared with other themselves and their immune systems (Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2020). sectors that are not critical for daily life such as tourism and aviation Therefore, the demand for the functional foods which contain bio- during a pandemic. Pandemic might lead to a US$113 billion loss in active ingredients increased. Secondly, food safety has gained more aviation and US$80 billion in tourism sector (IATA, 2020; UNTWO, attention to prevent the transmission of coronavirus among pro- 2020). Some food companies face various challenges due to a drop ducers, retailers, and consumers. Thirdly, food security concerns in income, whereas others are working hard to meet the growing have arisen because of the people on lockdown restrictions. Lastly, demand of retailers. During the current COVID-19 outbreak, some food sustainability problems have emerged in the era of pandemic difficult decisions had to be made, including temporarily shut down (Galanakis, 2020). of the various businesses. The fact is that this pandemic clearly dem- In the light of recent challenges in food supply chain, there is onstrated different companies from different industries are closely now considerable concern about the food supply chain. Therefore, connected to each other all over the world (Sebastian, 2020; Shahidi, the purpose of this article is to provide information about the ef- 2020). fects of the COVID-19 outbreak in the food supply chain and to A major concern shared by all food companies is preserving the summarize the measures taken to minimize these effects. Formal and employee’s health and the provision of sufficient workforce due to informal sources were used to obtain information about the food those who do not want to work because of sickness or coronavirus supply chain during COVID-19 outbreak. The contents which were fear. It is very important to protect and maintain the health of people not reviewed by news editor, journal/magazine editor, or scientific working in the food supply chain during this time of crisis (FAO editor before they are published online were not used as a supple- and WHO, 2020). However, keeping the distribution chain alive by mentary source of information. Most of the content was based on Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 169 the well-known organizations such as Centres for Disease Control Logistics barriers that disrupt food supply chains further weaken and Prevention (CDC), European Commission (EC), Food and high-value goods due to their short shelf life (Shahidi, 2020; FAO, Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Food Information 2020j, FAO, 2020k). Council (IFIC), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Most agricultural activities depend on the season and weather, International Labour Organization (ILO), International Trade and therefore, activities need to follow a fine-tuned schedule with Centre (ITC), The Organization for Economic Co-operation and flexibility so that immediate actions can be performed when needed. Development (OECD), and World Health Organization (WHO). Since all processes and stages in a supply chain are strongly con- nected to each other, a slight delay or glitch can trigger a butterfly Effects of pandemic on food supply chain effect resulting in a big loss in the yield and output (FAO, 2020k). The Food supply chain can be divided into five stages, including agri- Actually, there are many reports that farmers were forced to des- cultural production, postharvest handling, processing, distribution/ troy their products by burning or leaving them to spoil because of retail/service, and consumption. Two systems are being used in the the restrictions. Dairy Farmers in America Co-operative consider 14 food supply chain regarding food quality and safety. The First one is million litres of milk are being dumped every day due to interrupted based on regulations and laws that use mandatory standards which supply chain. In England, chair of dairy farmers reported that ap- are inspected by state agencies. The Second one is relying on volun- proximately 5 million litres of milk are at risk in one week. Also, It tary standards which are defined by market laws or international was reported that tea plants were being lost because of the logistical associations (Bendekovic et al., 2015). Safety measures to ensure challenges in India (BBC, 2020a). Therefore, maintaining logistical the continuity of food flow in each stage can be grouped as food efficiency is a key factor for the food industry, especially in global employee’s health issues, personal hygiene, using personal protective crisis. The biggest issues in the food supply chain are obtaining raw equipments such as helmets and glove, sanitization of surfaces and materials from suppliers and ensuring the continuity of food flow working environments, safe handling/preparation/delivery of food, from manufacturers to end users (Alonso et al., 2007).The problems and maintenance of social distance. Protective measures in the last are jeopardizing the ability of agricultural businesses to continue stages of the food supply chain are critical since more people can be their business as usual, and may have negative effects on food quality, potentially affected as moved towards the last stages (Rizou et al., freshness, and food safety, and hinder access to markets and afford- 2020). ability (FAO, 2020k). As countries struggle with that pandemic, they Unlike foot and mouth disease, bird flu, Escherichia coli ( E. coli), or must make every effort to move the gears of the food supply chains. Listeria, the COVID-19 pandemic does not directly affect production, The impact of pandemic problems on agricultural systems largely as it does not spread directly through livestock or agricultural products depends on the intensity and composition of agricultural inputs and (FAO, 2020a). However, due to the pandemic, governments around the varies depending on the product produced and the country. Capital- world have made significant restrictions in the transportation (land, intensive techniques are usually used in high-income countries for water, and air transport) of goods, as well as in the migration of la- agricultural production, whereas production is mostly labour de- bour. Reports showed that using the trucks for food distribution was pendent in low-income countries. Thus, the supply chain should be declined to 60% since the restrictions in France which was 30% before kept running with a particular focus on the basics of logistic chal- the pandemic (FAO, 2020j; Bakalis et al., 2020). lenges (FAO, 2020j). In developing and underdeveloped countries, temporary or Food sector contains many diverse products such as meat, fruit, seasonal employment is common, especially for planting, sorting, vegetable, dairy, ready-to-eat foods, and other edible products harvesting, processing, or transporting crops to markets. Therefore, (Hueston and McLeod, 2012). However, the food and agriculture the supply chain is significantly affected as a result of the absence chain can be broadly classified into two categories regarding capital of local or migrant workers due to sickness or travel restrictions investment and labour. The First one can be defined as staple prod- imposed by lockdown. It also weakens not only production abilities ucts such as wheat, corn, maize, soybeans, and oilseeds. The Second for others, but also their own food safety, in cases where the disease one contains high-value products such as fruit, vegetables, and fish- directly affects their health or movement (FAO, 2020k). Especially, eries. Staple products require large amounts of capital investments. labour shortage due to COVID-19 crisis caused severe disruptions Restriction between cities, provinces, regions, and countries has a in some sectors such as livestock production, horticulture, planting, negative impact on the distribution of staple products (FAO, 2020c). harvesting, and crop processing which are relatively labour intensive In contrast to staple products, a great deal of labour is required to (Stephens et al., 2020). However, shortage of farmworkers was a obtain high-value products. However, time-sensitive nature of the major issue well before the COVID-19 outbreak, too (Richards and agricultural operations (O’Brien et al., 2014) and needs for higher Rickard, 2020). productivity over time might lead to the agricultural transformation Due to the fact that many skilled workers in the harvest could which can be defined as technological advancement and up-skilling not access various countries because of the border controls, a call of the labour force (Jeon, 2011; Martin, 2016). has been made to the unemployed persons to work in the fields in The challenges that have been driven by movement restriction (na- France. In Britain, ‘Pick for Britain’ campaign was aimed to find tional or international border closures) and the changes in demand 70 000 British to work in the field and during the harvest (Nature of consumers are important. Because of the restrictions, consumers Plants, 2020). However, due to the shortage of workforce as a result cannot go to restaurants and they prepare their meals at home. In of illness and physical distance to be maintained during produc- addition, consumers do not want to go to markets and supermarkets tion, the crisis undermines the ability of farms and agricultural busi- due to catching the COVID-19 at the stores (FAO, 2020g). nesses to work. These conditions retarded the delivery of food and The supply chain affects not only producers, distributors, and agricultural inputs and created problems in providing continuous consumers, but also food-processing plants that are labour inten- food supply to markets (ILO, 2020). Although many manufacturers sive. Production was reduced, suspended, or temporarily discon- rely on their core inputs, most are more susceptible to disruptions, tinued in many plants due to the workers who were found to be as they must obtain their requirements from domestic markets. COVID-19 positive and who were reluctant to go to work, thinking Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 170 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 that they would get sick at work, mostly in meat-processing food hands, separating raw and cooked meat, etc.) should be followed companies at the time of the outbreak. For these reasons, it was while preparing and storing the foods (Rizou et al., 2020; Shahidi, thought that the production capacity of pork facilities decreased 2020). by approximately 25% in late April (Devereux et al., 2020; Flynn, Centralized food manufacturing is another factor that caused 2020). disruption of food chains during COVID-19 outbreak. This para- In this context, there were at least 462 meat packaging and 257 digm helped the food processors to increase production and reduce food-processing plants and 93 farm and production facilities were the costs. However, centralization has some drawbacks such as rigid affected by COVID-19 cases in the USA. At least 54,036 workers and lengthy supply chain issues. In addition, using the small number (39,905 meat packaging workers, 8,343 food-processing workers, of very large production facilities to meet the demands might create and 5,788 farmers) have been identified as COVID-19 positive and at problems (Almena et al., 2019a) such as closure of the entire facility least 232 workers (184 meat packaging workers, 34 food-processing in case of an outbreak leaving high capacity production lines with workers, and 14 farm workers) have lost their lives (Douglas, 2020). less alternatives. In Brazil, 2,400 meat plant workers were identified as COVID-19 Governments are also facing financial pressures due to the eco- positive from 24 slaughterhouses in 18 municipalities. Several meat nomic shrinkage and reallocating their resources focusing on finan- factories suspended their operations after 246 positive cases in cial incentives and social assistance programs. Therefore, it may be England and Wales. In Gana, 534 staff tested positive for the virus difficult to support programs aimed to improve productivity at the at a fish-processing factory. In Germany, 1,553 cases of COVID-19 farm levels. It is possible that inadequate funding may reduce the de- were found at meat-processing plants, and in France, more than mand for agricultural production and productivity over the medium 100 coronavirus infections were recorded at slaughterhouses (BBC, term. The drop in demand will particularly harm the emerging pri- 2020b; Gulland, 2020; Kaur, 2020; Ziady et al., 2020). Close-down vate sector in developing countries (FAO, 2020e, 2020h). of the food plants created the ripple effect in food supply chain. The information provided by WHO indicated that coronavirus is Producers have been forced to cull the farm animals since they could transmitted through direct contact or respiratory droplets, however, not find any plant to sell their livestock. Greater consumer demand the latest infections encountered in Xinfandi market raised ques- resulted in empty shelves and a decrease in supply caused an in- tions over spread of coronavirus through food. Xinfandi market is crease in the price of meat products. Some of the markets limited the the Beijing’s largest wholesale food market with more than 10,000 number of items such as beef and pork products that a single cus- workers and capacity of 18,000 tonnes of vegetables, 20,000 tonnes tomer could buy. Food services were also affected, and some restaur- of fruit, and 1,500 tonnes of seafood, everyday (Hua and Cadell, ants stopped serving beef hamburgers (Hobbs, 2020; Levany, 2020; 2020). Officials have detected more than 100 infected people, mostly Murphy, 2020; Rude, 2020; Valinsky, 2020). Despite government re- serving at seafood, beef, and mutton sections. The coronavirus was assurances, some of the stores started free delivery services on orders detected on the board used for cutting up salmon at market. Officials to prevent panic-buying. In addition, supermarkets determined the point out that high humidity and low temperature conditions in number of people allowed at any given time to stop overcrowding. Beijing might be the reason for transmission of coronavirus. In add- Stores also adjusted special shopping hours for vulnerable customers ition, officials stated that the surfaces of equipment’s used for prepar - (Nicola et al., 2020). ation of seafood and meat products contaminated by infected people There are several reasons at play that make food-processing fa- could be another factor of transmission (Feng and Cheng, 2020; cilities potential hotbeds for outbreak. Keeping social distance in- Reuters, 2020). The government blocked the entrances by police and side the food plants is difficult because workers stand side by side temporarily closed the market