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Investigating the Effect of Individual Rotations on the Physical and Physiological Performance in Elite Female Field Hockey Players

Investigating the Effect of Individual Rotations on the Physical and Physiological Performance in... applied sciences Article Investigating the Effect of Individual Rotations on the Physical and Physiological Performance in Elite Female Field Hockey Players 1 , 2 3 1 Aideen McGuinness *, Darren Kenna , Adam Grainger and Kieran Collins Tallaght Campus, Technological University of Dublin, Tallaght, D24 FKT9 Dublin, Ireland; Kieran.Collins@tudublin.ie Irish Strength Institute, Malahide Rd, Artane, D05 W6P2 Dublin, Ireland; darren@ueperformancetherapy.com Hockey Ireland, Richview Newstead Block C, Stillorgan Rd, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland; Adam.Grainger@hockey.ie * Correspondence: mcguinnessaideen@gmail.com; Tel.: +353-83-181-9630 Abstract: To quantify the rotational demands of elite female field hockey with respect to position. Twenty-eight (n = 28) elite international field hockey players were recruited during the 2018–2020 seasons. Players were monitored with GPS technology and heart-rate monitors. Methods: Activity was categorised into total distance (m), relative total distance (mmin ), high-speed distance (m; 1 1 1 16 kmh ), relative high-speed distance (mmin ), max velocity (kmh ), and percentage maximal velocity (%Vmax). Physiological demands were assessed via heart rate measures (bpm and % HR ) max and time > 80% heart rate maximum. Results: A single rotation equated to 7  0.8 min. Players covered a mean total distance of was 868  132 m (125.7  5.9 mmin ) with 140  39 m at high- speed (21.7  3.6 mmin ). A significant difference was reported for relative total (p  0.001), and high-speed (p  0.001), distance across positional. Forwards were reported to cover the most relative total and high-speed distance (d = 1.0) when compared to defenders and midfielders. Conclusion: Citation: McGuinness, A.; Kenna, D.; The study provides normative data for rotational demands of elite female field hockey. Coaches Grainger, A.; Collins, K. Investigating should consider these demands when developing training drills to better optimise the positional the Effect of Individual Rotations on physical and physiological demands of competitive match-play. the Physical and Physiological Performance in Elite Female Field Keywords: team sport; GPS; intermittent exercise; running performance; high intensity work-rate Hockey Players. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/ app11031022 1. Introduction Received: 21 December 2020 Accepted: 17 January 2021 Field hockey can be best described as a stick and ball field-based sport comprised of Published: 23 January 2021 both technical and tactical components that are completed at moderate to high speeds [1–3]. In recent years, field hockey has undergone vast technical and structural changes. One Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral of these significant changes occurred in 2016 when the structure of the game went from with regard to jurisdictional claims in two halves to four quarters. Match-play now consists of four 15 min quarters (Q’s) with a published maps and institutional affil- 2 min break separating quarters 1 and 2 and quarters 3 and 4 with half-time consisting of iations. a 10 min break separating quarters 2 and 3. However, in 1992, the International hockey federation (FIH) introduced the “rolling substitutions” rule whereby substitutions could take place at any time during the game. These are known as “rotations” by coaching and performance staff. A total of eighteen players are eligible to play during match-play: two Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. keepers and 16 outfield players. During match-play, 11 players may be on the pitch at Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. one time with a total of five additional players available to roll-on and roll-off at any time. This article is an open access article Anecdotally, players will perform 6–8 rotations during a game with the timing of these distributed under the terms and rotations pre-determined based on the tactical decisions of the Head Coach. conditions of the Creative Commons Research focused on elite female hockey match-play has increased substantially, with Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// these studies reporting that typically players cover on average 4847  58-m (127.6 creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 1 1 1 15.3 mmin ) with 580  147-m (15.3  3.9 mmin ) performed above 16 kmh [3–8]. 4.0/). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11031022 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 2 of 12 McMahon and Kennedy [7] were the first to report the changes in player ’s activity profiles following structural changes to competitive match-play—a significant increase in relative 1 1 total (7.5 mmin , d = 0.6) and high-speed distance (0.6 mmin , d = 0.3). Furthermore, a substantial decrease in low-speed relative distance (2.2 mmin , d = 0.4) during match- play was noted in conjunction with these rule changes. In recent years, McGuinness et al. (2018) observed changes in the running performance of elite female hockey players across the four quarters of match-play. Within this literature, defenders (5181  607 m) were shown to cover the most total distance, meanwhile it was reported that midfielders cover the most distance at moderate intensity (1313  173 m). However, no differences were reported for relative distance across quarters of play. Significant differences were observed for relative high-speed distance across quarters with a significant drop from quarter 1 to quarter 2 and further reductions between quarter 2 and quarter 4. When positions were considered, forwards were observed to cover the most relative distance at 1 1 high-speed (18.2  7.9 mmin ) when compared to the defenders (13.8  4.8 mmin ) and midfielders (14.8  6.2 mmin ). Due to greater interest in match demands and their influence upon match