due to the fears of a second wave of during long shifts on production lines. In addition, talking loudly pandemic on June 13. The news has resulted in halted importation or shouting, due to noisy enivironments, results in the release of of salmon from European countries in China and salmon was taken more droplets to the air (Stewart et al., 2020). Employees also travel off from some supermarkets’ shelves in reaction. Norwegian officials on the same buses or use car-sharing systems allowing the virus to stated ‘there is no link between the transmission of coronavirus via spread further. Moreover, the majority of workers have lower in- imported food and the origin of the salmon outbreak is still unclear’ come and mostly do not have insurance coverage or paid sick leave. (Arellano, 2020; Dalton, 2020). Negotiations between Norwegian Therefore, food-processing workers are taking risk to go work even and Chinese authorities are currently in progress to clear up the if they feel sick which increase the risk of infection. Cold and humid backlog. However, not only the supply of seafoods was affected, environment inside the food-processing facilities is another factor but also meat, fruit, and vegetables supply were damaged with the that facilitates the spread of the COVID-19. It is possible that cold closure of the entire Xinfandi market. Authorities are trying to estab- and dark environments without any ultraviolet light can keep cor- lish special trading places in the near future to maintain the supply onavirus alive and might result in an increase in the rates of trans- chain of vegetables and fruits. In addition, government is consid- mission (Artiga and Rae, 2020; Gulland, 2020). The stability tests ering to take actions to increase the hygienic standards in food mar- of the virus under five different temperatures (4, 22, 37, 56, and kets (Globaltimes, 2020; Reuters, 2020). Authorities tested around 70 °C) and five different surfaces (paper, tissue paper, wood, and 30,000 foods including meat, seafood, fruit, and vegetable between cloth) showed that SARS-CoV-2 is highly stable at 4 °C, but sensitive 11 and 17 June and results were negative for all samples. Food ex- to heat. In addition, it was found that the virus is stable on smooth porters to China were asked to sign official declarations in which surfaces, however susceptible to standard disinfectants (Chin et al., they give a guarantee for their products that it is not contaminated 2020). Another study by Van Doremalen et al. (2020) suggested by coronavirus. However, some of the exporters such as Brazilian that SARS-CoV-2 remains stable in aerosols for 3 h. The same study grain exporters did not agree to sign the declaration (Good, 2020; revealed that virus was viable for 4, 24, 48, and 72 h on copper, Patton, 2020). cardboard, stainless steel, and plastic, respectively. These outcomes As a result, the COVID-19 pandemic ensured the use of mechan- indicated that the cooking temperatures above 70 °C are enough isms designed for emergency and affected contractual transactions in to kill the SARS-CoV-2, but sanitary recommendations (washing the food supply chains. At the same time, it resulted in the changes in Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 171 the supply–demand balance and left small producers and operators this without exceeding normal budget. Consumers adopted a basic in a difficult situation (FAO, 2020i). approach of returning to natural food and beverage products which contain ingredients that provide nutritional supplements such as fruits and vegetables, legumes, whole grains, or olive oil. At the same Effects of pandemic on consumer behaviour time, most consumers are concerned about the effect of COVID-19 When the issue of how the COVID-19 pandemic affects consumers’ on their mental effects; therefore, many consumers are looking for food demand is examined, it is seen that the demand varies de- food products to improve this mood (Hughes, 2020; Muscogiuri pending on the price of foodstuffs, income level of consumers, socio- et al., 2020). demographic situation, consumption, and shopping preferences and In a recent poll by Italy’s Agricultural Research and Economic time constraints. In addition, the number of visits to food store and Council (CREA), the behaviour of the Italian population on food spending money on food in per visit changed (Bakalis et al., 2020; choices and behaviour was monitored under COVID-19 quarantine. Cranfield, 2020). Approximately 2,900 people from all regions of Italy responded. COVID-19 outbreak interrupted the daily routine and resulted According to the results, healthy food and beverage consumption in boredom which can be defined as high energy intake by the con- increased for vegetables (33%), fruit (29%), legumes (26.5%), and sumption of high amount of fat, carbohydrate, and proteins. In add- extra virgin olive oil (21.5%). However, it was determined that ition, quarantine caused stress in people and pushed them toward 44.5% of them had more sweet consumption and 16% of them sugary foods for feeling positive, because carbohydrate-rich foods drank more wine. Forty-four percent of respondents reported weight can be used as self-medicating components due to their ability to gain due to intake of higher calories and low levels of physical ac- encourage serotonin production. However, these unhealthy eating tivity. Thirty-seven percent of respondents expressed that they need habits may contribute to the development of obesity linked to the to lose weight by adjusting their diet (CREA, 2020). chronic inflammation and serious complications of COVID-19 According to the survey of 630 consumers in May, 70% of con- (Muscogiuri et al., 2020). sumers reduced the frequency of food shopping and preferred online The closure of restaurants and limited service eating places af- shopping during COVID-19 outbreak in the USA. Fifty-six percent fected the eating/purchasing habits and resulted in an unusual of consumers are worried about not finding particular foods they demand shift from food service to retail. Reports showed that want to buy in the store or forgetting to buy something. Seventy purchasing food from supermarkets and using food services had the percent of consumers said that they consumed more food while at same ratio as 50% before the outbreak; however, it is almost 100% home. When examined in terms of healthy consumption, 43% of for supermarkets. The number of visits to food store was decreased consumers emphasized that they consume more fruits, 42% more whilst spending money on food was raised per visit. Consumers ex- vegetables, and 30% more protein-containing foods (meat, chicken, perienced reduced availability of certain types of foods during the or fish). In addition, 39% of consumers stated that they made their COVID-19 lockdown. In European countries, flour which is a staple breakfast more balanced. When examined in terms of unhealthy con- product received more attention and not found on food store shelves sumption, 47% of consumers said that they consumed more sweets, due to the interest in home-baking as a family activity. Interestingly, 24% consumed less vegetables, 21% consumed less fruit, and 19% bread and baked products kept their place on the supermarket consumed less protein (DeBroff, 2020). shelves. Consumers have focused on the products with long shelf life In another study, a survey on 1,005 men and women who are such as dried or canned foods, pasta, milk, or milk substitutes, and over 18 years old showed that more than half of the French people frozen foods due to convenience and daily cooking at home. People changed their views on the social, economic, and ecological value of stocked these foods at home because of the turn to home baking food production, during the 8-week quarantine. The results showed and believing rumours or getting false information. Consumers that French consumers would only buy ‘necessary’ foods, spend preferred takeaway and home delivery options as a result of social more time cooking, and pay more attention to food spending when distance and closure of restaurants (Bakalis et al., 2020; Shahidi, they return to ‘normal’ after COVID-19 pandemic measures have 2020). Indeed, it was interesting to note that the shortage of eggs was not only due to increased demand but also lack of packaging been relieved. Changing attitudes also seem to have had an impact for retail. Household egg consumption increased 40% since March on food waste, and one in three respondents stated that they now 20 in Argentina and sales of eggs rose by 44% compared to last year waste less food. This includes 29% of those who reported buying in the USA. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provided flexi- more local food and 20% went online shopping (Askew, 2020). bility related to the packaging and labelling of eggs due to the insuf- Another study conducted on the 6th and 7th of April, among ficient availability of appropriately labelled retail packages to fulfill 1,000 adults who are above 18, showed that 42% of consumers the demand and facilitate the distribution of eggs during COVID-19 preferred the packaged foods more than normal, whereas another pandemic (FDA, 2020; Mazili, 2020; Reiley, 2020). portion of the same ratio said that the pandemic did not change their attitudes towards packaged food. Eighty-two percent of consumers Global events such as COVID-19 increase the demand for food think that the food they buy during the pandemic is safe to consume. worldwide. In a study, demand data in European countries due to However, a portion of 7% thinks that the food that they buy is not COVID-19 were evaluated. Accordingly, although the demand for safe. A total of 77% think that food producers can provide enough fresh bread increased by 76% and frozen vegetables by 52% in the food to meet consumer needs, whereas 16% think that it cannot be week when the pandemic was announced, the demand for alcoholic provided (IFIC, 2020). beverages did not increase. However, the demand for alcoholic bev- As consumers play a key role in food supply chain, changes erages increased about twice, one month after pandemic announce- ment (Crisp, 2020). in consumer behaviour strongly affected the food supply chain. Concerns about COVID-19 are far-reaching and they cover both COVID-19 outbreak caused a significant rise in food price related health and financial issues. In a study on 18 countries, it was shown to lockdown restrictions accompanied by panic buying, as well as that food buying behaviour of the consumers has changed because of supply chain disruptions (EDP, 2020). Some of the consumers will their will to consume healthy foods, but at the same time to achieve pay more attention to reduce food waste for improving food security Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 172 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Shafiee-Jood and Cai, 2016). However, the opposite is also possible FAO’s 2020 estimates, wheat and coarse grain production is ex- since lots of the perishable foods were discarded or dumped due to pected to be similar to 2019. For this reason, global grain markets the closure of schools, restaurants, or processing plants. In addition, are expected to follow a balanced situation despite the concern of transportation problems during lockdown or overbuying of perish- COVID-19 (FAO, 2020b). able items because of panic buying resulted in higher food waste A total of 19 countries have taken measures to restrict exports, levels (Fleetwood, 2020; Sharma et al., 2020). Changing demands which are related to 27 food products due to COVID-19 outbreak. also will bring changes to packaging materials/design, delivery op- Some of these restrictions are inactive and currently a total of 8 tions, and storage conditions (Reynold, 2020). countries are continuing their measures on 11 food. When the ef- fects of restrictions on importing countries are evaluated (expressed as Kcal unit), it is seen that Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Effects of pandemic on global food trade Azerbaijan were negatively affected by 79%, 70%, 61%, and 54%, Although the current conditions seem exceptional, the vulnerability respectively (IFPRI, 2020). of food systems to problems related to climate and diseases has been To summarize, trading provides to move the products from sur- experienced long before the COVID-19 crisis. Food systems have plus to deficit areas, preventing the shortages and food insecurity been unstable from various events and shocks previously such as related to reliance only on domestic production (Baldos and Hertel, the oil crisis in the 1970s, the SARS and Ebola outbreaks, and the 2015; Fitton et al., 2019). However, COVID-19 pandemic caused 2006–2008 food crisis. Africa Swine Fever disease made the global a significant impact on food trade and led to disruption in food commodity markets upset just a year ago and became a progressive supply chain due to the export restrictions. Export-restricted pol- epidemic in Eastern Europe and Asia. The world’s largest swine pro- icies pushed up world prices of stable food commodities such as ducer (has 1/3 of the global market) and biggest exporter, China, lost wheat, maize, and rice and resulted in reduction of the quantity and 37% of its pigs by the end of 2019 (IPES, 2020). Ebola had a great quality of food eaten (Fyles and Madramootoo, 2016). Customers negative impact on agricultural production, marketing, and trade also could not find the product which is not grown or produced economies of some African countries. On the production side, due to nationally. Producers were also weakened by the restrictions be- road constraints, farmers had limited access to inputs such as seeds, cause international market contains endless number of buyers and fertilizers, and pesticides, and most regions faced labour shortages. helps the producers to select the best one. When the export re- For this reason, more than 40% of agricultural land has not been strictive policies were applied, local sellers could not find buyers cultivated. However, pandemic did not severely affect the production and resulted in excess supply and waste along with economic because agricultural areas were often in the geographic areas which losses. Foods that are not grown locally but needed for processing are far away from urban densities (Agrilinks, 2020; Shahidi, 2020). were not available due to the restrictions and capacity utilization of The current COVID-19 crisis has changed the food trade pol- food-manufacturing plants to respond demand was also negatively icies of some governments, moving towards restricting exports and affected (Arianina and Morris, 2020; Ndemezo et al., 2018; Reddy facilitating imports. The main reason that countries impose export et al., 2016). Transportation challenges for air and sea cargo were restrictions is to ensure the maintenance of the number of products also further issues in association with food loss and waste (OECD, in the domestic market. Although the export restriction typically 2020a). produces this result in the short term, it also has some negative ef- fects. First, export restrictions cause domestic prices to drop, which will hurt farmers financially resulting in the decrease in crop pro- Recommendations to minimize the effect of duction and reduced incentives in the industry. Second, countries Covid-19 will lose their competitive advantage by losing their place in inter- The COVID-19 outbreak seriously threatens food safety, security, national markets. Third, export restrictions undermine exporter’s and nutrition. The economic chaos due to the pandemic threatens reputation and encourage importers to reduce confidence in the economic access and physical availability of food. Disruptions and world market, thereby reducing trust in international trade and possible problems in marketing, logistics, and trade systems may destroying future business opportunities for exporters (Espitia et al., restrict access to food in some places and times, therefore, hunger 2020; FAO, 2020l). and malnutrition problems may appear (FAO, 2020g). Report In 2008 food crisis, although domestic food prices increased from World Food Program showed that the number of people fa- greatly, some big countries that could isolate themselves from world cing extreme hunger can increase to 265 million in 2020 as a result markets were not affected. Compared with 2004, rice prices in- of COVID-19 (WFP, 2020a). Another study performed by Headey creased by 224%, wheat prices by 108%, and corn prices by 89% et al. (2020) indicated that COVID-19 leads to 14.3% increase in the (FAO, 2011). In general, prices increased due to trade constraints, prevalence of wasting among children who are younger than 5 years risks, and uncertainties in international markets leading to an in- old due to malnutrition or interruption of health and social protec- crease in prices in the import-dependent countries higher than they tion in low and middle-income countries. should be. Because of the export restrictions enforced by major exporting countries, panic-buying behaviour has been observed in Strategies for food supply chain importing countries and prices have been elevated due to more de- mand for products (DOS, 2011). Before the pandemic, one-third of all food produced for human con- Although world food stocks are currently high, a prolonged pan- sumption was lost or wasted across the food supply chain stages demic crisis can cause problems in the food supply chain, as well including production, postharvest handling, processing, distribution, as export-restricted policies, which can trigger the domino effect. and consumption. Therefore, food waste has gained more attention According to the FAO 2019 grain production estimates, it was re- than ever before in the era of coronavirus. A study performed by ported that there had been around 2.721 billion tonnes of produc- Aldaco et al. (2020) indicated that COVID-19 had a minor impact tion consisting of 1.44 billion tonnes for coarse grains, 763 million on the overall food loss and waste generation but resulted in 12% tonnes for wheat, and 512 million tonnes for rice. According to higher creation of food waste on the household level. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 173 Valuable bioactive components such as phenols, carotenoids, maintain the balance between the production quantity and safety of pectins, flavonoids, essential oils, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, workers (FAO, 2020j). and whey protein isolate can be derived from food wastes to re- Decentralization of food manufacture might also be used to utilize them in food chain. These functional compounds can be used avoid drawbacks and risks associated with centralization paradigm as preservatives, gelling agents, food, or nutritional supplements. in the era of COVID-19. Low-scale facilities located near the con- Conventional or innovative techniques can be applied in the extrac- sumers reduce the storage and transportation costs and minimize tion, fractionation, and isolation stages of bioactive components the environmental impacts. Building the production facilities closer from food wastes (Deng et al., 2015; Galanakis, 2012; Galanakis, to consumers help shorten the supply chain and decrease the emis- 2013). However, additional collection and processing centres are sion and energy consumption during transportation and storage. required to recover food wastes generated during production, Decentralization provides flexibility in supply chain and allows cus- processing, or consumption stages. tomers to get fresh and natural products. It also helps us to simplify The European Food Safety Authority indicated that food is not a the administration procedures in order to reach poor and disad- source of coronavirus and virus cannot be transmitted through the vantaged people (Almena et al., 2019a; Almena et al., 2019b; FAO, consumption of food. Environmental surfaces such as doorknobs, 2005). light switches, or foods contaminated with COVID-19 virus remain Industry also should determine which transportation routes are a potential risk of becoming infected (EC, 2020). However, the latest blocked (potential alternatives should be sought) and how many work performed by Richard et al. (2020) showed that SARS-CoV-2 workers cannot work due to restrictions. The local labour force can be efficiently transmitted via air. Therefore, people should al- should be trained and activated in the event of cross-border restric- ways care about handwashing. In addition, retailers must follow tions. It would be an opportunity to ensure reliable and long-term the hygiene requirements when handling food. Food preparation workforce for future by training and increasing the skills of local em- workers must wear mask and gloves and change them frequently ployees. Agricultural workers now identified as essential people, and when cutting, slicing, or packaging of foods. Consumers are also re- this ensured them to work under better conditions with higher wages sponsible to prevent contamination by not touching the foods other (Petetin, 2020). At the same time, agricultural inputs should be con- than what they are willing to purchase in the stores (Morawska and sidered as essential products to ensure food production. Collection Cao, 2020). centres should be selected and planned considering their distance Various robot systems can be used to ensure food safety in food to the manufacturer. Integration of small producers closer to collec- facilities by preventing the transmission of microorganism by hu- tion centre with high capacity can also decrease mobility (Galanakis, mans. The fourth industrial revolution now plays an important 2020). role by making data-driven autonomous decision in production. Changes in demands are another factor that affects supply chain Automation opens up new opportunity to increase productivity by performance. Therefore, the demands should be determined using 25% and to complete the task such as loading/unloading, placing, forecasts and simulations. Especially, the products which are essen- and packaging more efficiently than human being. Robots can also tial for daily life, such as sanitizers and food items, gained more help us to serve the foods to consumers in food-serving industry. In demand at the beginning of crisis. However, the perishable nature addition, Cyber Physical System (CPS) can monitor the unsafe or of food products makes them more prone to impacts of COVID-19 low-quality products in food supply chain (Iqbal et al., 2017; Bowler on the supply chain. Therefore, statistical models can be applied by et al., 2020). manufacturer to propose optimal decision for tackling supply and The COVID-19 outbreak also resulted in difficult requirements demand disruptions due to COVID-19 outbreak. Using those results, for human resource management. These challenges include the production, processing, and distribution can be adapted accordingly change of working conditions, adopting new workplace policies accordingly (Paul and Chowdhury, 2020). and actions to reduce human contact (Carnevale and Hatak, 2020). In addition, it is necessary to use the logistics facilities in the Therefore, organizations must respond to the challenges by some most optimum way, especially the logistics vehicles should not re- measures. Firstly, COVID-19 symptoms of the workers, visitors, sup- turn empty to the starting point. The concept of ‘Urban Distribution pliers, and contractors should be monitored before entering the fa- Center’ can allow us to use better capacity with consolidating cility. The food safety or HACCP teams can perform temperature number of deliveries by one or more vehicles. It also improves the screening of all staff at the entrance of plant. Monitoring workers effectiveness of the collection or transportation process. In addition, to wear face protection equipments and gloves is important, too. food protection should be ensured by coordinating the members of Secondly, facilities should consider reducing working hours and the supply chain. Private or government institutions need to invest rotating employees. The overall number of workers in each shift in storage centres. Consumers should have access to markets, and should be divided into three or four groups and their break time attention should be paid to the needs of low-income consumers. The should be adjusted to avoid overcrowding. Lastly, warehouses relationship between buyer and seller should be strengthened by and processing facilities should be redesigned to allow employees establishing web-based food distribution systems. Web-based supply to implement social distances. Building dividers or barriers which chain management system can be referred as an internet-enabled cover the upper part of the body of workers can be used to main- system and allows the information flow among suppliers, facilities, tain social distance. Diagonal arrangement should be used if em- collection centres, and retailers. This system allows faster and flex- ployees use two-side engagement in food processing (Shahbaz et al., ible collaboration between company and customer (Morganti and 2020). Robotic machines also can be used to lower the risk associ- Gonzalez-Feliu, 2015; FAO, 2020j, 2020k; Ngai et al., 2004). ated with COVID-19-infected workers during the coronavirus out- Digital commerce services play an important role in the inter- break. Furthermore, robots can replace humans in food-processing action and trading activities among food supply chain actors. operations to maintain social distancing by reducing the number of E-commerce provides opportunities to reduce the costs and in- food workers. These precautions against the COVID-19 will result crease the demand. In addition, small farmers are considered dis- in more stable international market mechanism. Countries should advantaged in food supply chain related to many challenges they Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 174 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 face in market access. Higher transaction charges in all deals do not small farmers to take risks and cope with high risk situations. It allow small holders to be in better positions due to their small scale. also enables making efficient investment decisions which results in Therefore, digitization of procedures allows small farmers to sell rise in agricultural capacity and profitability (Iyanda et al., 2014). their crops at higher price and helps them to reach more customers Temporary liquidity guarantee program (TLGP) can promote confi- in a direct and effective way bypassing intermediaries. The largest dence in financial organizations. Firstly, the TLGP allows a limited e-commerce companies collaborate with the government to digitize term guarantee for newly issued debt of financial companies and af- the services of rural markets and encourage them to be part of the filiates. Secondly, the TLGP fully insured non-interest bearing trans- e-commerce economy. These platforms offer mostly organic fertil- action accounts. Governments can provide interest-free loans or izers to the market at a reasonable cost (Zeng et al., 2017; FAO, cash grants or arrange their pay periods to needy farmers to restart 2020j, 2020e). production. Guaranteed loans are essential sources of credits given ‘Supply Chain Management (SCM) Data Science’ can be used to small farmers that are assisted by commercial creditors and pro- by governments and private sectors to solve SCM problems and tect them against loss by governments (FAO, 2020j, 2020d; Dodson, forecast the outcomes by performing quantitative and qualitative 2014; Davison, 2019). Trade restrictions and bureaucratic barriers methods bearing in mind the data quality and data availability should be lifted to ensure the accessibility of small-scale farmers and (Waller and Fawcett, 2013). Therefore, data availability and dis- producers to markets. Governmental agencies must meet the energy semination should be improved. Access to correct data at the right requirements of small-scale producers in rural areas (FAO, 2020h). time is important for the efficient functioning of the supply chain. As a result, the COVID-19 outbreak highlighted the connection The availability of reliable information reduces uncertainties in the between farmers and consumers. Low-income levels and older ages market and allows private and public organizations to determine of small farmers make them vulnerable to coronavirus (Johr, 2012; sources of potential disruptions and risks. Correct data also provide Gneiting and Sonenshine, 2018). Therefore, it is important to educate better decision making and enhanced profitability. In addition, col- the farmers about the transmission routes and increase the aware- laboration between government agency and private sector can be ness of pandemic prevention (Wang and Wang, 2020). Crop diver- more effective by easily accessible data. Sharing of data and infor- sification strategy which can be defined as an option to increase the mation across the food supply chain can reduce the negative impacts diversity of food by crop rotation or intercropping for creating new and may strengthen the flexibility in the long run (FAO, 2020j). marketing channels and enabling the harvesting throughout the year can be used to adapt the challenges easily (Hufnagel et al., 2020). Buyer, investors, and bankers should pay the small farmers upfront Recommendations for small farmers for their produces to ensure liquidity for next season. Growing or- Countries should take measures to ensure the safety of agricultural ganic foods can also scale up the sales due to consumer