outcome, practitioners have begun to monitor duration specific moments within competitive match- play, such as rolling average and rotational running performance demands [5,6,9–12]. Previously, McGuinness et al. [6] quantified the peak running intensity of elite female field hockey players during match-play. Irrespective of position, players were reported to cover an average peak relative distance of 159–201 mmin . Forwards were observed to have the highest peak 1 min rolling average (200  11 mmin ) when compared to the defenders 1 1 (188  16 mmin ) and midfielders (195  15 mmin ). Following on from these findings, Linke and Lames [11] quantified the running performance of substitutes within elite male field hockey. During each rotation, players would cover an average relative distance of 1 1 139 mmin , with the mean distance covered during rotation 1 (157 mmin ) and rotation 2 (143 mmin ) decreasing significantly (p  0.05). As per current international rules, five players are available to be substituted during match-play, with coaches using these roll on and roll off interchanges as a method to maintain higher work-rates across all periods, understanding the demands of these interchanges would appear important from a performance and training replication perspective. Due to the roll-on roll-off nature of these interchanges, coaching staff have begun to focus on the performance requirements of these rotations to best replicate and exceed these demands within training situations when appropriate. However, currently, there is a limited number of research studies that have focused on the rotational demands of elite female field hockey [5,11]. Therefore, an examination of the physical and physiological demands during each player rotation in elite female field hockey is warranted to aid coaching practice with respect to training drill creation and construction. By understanding these physical and physiological demands it will enable practitioners to create training segments that better replicate the position-specific demands of competitive match-play, allowing the coaching staff to construct duration specific small-sided games that in turn replicate the rotational demands of match-play. Given the above, the aim of the current study was to quantify the physical and physiological performance demands of elite female field hockey players with respect to rotations. Secondly, we aimed to understand these demands across the positional lines of play. It was hypothesised that forwards would have a higher relative total distance; midfielders would cover the greatest distance above 16 kmh while the defenders would spend the most amount of time > 80% heart rare maxxx (HR ). max 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Experimental Approach to the Problem The current study was observational in nature and designed to quantify the physical and physiological rotational demands of elite female hockey players using GPS technology (10-Hz, STATSports Apex Unit, STATSports Group Limited, Sonra 2.1.15, Newry, Northern Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 3 of 12 Ireland, UK) and heart rate monitors (Polar T-31, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). Twenty-eight (n = 28) elite international female hockey players were observed during twenty-seven competitive matches (n = 27). All competitive matches that occurred during the 2018–2020 seasons were included in the data set. Overall, there were three hundred and nighty five (n = 395) observations included in the data set. On average, players appeared in thirteen (13  8) of the twenty-seven games. Of the 27 games, 12 games were official FIH tournaments including the FIH Series Finals (5), Europeans (5) and the Olympic qualifiers (2). The rest of the games that were included in the data set were friendlies against other senior national teams that were ranked within the top 16. In order for a friendly game to be included in the data set the following criteria must be met: (1) The game must follow the official FIH format of 4 Qs and breaks in play (2); The teams may only have 18 players on the bench—16 outfield and 2 goalkeepers; (3) The umpires must be either internationally or national recognised. All participants were categorised by the head coach into three positional lines of play: defenders (n = 8), midfielders (n = 9), and forwards (n = 11), respectively. If a player was to play in a position that they were not previously categorised into by the head coach, this data set was removed from the cohort of data. In order to gain a better understanding of the average rotational demands, rotational data were only included in the current study if the player spent more than 90% of the team’s minimum rotation duration on the field (~3:40 min). Prior to match-day, players were advised to abstain from any strenuous activity and were advised to maintain their normal pre-match routine and diet with special emphasis being placed on the intake of fluids and carbohydrates. 2.2. Participants Twenty-eight (n = 28) elite international field hockey outfield players (26  3 years; 162.7  12 cm; 67.3  5.4 kg) were recruited to participate in the study. At the time of the current study, the team in question was ranked 8th in the FIH world rankings and players were part of the country’s Tokyo 2020 Olympic training panel (9  4 years at International level) and were therefore deemed the best players in the country during the observational period. Once ethical approval was granted, participants were informed of the benefits and procedures of the current study. Written informed consent and medical declaration were obtained from participants in line with the procedures set by the research ethics committee of the Technological University of Dublin (REC-PGR26-201819). 