interest and workers. Onsite healthcare professionals should track the illness confidence. In addition, partnerships between small farmers and status of employees. Countries should build agricultural produc- companies or government is another way to help the small farmers tion collection centres at locations easily reached by small-scale to increase productivity and incomes by adaptive technology invest- farmers relating to mobility reduction. Agricultural production col- ment (Winter and Davis, 2006; ITC, 2020). lection centres should be designed to provide high capacity storage (FAO, 2020c). Improved and advanced storage structures also can Suggestions for government and business be used to minimize the loss of foods throughout the food value chain. However, modern facilities or improved technologies entail First of all, a crisis committee should be established to focus on the ef- higher production costs as it requires additional capital injection. fect of COVID-19 during food value chain without waiting too long Therefore, small- and medium-sized agricultural enterprises can for the implementation of certain strategies and interventions. This maintain their activities using the capital injections from government committee should become a key actor to observe the progress and or donors (Tetteh Anang et al., 2015). recommend actions to reduce the effects of COVID-19 on agricul- Food banks can play an important role considering the hori- tural production and food supply cuts. In order to ensure adequate zontal and vertical coordination mechanisms with farmer associ- and full implementation of the strategies, it is important that the ations that make contractual agriculture arrangement. Primarily, It committee should collaborate with the private sector (FAO, 2020k). would be a way to help farmers to create new markets by selling In Turkey, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has formed the their unsold produces to food banks and make connection between COVID-19 Commission consisting of seven academicians and two farmers and vulnerable people during COVID-19 outbreak (Jackson members from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry for measures and Yurkevich, 2020). Second, whenever possible, countries can de- and recommendations to be taken in the field of agriculture and food ploy warehouse receipt systems, allowing small-scale producers to within the scope of the pandemic (MAF, 2020). improve access for financial loans and get the best price for their In the aftermath of the pandemic, governments around the world product. This receipt helps small farmers to store crops safely in a announced response plans to help the agriculture industry for re- modern storage facility and allows them to sell their product later ducing the effect of COVID-19 outbreak. In Turkey, Ministry of when the prices are higher. It also can be used as possessory col- Agricultural and Forestry announced the precautions and funding lateral for a loan (Miranda et al., 2019). Third, countries should assistance programs for farmers and manufacturing facilities/stores participate in growth and rapid development of e-commerce for such as slaughterhouses, greenhouses, and bakery stores. In add- small shareholders. Communication through the internet ensures ition, Ministry of Internal Affairs issued the lockdown guidelines that commercializing produces to wider range of consumers and that allow the farmers and food production plants to continue their enables farmers to find cheaper inputs (Khanal and Mishra, 2016). operations during lockdown (MAF, 2020; MIA, 2020). In Canada, Fourth, small-scale producers should have easy and unhindered ac- Agriculture Response Program was designed for 50–75% funding cess to credit for dealing with financial problems to continue pro- assistance which do not have to be paid back regarding health duction. Some countries offer incentive packages for small-scale protocol, marketing and product movement, distribution, strategic farmers (FAO, 2020c). Access to credits is related to the ability of projects, abattoir efficiency, and development (Novascatia, 2020). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 175 In the USA, Department of Agriculture committed programs and and vulnerable groups affected by changes in supply and demand flexibilities such as food assistance, dumped milk, crop insurance, and the need to adapt in accordance with these changes can be regu- farm loan, commodity loan, crop acreage, animal mortality, pay- lated by legal frameworks. Regulations to be enacted in emergen- check protection, and economic injury disaster loan to help agri- cies such as the COVID-19 outbreak can contribute to the safe and cultural producers are related to the COVID-19 outbreak (USDA, problem-free operation of transactions. Moreover, it is necessary to 2020). strengthen the capacities of legal regulations, including ensuring the Governments also should establish and operate emergency pro- proportionality and necessity of restrictive measures and providing visioning strategies to support production. The regions most af- flexibility in the implementation of certain administrative require- fected by the outbreak should be protected by temporary input ments to face the challenges posed by the new situation. Providing subsidies programs. Timely support is essential for planting season flexibility in licensing requirements for direct selling, e-commerce, for the next spring (FAO, 2020d). Data collection and assessment and food transport can also help small producers and agricultural programs for migrants should be used to determine when and businesses to find alternative market opportunities (FAO, 2020i) where the migrants are needed (Martin, 2016). Facilitating the since flexibility is relatively associated with weak/strong position of cross-border movement of migrant workers is important because farmers and presence of long/short food supply chains. Customers movement restrictions and border closures have a strong negative sometimes believe that food choice is imposed by supply chain chal- influence on agricultural labour supply. In Canada, government an- lenges (Petetin, 2020). nounced a US$50 million financial aid program for small farmers Logistic operations are also critical to maintain the delivery of who hired temporary foreign employees through the COVID-19 the foods, and, therefore, some efforts are needed to maintain oper- outbreak. Program allowed employers to receive US$1,500 per ations. Therefore, more infrastructure investment should be required foreign worker who has to self-isolate for 14 days upon their to allow more supervision services, upgraded sanitation systems, entry into Canada (Ker, 2020). The resulting shortage of labour increased use of digital documentation, and operations. Countries can be reduced by policies that classify agricultural workers as should follow rigid hygienic control in the distribution sector to pre- critical persons and exempt them from travel limitations. In the vent transmission of the virus. The health and safety of the logistic USA, government highlighted the importance of people employed employees who carry tradable products should be maintained (FAO, in agricultural production and considered them as ‘critical infra- 2020j). In UK, Logistic Sub-Group developed three work streams structure worker’ (FAO, 2020f; CDC, 2020a). It should also be named ‘safe passage programs’, ‘crisis management, accommodation focused on giving longer stay permits by changing the visa and & transportation’, and ‘shore base logistics & freight management’, residence regulations for seasonal workers in the country. In some respectively. These work streams were intended to provide safe pas- countries such as Canada and Belgium, governments allowed em- sage (health issues) and assurance to personnel and their families. ployers to postpone the recruitment or offer long-term contracts It also ensures the movement of stuff in an effective and consistent (OECD, 2020c). Commission of European Union (EU) introduced manner. Lastly, it provides guidelines and raises awareness to logistic ‘the green lanes’ for vehicles carrying agri-food products to ensure sector (OGUK, 2020). free and fast movement on borders. EU measures also highlighted Rapid yield prediction and determination of national food stocks the free movement of agri-food and seasonal workers for enabling need to be made to define shortages or surpluses that may occur, par - them to reach their workplace and exercise their activities. In add- ticularly because of import prohibition or export restrictions. Better ition, the commission extended the farmers’ application deadline management of food stocks in different regions should be considered to receive income support known as Common Agricultural Policy and non-food uses of farm products (e.g., for biofuel) should be re- (CAP) payments. Temporary framework for state aid measures duced (FAO, 2020k). Crop yield information models can be used to was approved to support farmers and agri-food business to en- help the governments to make decisions about food security or grain sure liquidity (Rossi, 2020). However, it is necessary to encourage marketing. Local models can be defined as data intensive models the local population to become agricultural workers. Local popu- and appropriate for small areas, whereas regionally models use data lations and unemployed people can be trained to work in farming extensive techniques and cover large areas. Therefore, proper mod- practices like sowing, weeding, or harvesting to minimize the effect elling method should be selected to understand the impacts of policy of the restriction on migrant workers. Online platforms should be decisions (Donohue et al., 2018). used to facilitate connections between local residents and agri- To summarize, given that the duration of the COVID-19 out- culture sector (FAO, 2020d). Unemployed people or local worker break is uncertain, agricultural firms have begun to change their should be encouraged for being agricultural labour by adding business models. For example, issues such as promoting under- premiums to wages since local workers do not want to work in standing of the transmission, creating reporting system for posi- farming due to the possibilities to find better non-agricultural alter - tive cases, progressive investment and resource plans covering the natives (Martin, 2016). COVID-19 outbreak showed that labour- next 3 years, business continuity planning, alternative input source replacing mechanization policy is the best way to solve the labour channels, increased focus on stock management, review of per- shortage over the medium to longer term (Troskie, 2020). sonnel occupational health and safety practices, travel limitations, Employment contracts that made between the actors in the food and human resource planning in the face of increasing demand or value chain should be fair to all parties and should be clear about absenteeism are important (Clift and Court, 2020; ICC and WHO, the rights and responsibilities of the parties since public and pri- 2020). However, companies also need to cooperate with competing vate standards are used to define the minimum requirements in food companies on some issues e.g. raw material supply. Small companies safety and quality. However, private standards involve more strin- need to be more organized, using the crisis as a driving force. Firms gent regulations than public standards and affect the prices that should care about developing the information and communication producers receive and the quantity of produces they sell. In add- technology infrastructure that can be used for the agriculture and ition, these standards make significant impacts on their income and food sector. It is also necessary to benefit from financial incentive market access (Mohan, 2020). In addition, the rights of producers packages according to the needs of the enterprises (FAO, 2020a). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 176 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 Actions on global trade (Gardner, 2001; WFP, 2020b; Espitia et al., 2020). Therefore, re- straint of trade is not only unnecessary, and it also harms all the Continuing the flow of agricultural inputs between countries, even in actors in the food supply chain and creates panic and fear in the quarantine restrictions or closing borders, is vital. Therefore, meas- markets (Liu et al., 2020). ures to facilitate the trade of farming inputs such as equipments and fertilizers should be taken in the short run because these require- ments are crucial for planting activities to continue smoothly (FAO, 2020j). Understanding the COVID-19 impact behind restriction pol- Conclusions icies is also important since food availability levels are high and During a pandemic, continuing the flow of the supply in agriculture the forecast of key staple production is good. Despite these fa- and food sector, which is one of the most important sectors together vourable conditions, governments are working to ensure the food with health, is vital to prevent the food crisis and reducing the nega- security due to high consumer demand and protect vulnerable tive impact on the global economy. Although no major problems people from price increases. However, lessons from past experi- have been observed in the food supply chains so far it remains un- ences have indicated that avoiding trade restriction policies can clear in the face of an uncertain future. As a result, each country has be as effective to protect consumers and farm incomes as direct to realize the severity of the situation and sometimes should tighten support activities (Martin and Glauber, 2020). Therefore, agricul- or loosen the measures according to the spread of the pandemic. The tural trade options and strategies should be modified to minimize supply chain also should be flexible enough to respond to the chal- the effect of outbreak in medium term. Each country should deter- lenges in the food supply chain. mine its own policy to identify the consequences and importance of changing certain aspects of trade strategy like import taxes for farming inputs. It is more vital if the capacity of the national agri- Author Contributions cultural production is limited and prices show rising trend for Serpil Aday and Mehmet Seckin Aday chose the review topic, conducted the some foods. The actions to be taken in the field of trade strategy literature review and wrote the manuscript. are influenced by the production quantity and input use. This out- break offers the opportunity to optimize trade options and to de- velop some procedures and policies (FAO, 2020j). 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Publisher: Oxford University Press
Copyright: © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press.
ISSN: 2399-1399
eISSN: 2399-1402
DOI: 10.1093/fqsafe/fyaa024
Publisher site: See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

A pandemic is not a new event encountered in the history of humanity because mankind has faced various pandemics in history. The common point of pandemics is their serious negative effects on the global economy. Considering the food supply chain, one of the most important sectors of the economy, it has been seen that COVID-19 has an impact on the whole process from the field to the consumer. In the light of recent challenges in food supply chain, there is now considerable concern about food production, processing, distribution, and demand. COVID-19 resulted in the movement restrictions of workers, changes in demand of consumers, closure of food production facilities, restricted food trade policies, and financial pressures in food supply chain. Therefore, governments should facilitate the movement of workers and agri-food products. In addition, small farmers or vulnerable people should be supported financially. Facilities should change the working conditions and maintain the health and safety of employees by altering safety measures. Food protectionist policies should be avoided to prevent an increase in food prices. In conclusion, each country must realize the severity of the situation and sometimes should tighten or loosen the measures according to the spread of the pandemic. The supply chain also should be flexible enough to respond to the challenges in the food supply chain. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the impact of COVID-19 on the agriculture and food sector and to summarize the recommendations required to reduce and control the effect of the pandemic. Key words: pandemic; COVID-19; agriculture; food; supply chain. (H3N2), and 2009 Pandemic flu (H1N1), that resulted in the human Introduction deaths of around 50 million, 1.5 million, 1 million, and 300 000, re- As the COVID-19 disease spread rapidly to six continents by the spectively (Liu et al., 2020). WHO indicated that this outbreak is not novel coronavirus SARS-nCoV-2, many countries around the world just a public health crisis, but it is a crisis that will touch every sector. have declared state of health emergency. On 11 March 2020, the Therefore, every sector and every individual should be involved in World Health Organization (WHO) declared the rapidly spreading this struggle (WHO, 2020c). As of 5 August 2020, the number of disease as a pandemic and called on countries to plan preparatory cases per 1 million population is given for different regions as fol- and response actions in line with the Global Strategic Preparedness lows: 9 613.03 in Americas, 3 694.43 in Europe, 1 136.41 in South- and Response Plan (WHO, 2020a; Vasavada, 2020). WHO ex- East Asia, 2 167.25 in Eastern Mediterranean, 742.75 in Africa, and plained that a pandemic caused by a coronavirus has not been seen 176.36 in Western Pacific region. The global total of confirmed cases before, and this disease is the first pandemic caused by the corona- has reached to 17 528. 223 per 1 million population and 687.64 per virus. COVID-19 is the fifth pandemic, following 1918 influenza virus (H1N1), 1957 influenza virus (H2N2), 1968 influenza virus 1 million population for corresponding deaths (WHO, 2020b). © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ 167 by-nc/ 4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 168 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 The ‘Strategic preparedness and response plan’ by WHO includes the supply management strategies is also important to meet the con- the health measures that all countries had to prepare for and respond sumer demands (De Sousa Jabbour et al., 2020). Maintaining the to this pandemic. This plan covers what we have learned about the flow of food and commodities throughout the supply chain should virus so far and aims to transform this information into strategic be ensured with the contribution of all stakeholders. Ensuring the action that can guide all national and international partners while confidence of consumers is also essential for food safety and security developing national and regional operational plans. According to (FAO and WHO, 2020). At this time of crisis, food security is asso- this plan, priority steps and actions are outlined in eight main topics: ciated with consumers’ access to food rather than food availability (OECD, 2020b). • Coordination, planning, and monitoring at the country level; Consumers generally do not think much about how the food • Risk communication and community participation; on their tables is produced. However, concerns about food safety • Surveillance, quick response teams, and case investigation; in the midst of the global pandemic have drawn attention to the • Entry points; enormous infrastructure and workforce responsible for creating a • National laboratories; safe and reliable food supply worldwide. Especially at the beginning • Prevention and control of infection; of this global crisis, consumer demand for food has increased and • Situation management; some store shelves have been temporarily emptied and resulted in ex- • Operational support and logistics (WHO, 2020a). cess purchases of essential products. However, despite this unprece- dented demand, the food supply chain remained strong, since many The implementation of these measures caused the closure of work- supply chain actors, including farmers, producers, distributors, and places and educational institutions, and temporary restrictions in retailers, have worked hard to renew shelves (Nicola et al., 2020; travels and social meetings. Flexible working from home and on- Watts, 2020). line meetings have become standard practices nowadays. However, Despite the large scale of the pandemic, there is no report that people who work in the food industry do not have work from home COVID-19 has been transmitted through food consumption to date. option hence they need to keep their typical office routines (Nicola Therefore, as stated by the European Food Safety Authority, there et al., 2020; FAO and WHO, 2020). is no evidence that food poses a risk to public health in relation to As a consequence of the COVID-19 crisis, response plans for COVID-19. However, after the latest infections have been seen in food workers were developed to provide guidance for continuity Xinfandi market due to salmon processing, it can be concluded that of operations in the food processing facilities and manage corona- the risk of the virus that transmitted through foods is lower than virus in the food industry. Especially meat and poultry processing the perceived risk. Considering the survival time of SARS-CoV-2 in industries can be defined as the critical infrastructure in food and different environments such as plastic, steel, or cardboard, it is pos- agriculture. The plan includes a hierarchy of control requirements sible that animal tissues (meat, fish, or poultry) might be a serious for cleaning, sanitation, disinfection of facilities, screening, and source for foodborne transmission. Hygiene controls by food busi- monitoring of workers for COVID-19, managing the sick employees ness operators are designed to prevent contamination of food by and education programs for workers and supervisors to prevent the any pathogen and will therefore aim to prevent contamination of spread of coronavirus (CDC, 2020b). foods by the virus responsible for COVID-19 too (Arellano, 2020; Every industry in the world expects to see how the COVID-19 Dalton, 2020; EC, 2020; Pressman et al., 2020). It was reported that outbreak will affect the manufacturing industry, and the food in- foods were not a source of spread of coronaviruses including MERS dustry is no different from other industries. However, the difference and SARS-CoV due to the acidic environments of the stomach (pH in the food industry from other industries is to produce products < 3.5) in previous outbreaks. However, some cooking and eating that are essential for daily life. Everybody knows that if one factory habits may lead to the reappearance of the coronavirus from animals closes, a certain number of people who works at these factories have to humans (Rizou et al., 2020). the potential to starve, but if processors and distributors are infected, To summarize, four major issues have been raised in the food all people are at risk (Staniforth, 2020). In addition, the food in- industry and the food supply chain during the COVID-19 outbreak. dustry is a very important sector in regard to economy. However, Firstly, people tend to have follow a healthy diet for protecting food sector faces different sets of challenges compared with other themselves and their immune systems (Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2020). sectors that are not critical for daily life such as tourism and aviation Therefore, the demand for the functional foods which contain bio- during a pandemic. Pandemic might lead to a US$113 billion loss in active ingredients increased. Secondly, food safety has gained more aviation and US$80 billion in tourism sector (IATA, 2020; UNTWO, attention to prevent the transmission of coronavirus among pro- 2020). Some food companies face various challenges due to a drop ducers, retailers, and consumers. Thirdly, food security concerns in income, whereas others are working hard to meet the growing have arisen because of the people on lockdown restrictions. Lastly, demand of retailers. During the current COVID-19 outbreak, some food sustainability problems have emerged in the era of pandemic difficult decisions had to be made, including temporarily shut down (Galanakis, 2020). of the various businesses. The fact is that this pandemic clearly dem- In the light of recent challenges in food supply chain, there is onstrated different companies from different industries are closely now considerable concern about the food supply chain. Therefore, connected to each other all over the world (Sebastian, 2020; Shahidi, the purpose of this article is to provide information about the ef- 2020). fects of the COVID-19 outbreak in the food supply chain and to A major concern shared by all food companies is preserving the summarize the measures taken to minimize these effects. Formal and employee’s health and the provision of sufficient workforce due to informal sources were used to obtain information about the food those who do not want to work because of sickness or coronavirus supply chain during COVID-19 outbreak. The contents which were fear. It is very important to protect and maintain the health of people not reviewed by news editor, journal/magazine editor, or scientific working in the food supply chain during this time of crisis (FAO editor before they are published online were not used as a supple- and WHO, 2020). However, keeping the distribution chain alive by mentary source of information. Most of the content was based on Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 169 the well-known organizations such as Centres for Disease Control Logistics barriers that disrupt food supply chains further weaken and Prevention (CDC), European Commission (EC), Food and high-value goods due to their short shelf life (Shahidi, 2020; FAO, Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Food Information 2020j, FAO, 2020k). Council (IFIC), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Most agricultural activities depend on the season and weather, International Labour Organization (ILO), International Trade and therefore, activities need to follow a fine-tuned schedule with Centre (ITC), The Organization for Economic Co-operation and flexibility so that immediate actions can be performed when needed. Development (OECD), and World Health Organization (WHO). Since all processes and stages in a supply chain are strongly con- nected to each other, a slight delay or glitch can trigger a butterfly Effects of pandemic on food supply chain effect resulting in a big loss in the yield and output (FAO, 2020k). The Food supply chain can be divided into five stages, including agri- Actually, there are many reports that farmers were forced to des- cultural production, postharvest handling, processing, distribution/ troy their products by burning or leaving them to spoil because of retail/service, and consumption. Two systems are being used in the the restrictions. Dairy Farmers in America Co-operative consider 14 food supply chain regarding food quality and safety. The First one is million litres of milk are being dumped every day due to interrupted based on regulations and laws that use mandatory standards which supply chain. In England, chair of dairy farmers reported that ap- are inspected by state agencies. The Second one is relying on volun- proximately 5 million litres of milk are at risk in one week. Also, It tary standards which are defined by market laws or international was reported that tea plants were being lost because of the logistical associations (Bendekovic et al., 2015). Safety measures to ensure challenges in India (BBC, 2020a). Therefore, maintaining logistical the continuity of food flow in each stage can be grouped as food efficiency is a key factor for the food industry, especially in global employee’s health issues, personal hygiene, using personal protective crisis. The biggest issues in the food supply chain are obtaining raw equipments such as helmets and glove, sanitization of surfaces and materials from suppliers and ensuring the continuity of food flow working environments, safe handling/preparation/delivery of food, from manufacturers to end users (Alonso et al., 2007).The problems and maintenance of social distance. Protective measures in the last are jeopardizing the ability of agricultural businesses to continue stages of the food supply chain are critical since more people can be their business as usual, and may have negative effects on food quality, potentially affected as moved towards the last stages (Rizou et al., freshness, and food safety, and hinder access to markets and afford- 2020). ability (FAO, 2020k). As countries struggle with that pandemic, they Unlike foot and mouth disease, bird flu, Escherichia coli ( E. coli), or must make every effort to move the gears of the food supply chains. Listeria, the COVID-19 pandemic does not directly affect production, The impact of pandemic problems on agricultural systems largely as it does not spread directly through livestock or agricultural products depends on the intensity and composition of agricultural inputs and (FAO, 2020a). However, due to the pandemic, governments around the varies depending on the product produced and the country. Capital- world have made significant restrictions in the transportation (land, intensive techniques are usually used in high-income countries for water, and air transport) of goods, as well as in the migration of la- agricultural production, whereas production is mostly labour de- bour. Reports showed that using the trucks for food distribution was pendent in low-income countries. Thus, the supply chain should be declined to 60% since the restrictions in France which was 30% before kept running with a particular focus on the basics of logistic chal- the pandemic (FAO, 2020j; Bakalis et al., 2020). lenges (FAO, 2020j). In developing and underdeveloped countries, temporary or Food sector contains many diverse products such as meat, fruit, seasonal employment is common, especially for planting, sorting, vegetable, dairy, ready-to-eat foods, and other edible products harvesting, processing, or transporting crops to markets. Therefore, (Hueston and McLeod, 2012). However, the food and agriculture the supply chain is significantly affected as a result of the absence chain can be broadly classified into two categories regarding capital of local or migrant workers due to sickness or travel restrictions investment and labour. The First one can be defined as staple prod- imposed by lockdown. It also weakens not only production abilities ucts such as wheat, corn, maize, soybeans, and oilseeds. The Second for others, but also their own food safety, in cases where the disease one contains high-value products such as fruit, vegetables, and fish- directly affects their health or movement (FAO, 2020k). Especially, eries. Staple products require large amounts of capital investments. labour shortage due to COVID-19 crisis caused severe disruptions Restriction between cities, provinces, regions, and countries has a in some sectors such as livestock production, horticulture, planting, negative impact on the distribution of staple products (FAO, 2020c). harvesting, and crop processing which are relatively labour intensive In contrast to staple products, a great deal of labour is required to (Stephens et al., 2020). However, shortage of farmworkers was a obtain high-value products. However, time-sensitive nature of the major issue well before the COVID-19 outbreak, too (Richards and agricultural operations (O’Brien et al., 2014) and needs for higher Rickard, 2020). productivity over time might lead to the agricultural transformation Due to the fact that many skilled workers in the harvest could which can be defined as technological advancement and up-skilling not access various countries because of the border controls, a call of the labour force (Jeon, 2011; Martin, 2016). has been made to the unemployed persons to work in the fields in The challenges that have been driven by movement restriction (na- France. In Britain, ‘Pick for Britain’ campaign was aimed to find tional or international border closures) and the changes in demand 70 000 British to work in the field and during the harvest (Nature of consumers are important. Because of the restrictions, consumers Plants, 2020). However, due to the shortage of workforce as a result cannot go to restaurants and they prepare their meals at home. In of illness and physical distance to be maintained during produc- addition, consumers do not want to go to markets and supermarkets tion, the crisis undermines the ability of farms and agricultural busi- due to catching the COVID-19 at the stores (FAO, 2020g). nesses to work. These conditions retarded the delivery of food and The supply chain affects not only producers, distributors, and agricultural inputs and created problems in providing continuous consumers, but also food-processing plants that are labour inten- food supply to markets (ILO, 2020). Although many manufacturers sive. Production was reduced, suspended, or temporarily discon- rely on their core inputs, most are more susceptible to disruptions, tinued in many plants due to the workers who were found to be as they must obtain their requirements from domestic markets. COVID-19 positive and who were reluctant to go to work, thinking Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 170 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 that they would get sick at work, mostly in meat-processing food hands, separating raw and cooked meat, etc.) should be followed companies at the time of the outbreak. For these reasons, it was while preparing and storing the foods (Rizou et al., 2020; Shahidi, thought that the production capacity of pork facilities decreased 2020). by approximately 25% in late April (Devereux et al., 2020; Flynn, Centralized food manufacturing is another factor that caused 2020). disruption of food chains during COVID-19 outbreak. This para- In this context, there were at least 462 meat packaging and 257 digm helped the food processors to increase production and reduce food-processing plants and 93 farm and production facilities were the costs. However, centralization has some drawbacks such as rigid affected by COVID-19 cases in the USA. At least 54,036 workers and lengthy supply chain issues. In addition, using the small number (39,905 meat packaging workers, 8,343 food-processing workers, of very large production facilities to meet the demands might create and 5,788 farmers) have been identified as COVID-19 positive and at problems (Almena et al., 2019a) such as closure of the entire facility least 232 workers (184 meat packaging workers, 34 food-processing in case of an outbreak leaving high capacity production lines with workers, and 14 farm workers) have lost their lives (Douglas, 2020). less alternatives. In Brazil, 2,400 meat plant workers were identified as COVID-19 Governments are also facing financial pressures due to the eco- positive from 24 slaughterhouses in 18 municipalities. Several meat nomic shrinkage and reallocating their resources focusing on finan- factories suspended their operations after 246 positive cases in cial incentives and social assistance programs. Therefore, it may be England and Wales. In Gana, 534 staff tested positive for the virus difficult to support programs aimed to improve productivity at the at a fish-processing factory. In Germany, 1,553 cases of COVID-19 farm levels. It is possible that inadequate funding may reduce the de- were found at meat-processing plants, and in France, more than mand for agricultural production and productivity over the medium 100 coronavirus infections were recorded at slaughterhouses (BBC, term. The drop in demand will particularly harm the emerging pri- 2020b; Gulland, 2020; Kaur, 2020; Ziady et al., 2020). Close-down vate sector in developing countries (FAO, 2020e, 2020h). of the food plants created the ripple effect in food supply chain. The information provided by WHO indicated that coronavirus is Producers have been forced to cull the farm animals since they could transmitted through direct contact or respiratory droplets, however, not find any plant to sell their livestock. Greater consumer demand the latest infections encountered in Xinfandi market raised ques- resulted in empty shelves and a decrease in supply caused an in- tions over spread of coronavirus through food. Xinfandi market is crease in the price of meat products. Some of the markets limited the the Beijing’s largest wholesale food market with more than 10,000 number of items such as beef and pork products that a single cus- workers and capacity of 18,000 tonnes of vegetables, 20,000 tonnes tomer could buy. Food services were also affected, and some restaur- of fruit, and 1,500 tonnes of seafood, everyday (Hua and Cadell, ants stopped serving beef hamburgers (Hobbs, 2020; Levany, 2020; 2020). Officials have detected more than 100 infected people, mostly Murphy, 2020; Rude, 2020; Valinsky, 2020). Despite government re- serving at seafood, beef, and mutton sections. The coronavirus was assurances, some of the stores started free delivery services on orders detected on the board used for cutting up salmon at market. Officials to prevent panic-buying. In addition, supermarkets determined the point out that high humidity and low temperature conditions in number of people allowed at any given time to stop overcrowding. Beijing might be the reason for transmission of coronavirus. In add- Stores also adjusted special shopping hours for vulnerable customers ition, officials stated that the surfaces of equipment’s used for prepar - (Nicola et al., 2020). ation of seafood and meat products contaminated by infected people There are several reasons at play that make food-processing fa- could be another factor of transmission (Feng and Cheng, 2020; cilities potential hotbeds for outbreak. Keeping social distance in- Reuters, 2020). The government blocked the entrances by police and side the food plants is difficult because workers stand side by side temporarily closed the market due to the fears of a second wave of during long shifts on production lines. In addition, talking loudly pandemic on June 13. The news has resulted in halted importation or shouting, due to noisy enivironments, results in the release of of salmon from European countries in China and salmon was taken more droplets to the air (Stewart et al., 2020). Employees also travel off from some supermarkets’ shelves in reaction. Norwegian officials on the same buses or use car-sharing systems allowing the virus to stated ‘there is no link between the transmission of coronavirus via spread further. Moreover, the majority of workers have lower in- imported food and the origin of the salmon outbreak is still unclear’ come and mostly do not have insurance coverage or paid sick leave. (Arellano, 2020; Dalton, 2020). Negotiations between Norwegian Therefore, food-processing workers are taking risk to go work even and Chinese authorities are currently in progress to clear up the if they feel sick which increase the risk of infection. Cold and humid backlog. However, not only the supply of seafoods was affected, environment inside the food-processing facilities is another factor but also meat, fruit, and vegetables supply were damaged with the that facilitates the spread of the COVID-19. It is possible that cold closure of the entire Xinfandi market. Authorities are trying to estab- and dark environments without any ultraviolet light can keep cor- lish special trading places in the near future to maintain the supply onavirus alive and might result in an increase in the rates of trans- chain of vegetables and fruits. In addition, government is consid- mission (Artiga and Rae, 2020; Gulland, 2020). The stability tests ering to take actions to increase the hygienic standards in food mar- of the virus under five different temperatures (4, 22, 37, 56, and kets (Globaltimes, 2020; Reuters, 2020). Authorities tested around 70 °C) and five different surfaces (paper, tissue paper, wood, and 30,000 foods including meat, seafood, fruit, and vegetable between cloth) showed that SARS-CoV-2 is highly stable at 4 °C, but sensitive 11 and 17 June and results were negative for all samples. Food ex- to heat. In addition, it was found that the virus is stable on smooth porters to China were asked to sign official declarations in which surfaces, however susceptible to standard disinfectants (Chin et al., they give a guarantee for their products that it is not contaminated 2020). Another study by Van Doremalen et al. (2020) suggested by coronavirus. However, some of the exporters such as Brazilian that SARS-CoV-2 remains stable in aerosols for 3 h. The same study grain exporters did not agree to sign the declaration (Good, 2020; revealed that virus was viable for 4, 24, 48, and 72 h on copper, Patton, 2020). cardboard, stainless steel, and plastic, respectively. These outcomes As a result, the COVID-19 pandemic ensured the use of mechan- indicated that the cooking temperatures above 70 °C are enough isms designed for emergency and affected contractual transactions in to kill the SARS-CoV-2, but sanitary recommendations (washing the food supply chains. At the same time, it resulted in the changes in Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 171 the supply–demand balance and left small producers and operators this without exceeding normal budget. Consumers adopted a basic in a difficult situation (FAO, 2020i). approach of returning to natural food and beverage products which contain ingredients that provide nutritional supplements such as fruits and vegetables, legumes, whole grains, or olive oil. At the same Effects of pandemic on consumer behaviour time, most consumers are concerned about the effect of COVID-19 When the issue of how the COVID-19 pandemic affects consumers’ on their mental effects; therefore, many consumers are looking for food demand is examined, it is seen that the demand varies de- food products to improve this mood (Hughes, 2020; Muscogiuri pending on the price of foodstuffs, income level of consumers, socio- et al., 2020). demographic situation, consumption, and shopping preferences and In a recent poll by Italy’s Agricultural Research and Economic time constraints. In addition, the number of visits to food store and Council (CREA), the behaviour of the Italian population on food spending money on food in per visit changed (Bakalis et al., 2020; choices and behaviour was monitored under COVID-19 quarantine. Cranfield, 2020). Approximately 2,900 people from all regions of Italy responded. COVID-19 outbreak interrupted the daily routine and resulted According to the results, healthy food and beverage consumption in boredom which can be defined as high energy intake by the con- increased for vegetables (33%), fruit (29%), legumes (26.5%), and sumption of high amount of fat, carbohydrate, and proteins. In add- extra virgin olive oil (21.5%). However, it was determined that ition, quarantine caused stress in people and pushed them toward 44.5% of them had more sweet consumption and 16% of them sugary foods for feeling positive, because carbohydrate-rich foods drank more wine. Forty-four percent of respondents reported weight can be used as self-medicating components due to their ability to gain due to intake of higher calories and low levels of physical ac- encourage serotonin production. However, these unhealthy eating tivity. Thirty-seven percent of respondents expressed that they need habits may contribute to the development of obesity linked to the to lose weight by adjusting their diet (CREA, 2020). chronic inflammation and serious complications of COVID-19 According to the survey of 630 consumers in May, 70% of con- (Muscogiuri et al., 2020). sumers reduced the frequency of food shopping and preferred online The closure of restaurants and limited service eating places af- shopping during COVID-19 outbreak in the USA. Fifty-six percent fected the eating/purchasing habits and resulted in an unusual of consumers are worried about not finding particular foods they demand shift from food service to retail. Reports showed that want to buy in the store or forgetting to buy something. Seventy purchasing food from supermarkets and using food services had the percent of consumers said that they consumed more food while at same ratio as 50% before the outbreak; however, it is almost 100% home. When examined in terms of healthy consumption, 43% of for supermarkets. The number of visits to food store was decreased consumers emphasized that they consume more fruits, 42% more whilst spending money on food was raised per visit. Consumers ex- vegetables, and 30% more protein-containing foods (meat, chicken, perienced reduced availability of certain types of foods during the or fish). In addition, 39% of consumers stated that they made their COVID-19 lockdown. In European countries, flour which is a staple breakfast more balanced. When examined in terms of unhealthy con- product received more attention and not found on food store shelves sumption, 47% of consumers said that they consumed more sweets, due to the interest in home-baking as a family activity. Interestingly, 24% consumed less vegetables, 21% consumed less fruit, and 19% bread and baked products kept their place on the supermarket consumed less protein (DeBroff, 2020). shelves. Consumers have focused on the products with long shelf life In another study, a survey on 1,005 men and women who are such as dried or canned foods, pasta, milk, or milk substitutes, and over 18 years old showed that more than half of the French people frozen foods due to convenience and daily cooking at home. People changed their views on the social, economic, and ecological value of stocked these foods at home because of the turn to home baking food production, during the 8-week quarantine. The results showed and believing rumours or getting false information. Consumers that French consumers would only buy ‘necessary’ foods, spend preferred takeaway and home delivery options as a result of social more time cooking, and pay more attention to food spending when distance and closure of restaurants (Bakalis et al., 2020; Shahidi, they return to ‘normal’ after COVID-19 pandemic measures have 2020). Indeed, it was interesting to note that the shortage of eggs was not only due to increased demand but also lack of packaging been relieved. Changing attitudes also seem to have had an impact for retail. Household egg consumption increased 40% since March on food waste, and one in three respondents stated that they now 20 in Argentina and sales of eggs rose by 44% compared to last year waste less food. This includes 29% of those who reported buying in the USA. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provided flexi- more local food and 20% went online shopping (Askew, 2020). bility related to the packaging and labelling of eggs due to the insuf- Another study conducted on the 6th and 7th of April, among ficient availability of appropriately labelled retail packages to fulfill 1,000 adults who are above 18, showed that 42% of consumers the demand and facilitate the distribution of eggs during COVID-19 preferred the packaged foods more than normal, whereas another pandemic (FDA, 2020; Mazili, 2020; Reiley, 2020). portion of the same ratio said that the pandemic did not change their attitudes towards packaged food. Eighty-two percent of consumers Global events such as COVID-19 increase the demand for food think that the food they buy during the pandemic is safe to consume. worldwide. In a study, demand data in European countries due to However, a portion of 7% thinks that the food that they buy is not COVID-19 were evaluated. Accordingly, although the demand for safe. A total of 77% think that food producers can provide enough fresh bread increased by 76% and frozen vegetables by 52% in the food to meet consumer needs, whereas 16% think that it cannot be week when the pandemic was announced, the demand for alcoholic provided (IFIC, 2020). beverages did not increase. However, the demand for alcoholic bev- As consumers play a key role in food supply chain, changes erages increased about twice, one month after pandemic announce- ment (Crisp, 2020). in consumer behaviour strongly affected the food supply chain. Concerns about COVID-19 are far-reaching and they cover both COVID-19 outbreak caused a significant rise in food price related health and financial issues. In a study on 18 countries, it was shown to lockdown restrictions accompanied by panic buying, as well as that food buying behaviour of the consumers has changed because of supply chain disruptions (EDP, 2020). Some of the consumers will their will to consume healthy foods, but at the same time to achieve pay more attention to reduce food waste for improving food security Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 172 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Shafiee-Jood and Cai, 2016). However, the opposite is also possible FAO’s 2020 estimates, wheat and coarse grain production is ex- since lots of the perishable foods were discarded or dumped due to pected to be similar to 2019. For this reason, global grain markets the closure of schools, restaurants, or processing plants. In addition, are expected to follow a balanced situation despite the concern of transportation problems during lockdown or overbuying of perish- COVID-19 (FAO, 2020b). able items because of panic buying resulted in higher food waste A total of 19 countries have taken measures to restrict exports, levels (Fleetwood, 2020; Sharma et al., 2020). Changing demands which are related to 27 food products due to COVID-19 outbreak. also will bring changes to packaging materials/design, delivery op- Some of these restrictions are inactive and currently a total of 8 tions, and storage conditions (Reynold, 2020). countries are continuing their measures on 11 food. When the ef- fects of restrictions on importing countries are evaluated (expressed as Kcal unit), it is seen that Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Effects of pandemic on global food trade Azerbaijan were negatively affected by 79%, 70%, 61%, and 54%, Although the current conditions seem exceptional, the vulnerability respectively (IFPRI, 2020). of food systems to problems related to climate and diseases has been To summarize, trading provides to move the products from sur- experienced long before the COVID-19 crisis. Food systems have plus to deficit areas, preventing the shortages and food insecurity been unstable from various events and shocks previously such as related to reliance only on domestic production (Baldos and Hertel, the oil crisis in the 1970s, the SARS and Ebola outbreaks, and the 2015; Fitton et al., 2019). However, COVID-19 pandemic caused 2006–2008 food crisis. Africa Swine Fever disease made the global a significant impact on food trade and led to disruption in food commodity markets upset just a year ago and became a progressive supply chain due to the export restrictions. Export-restricted pol- epidemic in Eastern Europe and Asia. The world’s largest swine pro- icies pushed up world prices of stable food commodities such as ducer (has 1/3 of the global market) and biggest exporter, China, lost wheat, maize, and rice and resulted in reduction of the quantity and 37% of its pigs by the end of 2019 (IPES, 2020). Ebola had a great quality of food eaten (Fyles and Madramootoo, 2016). Customers negative impact on agricultural production, marketing, and trade also could not find the product which is not grown or produced economies of some African countries. On the production side, due to nationally. Producers were also weakened by the restrictions be- road constraints, farmers had limited access to inputs such as seeds, cause international market contains endless number of buyers and fertilizers, and pesticides, and most regions faced labour shortages. helps the producers to select the best one. When the export re- For this reason, more than 40% of agricultural land has not been strictive policies were applied, local sellers could not find buyers cultivated. However, pandemic did not severely affect the production and resulted in excess supply and waste along with economic because agricultural areas were often in the geographic areas which losses. Foods that are not grown locally but needed for processing are far away from urban densities (Agrilinks, 2020; Shahidi, 2020). were not available due to the restrictions and capacity utilization of The current COVID-19 crisis has changed the food trade pol- food-manufacturing plants to respond demand was also negatively icies of some governments, moving towards restricting exports and affected (Arianina and Morris, 2020; Ndemezo et al., 2018; Reddy facilitating imports. The main reason that countries impose export et al., 2016). Transportation challenges for air and sea cargo were restrictions is to ensure the maintenance of the number of products also further issues in association with food loss and waste (OECD, in the domestic market. Although the export restriction typically 2020a). produces this result in the short term, it also has some negative ef- fects. First, export restrictions cause domestic prices to drop, which will hurt farmers financially resulting in the decrease in crop pro- Recommendations to minimize the effect of duction and reduced incentives in the industry. Second, countries Covid-19 will lose their competitive advantage by losing their place in inter- The COVID-19 outbreak seriously threatens food safety, security, national markets. Third, export restrictions undermine exporter’s and nutrition. The economic chaos due to the pandemic threatens reputation and encourage importers to reduce confidence in the economic access and physical availability of food. Disruptions and world market, thereby reducing trust in international trade and possible problems in marketing, logistics, and trade systems may destroying future business opportunities for exporters (Espitia et al., restrict access to food in some places and times, therefore, hunger 2020; FAO, 2020l). and malnutrition problems may appear (FAO, 2020g). Report In 2008 food crisis, although domestic food prices increased from World Food Program showed that the number of people fa- greatly, some big countries that could isolate themselves from world cing extreme hunger can increase to 265 million in 2020 as a result markets were not affected. Compared with 2004, rice prices in- of COVID-19 (WFP, 2020a). Another study performed by Headey creased by 224%, wheat prices by 108%, and corn prices by 89% et al. (2020) indicated that COVID-19 leads to 14.3% increase in the (FAO, 2011). In general, prices increased due to trade constraints, prevalence of wasting among children who are younger than 5 years risks, and uncertainties in international markets leading to an in- old due to malnutrition or interruption of health and social protec- crease in prices in the import-dependent countries higher than they tion in low and middle-income countries. should be. Because of the export restrictions enforced by major exporting countries, panic-buying behaviour has been observed in Strategies for food supply chain importing countries and prices have been elevated due to more de- mand for products (DOS, 2011). Before the pandemic, one-third of all food produced for human con- Although world food stocks are currently high, a prolonged pan- sumption was lost or wasted across the food supply chain stages demic crisis can cause problems in the food supply chain, as well including production, postharvest handling, processing, distribution, as export-restricted policies, which can trigger the domino effect. and consumption. Therefore, food waste has gained more attention According to the FAO 2019 grain production estimates, it was re- than ever before in the era of coronavirus. A study performed by ported that there had been around 2.721 billion tonnes of produc- Aldaco et al. (2020) indicated that COVID-19 had a minor impact tion consisting of 1.44 billion tonnes for coarse grains, 763 million on the overall food loss and waste generation but resulted in 12% tonnes for wheat, and 512 million tonnes for rice. According to higher creation of food waste on the household level. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 173 Valuable bioactive components such as phenols, carotenoids, maintain the balance between the production quantity and safety of pectins, flavonoids, essential oils, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, workers (FAO, 2020j). and whey protein isolate can be derived from food wastes to re- Decentralization of food manufacture might also be used to utilize them in food chain. These functional compounds can be used avoid drawbacks and risks associated with centralization paradigm as preservatives, gelling agents, food, or nutritional supplements. in the era of COVID-19. Low-scale facilities located near the con- Conventional or innovative techniques can be applied in the extrac- sumers reduce the storage and transportation costs and minimize tion, fractionation, and isolation stages of bioactive components the environmental impacts. Building the production facilities closer from food wastes (Deng et al., 2015; Galanakis, 2012; Galanakis, to consumers help shorten the supply chain and decrease the emis- 2013). However, additional collection and processing centres are sion and energy consumption during transportation and storage. required to recover food wastes generated during production, Decentralization provides flexibility in supply chain and allows cus- processing, or consumption stages. tomers to get fresh and natural products. It also helps us to simplify The European Food Safety Authority indicated that food is not a the administration procedures in order to reach poor and disad- source of coronavirus and virus cannot be transmitted through the vantaged people (Almena et al., 2019a; Almena et al., 2019b; FAO, consumption of food. Environmental surfaces such as doorknobs, 2005). light switches, or foods contaminated with COVID-19 virus remain Industry also should determine which transportation routes are a potential risk of becoming infected (EC, 2020). However, the latest blocked (potential alternatives should be sought) and how many work performed by Richard et al. (2020) showed that SARS-CoV-2 workers cannot work due to restrictions. The local labour force can be efficiently transmitted via air. Therefore, people should al- should be trained and activated in the event of cross-border restric- ways care about handwashing. In addition, retailers must follow tions. It would be an opportunity to ensure reliable and long-term the hygiene requirements when handling food. Food preparation workforce for future by training and increasing the skills of local em- workers must wear mask and gloves and change them frequently ployees. Agricultural workers now identified as essential people, and when cutting, slicing, or packaging of foods. Consumers are also re- this ensured them to work under better conditions with higher wages sponsible to prevent contamination by not touching the foods other (Petetin, 2020). At the same time, agricultural inputs should be con- than what they are willing to purchase in the stores (Morawska and sidered as essential products to ensure food production. Collection Cao, 2020). centres should be selected and planned considering their distance Various robot systems can be used to ensure food safety in food to the manufacturer. Integration of small producers closer to collec- facilities by preventing the transmission of microorganism by hu- tion centre with high capacity can also decrease mobility (Galanakis, mans. The fourth industrial revolution now plays an important 2020). role by making data-driven autonomous decision in production. Changes in demands are another factor that affects supply chain Automation opens up new opportunity to increase productivity by performance. Therefore, the demands should be determined using 25% and to complete the task such as loading/unloading, placing, forecasts and simulations. Especially, the products which are essen- and packaging more efficiently than human being. Robots can also tial for daily life, such as sanitizers and food items, gained more help us to serve the foods to consumers in food-serving industry. In demand at the beginning of crisis. However, the perishable nature addition, Cyber Physical System (CPS) can monitor the unsafe or of food products makes them more prone to impacts of COVID-19 low-quality products in food supply chain (Iqbal et al., 2017; Bowler on the supply chain. Therefore, statistical models can be applied by et al., 2020). manufacturer to propose optimal decision for tackling supply and The COVID-19 outbreak also resulted in difficult requirements demand disruptions due to COVID-19 outbreak. Using those results, for human resource management. These challenges include the production, processing, and distribution can be adapted accordingly change of working conditions, adopting new workplace policies accordingly (Paul and Chowdhury, 2020). and actions to reduce human contact (Carnevale and Hatak, 2020). In addition, it is necessary to use the logistics facilities in the Therefore, organizations must respond to the challenges by some most optimum way, especially the logistics vehicles should not re- measures. Firstly, COVID-19 symptoms of the workers, visitors, sup- turn empty to the starting point. The concept of ‘Urban Distribution pliers, and contractors should be monitored before entering the fa- Center’ can allow us to use better capacity with consolidating cility. The food safety or HACCP teams can perform temperature number of deliveries by one or more vehicles. It also improves the screening of all staff at the entrance of plant. Monitoring workers effectiveness of the collection or transportation process. In addition, to wear face protection equipments and gloves is important, too. food protection should be ensured by coordinating the members of Secondly, facilities should consider reducing working hours and the supply chain. Private or government institutions need to invest rotating employees. The overall number of workers in each shift in storage centres. Consumers should have access to markets, and should be divided into three or four groups and their break time attention should be paid to the needs of low-income consumers. The should be adjusted to avoid overcrowding. Lastly, warehouses relationship between buyer and seller should be strengthened by and processing facilities should be redesigned to allow employees establishing web-based food distribution systems. Web-based supply to implement social distances. Building dividers or barriers which chain management system can be referred as an internet-enabled cover the upper part of the body of workers can be used to main- system and allows the information flow among suppliers, facilities, tain social distance. Diagonal arrangement should be used if em- collection centres, and retailers. This system allows faster and flex- ployees use two-side engagement in food processing (Shahbaz et al., ible collaboration between company and customer (Morganti and 2020). Robotic machines also can be used to lower the risk associ- Gonzalez-Feliu, 2015; FAO, 2020j, 2020k; Ngai et al., 2004). ated with COVID-19-infected workers during the coronavirus out- Digital commerce services play an important role in the inter- break. Furthermore, robots can replace humans in food-processing action and trading activities among food supply chain actors. operations to maintain social distancing by reducing the number of E-commerce provides opportunities to reduce the costs and in- food workers. These precautions against the COVID-19 will result crease the demand. In addition, small farmers are considered dis- in more stable international market mechanism. Countries should advantaged in food supply chain related to many challenges they Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 174 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 face in market access. Higher transaction charges in all deals do not small farmers to take risks and cope with high risk situations. It allow small holders to be in better positions due to their small scale. also enables making efficient investment decisions which results in Therefore, digitization of procedures allows small farmers to sell rise in agricultural capacity and profitability (Iyanda et al., 2014). their crops at higher price and helps them to reach more customers Temporary liquidity guarantee program (TLGP) can promote confi- in a direct and effective way bypassing intermediaries. The largest dence in financial organizations. Firstly, the TLGP allows a limited e-commerce companies collaborate with the government to digitize term guarantee for newly issued debt of financial companies and af- the services of rural markets and encourage them to be part of the filiates. Secondly, the TLGP fully insured non-interest bearing trans- e-commerce economy. These platforms offer mostly organic fertil- action accounts. Governments can provide interest-free loans or izers to the market at a reasonable cost (Zeng et al., 2017; FAO, cash grants or arrange their pay periods to needy farmers to restart 2020j, 2020e). production. Guaranteed loans are essential sources of credits given ‘Supply Chain Management (SCM) Data Science’ can be used to small farmers that are assisted by commercial creditors and pro- by governments and private sectors to solve SCM problems and tect them against loss by governments (FAO, 2020j, 2020d; Dodson, forecast the outcomes by performing quantitative and qualitative 2014; Davison, 2019). Trade restrictions and bureaucratic barriers methods bearing in mind the data quality and data availability should be lifted to ensure the accessibility of small-scale farmers and (Waller and Fawcett, 2013). Therefore, data availability and dis- producers to markets. Governmental agencies must meet the energy semination should be improved. Access to correct data at the right requirements of small-scale producers in rural areas (FAO, 2020h). time is important for the efficient functioning of the supply chain. As a result, the COVID-19 outbreak highlighted the connection The availability of reliable information reduces uncertainties in the between farmers and consumers. Low-income levels and older ages market and allows private and public organizations to determine of small farmers make them vulnerable to coronavirus (Johr, 2012; sources of potential disruptions and risks. Correct data also provide Gneiting and Sonenshine, 2018). Therefore, it is important to educate better decision making and enhanced profitability. In addition, col- the farmers about the transmission routes and increase the aware- laboration between government agency and private sector can be ness of pandemic prevention (Wang and Wang, 2020). Crop diver- more effective by easily accessible data. Sharing of data and infor- sification strategy which can be defined as an option to increase the mation across the food supply chain can reduce the negative impacts diversity of food by crop rotation or intercropping for creating new and may strengthen the flexibility in the long run (FAO, 2020j). marketing channels and enabling the harvesting throughout the year can be used to adapt the challenges easily (Hufnagel et al., 2020). Buyer, investors, and bankers should pay the small farmers upfront Recommendations for small farmers for their produces to ensure liquidity for next season. Growing or- Countries should take measures to ensure the safety of agricultural ganic foods can also scale up the sales due to consumer interest and workers. Onsite healthcare professionals should track the illness confidence. In addition, partnerships between small farmers and status of employees. Countries should build agricultural produc- companies or government is another way to help the small farmers tion collection centres at locations easily reached by small-scale to increase productivity and incomes by adaptive technology invest- farmers relating to mobility reduction. Agricultural production col- ment (Winter and Davis, 2006; ITC, 2020). lection centres should be designed to provide high capacity storage (FAO, 2020c). Improved and advanced storage structures also can Suggestions for government and business be used to minimize the loss of foods throughout the food value chain. However, modern facilities or improved technologies entail First of all, a crisis committee should be established to focus on the ef- higher production costs as it requires additional capital injection. fect of COVID-19 during food value chain without waiting too long Therefore, small- and medium-sized agricultural enterprises can for the implementation of certain strategies and interventions. This maintain their activities using the capital injections from government committee should become a key actor to observe the progress and or donors (Tetteh Anang et al., 2015). recommend actions to reduce the effects of COVID-19 on agricul- Food banks can play an important role considering the hori- tural production and food supply cuts. In order to ensure adequate zontal and vertical coordination mechanisms with farmer associ- and full implementation of the strategies, it is important that the ations that make contractual agriculture arrangement. Primarily, It committee should collaborate with the private sector (FAO, 2020k). would be a way to help farmers to create new markets by selling In Turkey, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has formed the their unsold produces to food banks and make connection between COVID-19 Commission consisting of seven academicians and two farmers and vulnerable people during COVID-19 outbreak (Jackson members from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry for measures and Yurkevich, 2020). Second, whenever possible, countries can de- and recommendations to be taken in the field of agriculture and food ploy warehouse receipt systems, allowing small-scale producers to within the scope of the pandemic (MAF, 2020). improve access for financial loans and get the best price for their In the aftermath of the pandemic, governments around the world product. This receipt helps small farmers to store crops safely in a announced response plans to help the agriculture industry for re- modern storage facility and allows them to sell their product later ducing the effect of COVID-19 outbreak. In Turkey, Ministry of when the prices are higher. It also can be used as possessory col- Agricultural and Forestry announced the precautions and funding lateral for a loan (Miranda et al., 2019). Third, countries should assistance programs for farmers and manufacturing facilities/stores participate in growth and rapid development of e-commerce for such as slaughterhouses, greenhouses, and bakery stores. In add- small shareholders. Communication through the internet ensures ition, Ministry of Internal Affairs issued the lockdown guidelines that commercializing produces to wider range of consumers and that allow the farmers and food production plants to continue their enables farmers to find cheaper inputs (Khanal and Mishra, 2016). operations during lockdown (MAF, 2020; MIA, 2020). In Canada, Fourth, small-scale producers should have easy and unhindered ac- Agriculture Response Program was designed for 50–75% funding cess to credit for dealing with financial problems to continue pro- assistance which do not have to be paid back regarding health duction. Some countries offer incentive packages for small-scale protocol, marketing and product movement, distribution, strategic farmers (FAO, 2020c). Access to credits is related to the ability of projects, abattoir efficiency, and development (Novascatia, 2020). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 Covid-19 and food supply chain, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 175 In the USA, Department of Agriculture committed programs and and vulnerable groups affected by changes in supply and demand flexibilities such as food assistance, dumped milk, crop insurance, and the need to adapt in accordance with these changes can be regu- farm loan, commodity loan, crop acreage, animal mortality, pay- lated by legal frameworks. Regulations to be enacted in emergen- check protection, and economic injury disaster loan to help agri- cies such as the COVID-19 outbreak can contribute to the safe and cultural producers are related to the COVID-19 outbreak (USDA, problem-free operation of transactions. Moreover, it is necessary to 2020). strengthen the capacities of legal regulations, including ensuring the Governments also should establish and operate emergency pro- proportionality and necessity of restrictive measures and providing visioning strategies to support production. The regions most af- flexibility in the implementation of certain administrative require- fected by the outbreak should be protected by temporary input ments to face the challenges posed by the new situation. Providing subsidies programs. Timely support is essential for planting season flexibility in licensing requirements for direct selling, e-commerce, for the next spring (FAO, 2020d). Data collection and assessment and food transport can also help small producers and agricultural programs for migrants should be used to determine when and businesses to find alternative market opportunities (FAO, 2020i) where the migrants are needed (Martin, 2016). Facilitating the since flexibility is relatively associated with weak/strong position of cross-border movement of migrant workers is important because farmers and presence of long/short food supply chains. Customers movement restrictions and border closures have a strong negative sometimes believe that food choice is imposed by supply chain chal- influence on agricultural labour supply. In Canada, government an- lenges (Petetin, 2020). nounced a US$50 million financial aid program for small farmers Logistic operations are also critical to maintain the delivery of who hired temporary foreign employees through the COVID-19 the foods, and, therefore, some efforts are needed to maintain oper- outbreak. Program allowed employers to receive US$1,500 per ations. Therefore, more infrastructure investment should be required foreign worker who has to self-isolate for 14 days upon their to allow more supervision services, upgraded sanitation systems, entry into Canada (Ker, 2020). The resulting shortage of labour increased use of digital documentation, and operations. Countries can be reduced by policies that classify agricultural workers as should follow rigid hygienic control in the distribution sector to pre- critical persons and exempt them from travel limitations. In the vent transmission of the virus. The health and safety of the logistic USA, government highlighted the importance of people employed employees who carry tradable products should be maintained (FAO, in agricultural production and considered them as ‘critical infra- 2020j). In UK, Logistic Sub-Group developed three work streams structure worker’ (FAO, 2020f; CDC, 2020a). It should also be named ‘safe passage programs’, ‘crisis management, accommodation focused on giving longer stay permits by changing the visa and & transportation’, and ‘shore base logistics & freight management’, residence regulations for seasonal workers in the country. In some respectively. These work streams were intended to provide safe pas- countries such as Canada and Belgium, governments allowed em- sage (health issues) and assurance to personnel and their families. ployers to postpone the recruitment or offer long-term contracts It also ensures the movement of stuff in an effective and consistent (OECD, 2020c). Commission of European Union (EU) introduced manner. Lastly, it provides guidelines and raises awareness to logistic ‘the green lanes’ for vehicles carrying agri-food products to ensure sector (OGUK, 2020). free and fast movement on borders. EU measures also highlighted Rapid yield prediction and determination of national food stocks the free movement of agri-food and seasonal workers for enabling need to be made to define shortages or surpluses that may occur, par - them to reach their workplace and exercise their activities. In add- ticularly because of import prohibition or export restrictions. Better ition, the commission extended the farmers’ application deadline management of food stocks in different regions should be considered to receive income support known as Common Agricultural Policy and non-food uses of farm products (e.g., for biofuel) should be re- (CAP) payments. Temporary framework for state aid measures duced (FAO, 2020k). Crop yield information models can be used to was approved to support farmers and agri-food business to en- help the governments to make decisions about food security or grain sure liquidity (Rossi, 2020). However, it is necessary to encourage marketing. Local models can be defined as data intensive models the local population to become agricultural workers. Local popu- and appropriate for small areas, whereas regionally models use data lations and unemployed people can be trained to work in farming extensive techniques and cover large areas. Therefore, proper mod- practices like sowing, weeding, or harvesting to minimize the effect elling method should be selected to understand the impacts of policy of the restriction on migrant workers. Online platforms should be decisions (Donohue et al., 2018). used to facilitate connections between local residents and agri- To summarize, given that the duration of the COVID-19 out- culture sector (FAO, 2020d). Unemployed people or local worker break is uncertain, agricultural firms have begun to change their should be encouraged for being agricultural labour by adding business models. For example, issues such as promoting under- premiums to wages since local workers do not want to work in standing of the transmission, creating reporting system for posi- farming due to the possibilities to find better non-agricultural alter - tive cases, progressive investment and resource plans covering the natives (Martin, 2016). COVID-19 outbreak showed that labour- next 3 years, business continuity planning, alternative input source replacing mechanization policy is the best way to solve the labour channels, increased focus on stock management, review of per- shortage over the medium to longer term (Troskie, 2020). sonnel occupational health and safety practices, travel limitations, Employment contracts that made between the actors in the food and human resource planning in the face of increasing demand or value chain should be fair to all parties and should be clear about absenteeism are important (Clift and Court, 2020; ICC and WHO, the rights and responsibilities of the parties since public and pri- 2020). However, companies also need to cooperate with competing vate standards are used to define the minimum requirements in food companies on some issues e.g. raw material supply. Small companies safety and quality. However, private standards involve more strin- need to be more organized, using the crisis as a driving force. Firms gent regulations than public standards and affect the prices that should care about developing the information and communication producers receive and the quantity of produces they sell. In add- technology infrastructure that can be used for the agriculture and ition, these standards make significant impacts on their income and food sector. It is also necessary to benefit from financial incentive market access (Mohan, 2020). In addition, the rights of producers packages according to the needs of the enterprises (FAO, 2020a). Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/fqs/article/4/4/167/5896496 by DeepDyve user on 22 December 2020 176 S. Aday and M. S. Aday, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4 Actions on global trade (Gardner, 2001; WFP, 2020b; Espitia et al., 2020). Therefore, re- straint of trade is not only unnecessary, and it also harms all the Continuing the flow of agricultural inputs between countries, even in actors in the food supply chain and creates panic and fear in the quarantine restrictions or closing borders, is vital. Therefore, meas- markets (Liu et al., 2020). ures to facilitate the trade of farming inputs such as equipments and fertilizers should be taken in the short run because these require- ments are crucial for planting activities to continue smoothly (FAO, 2020j). Understanding the COVID-19 impact behind restriction pol- Conclusions icies is also important since food availability levels are high and During a pandemic, continuing the flow of the supply in agriculture the forecast of key staple production is good. Despite these fa- and food sector, which is one of the most important sectors together vourable conditions, governments are working to ensure the food with health, is vital to prevent the food crisis and reducing the nega- security due to high consumer demand and protect vulnerable tive impact on the global economy. Although no major problems people from price increases. However, lessons from past experi- have been observed in the food supply chains so far it remains un- ences have indicated that avoiding trade restriction policies can clear in the face of an uncertain future. As a result, each country has be as effective to protect consumers and farm incomes as direct to realize the severity of the situation and sometimes should tighten support activities (Martin and Glauber, 2020). Therefore, agricul- or loosen the measures according to the spread of the pandemic. The tural trade options and strategies should be modified to minimize supply chain also should be flexible enough to respond to the chal- the effect of outbreak in medium term. Each country should deter- lenges in the food supply chain. mine its own policy to identify the consequences and importance of changing certain aspects of trade strategy like import taxes for farming inputs. It is more vital if the capacity of the national agri- Author Contributions cultural production is limited and prices show rising trend for Serpil Aday and Mehmet Seckin Aday chose the review topic, conducted the some foods. The actions to be taken in the field of trade strategy literature review and wrote the manuscript. are influenced by the production quantity and input use. This out- break offers the opportunity to optimize trade options and to de- velop some procedures and policies (FAO, 2020j). 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Impact of COVID-19 on the food supply chain

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Impact of COVID-19 on the food supply chain

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