2.3. Experimental Procedures During all competitive match-play situations, participants wore an individual GPS unit (10-Hz, STATSports Apex Unit, STATSports Group Limited, Newry, Northern Ireland, UK) to understand participants running performance across each rotation of play. The physiological performance was assessed through each participant wearing a HR monitor during match-play (Polar T-31, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). Fifteen minutes prior to match-play each unit was switched on to allow the unit to establish a satellite connection. Each participant wore their own individual GPS unit within the confines of a vest between the shoulder blades. Prior to match-play, players’ individual rotations were pre-determined by a member of the management team. It was each individual player ’s responsibility to ensure they rotated with the correct players marked on the sheet at the correct time. There was also a member of staff allocated to monitor the bench during competition to make sure players stayed on top of their rotation times. Once a player had finished their rotation, they were asked to take their water bottle and walk straight to the end line and back to the bench where they were asked to sit until it was time for their next rotation. If for any reason a player was unable to rotate with another player, the sports scientist would take note of this on the rational timings sheet. Given the use of rolling substitutes, the time each participant spent in match-play was noted by the sports scientist with the use of a customised IOS app (Coaches Clock, Version 1.3.2, USA). Upon the completion of match-play, the data were downloaded using proprietary software (Apex SONRA, STATSports, Newry, Northern Ireland, UK), with all data for respective rotations Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 4 of 12 completed analysed retrospectively and applied to each individual play. All data were than exported to a bespoke database (Microsoft Excel (V15); Microsoft, Redmond, USA). Each individual rotation was than retrospectivity cut using the pre-determined rotational timing sheet. The sports scientist was responsible to match up the rotational times with the movement graph on the proprietary software. If at any stage, the sports scientist was unable to determine where a rotation was made, they were encouraged to use the video footage from the match. All data were then exported to a bespoke database (Microsoft Excel(V15); Microsoft, Redmond, USA). Participants’ speed thresholds were classified based on previous zones used in elite female field hockey literature [13]. Variables of interest included time on feet (min), total 1 1 distance (m), relative total distance (mmin ), high-speed distance (m  16 kmh ), 1 1 relative high-speed distance (mmin ), sprint distance (m  20 kmh ), relative sprint 1 1 1 distance (mmin ), no. of sprints (n; >20 kmh ), maximal speed (kmh ), percentage 2 2 maximal speed (% Vmax), accelerations (n; 4 ms ) and decelerations (n; 4 ms ). Physiological demands were also assessed during match-play with variables of interest including HR (bpm), HR (%), time  80% HR (min: ss). Prior to the observational max max max period, players completed the Yo-YoIR1 to determine each participant’s HR . The highest max heart rate obtained by the participant during this test was deemed to be the player HR . max However, if a participant obtained a higher HR throughout the course of testing, this max figure would then be replaced and all data prior to this reading were then re-analysed (n = 2). If at any stage an athlete’s heart rate data did not record, that specific rotation was omitted for analysis. 2.4. Statistical Analysis Data are presented as a mean  standard deviation (SD) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) and partial Eta-squared ( ) unless stated otherwise. Multiple two-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to determine the potential differences in locomotor activity and physiological variables across positional groups (n = 3) and for each rotation. Significance was set at p  0.05. When significant main effects were observed, Games– Howell post-hoc test was applied. Partial Eta-squared standardised effect sizes (ES) were defined as  0.01, small; >0.01–0.06, medium; >0.06–0.14, large [14]. Cohens d standardised ES were defined as  0.2, small; >0.2–0.5, medium; >0.5–0.8, large, 0.8, very large [15]. Where an effect size Cohen’s d of > 0.5 (medium) was observed, it was flagged as a potential difference. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows (Version 22, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). 3. Results 3.1. Physical Performance Demands across Rotations Selected running variables are presented in Tables 1 and 2. When total distance was observed, no significant interaction was reported between position (F (8, 1766) = 0.08; 2 2 p = 0.9;  = 0.001; small) and rotation (F = (8, 1766) = 0.5; p = 0.8;  = 0.002; small). A significant interaction between position (F (2, 541) = 9.8; p  0.001,  = 0.05, small) and high-speed distance (m). However, when each rotation was considered, no interaction was reported (F (8, 1766) = 2; p = 0.7;  = 0.008; small). When positions were considered, a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to cover significantly less high-speed distance (108  56) when compared to the midfield (149  65; d = 0.7; large) and forwards (157  73; d = 0.8; large). Forwards were also reported to cover significantly more high-speed distance then the midfield (149  65; d = 1.1; large). There was significant interaction between position (F (2, 1766) = 15; p  0.001;  = 0.02; small) and sprint distance (m); however, when each rotation was considered, no interaction was reported (F (8, 1766) = 0.9; p = 0.5;  = 0.004; small). When positions were considered, a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to cover significantly less sprint distance (27  8) when compared to the midfield (30  10; d = 0.3; medium) and forwards (34  9; d = 0.8; large). The was significant interaction between position (F (2, 1766) = 11; Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 5 of 12 2 1 p  0.001;  = 0.01; small) and maximal speed (kmh ); however, when each rotation was considered, no interaction was reported (F (8, 1766) = 1.0; p = 0.5;  = 0.004; small). Defenders (22.9  0.5) were likely to achieve a lower maximal speed (kmh ) when compared to the forwards (23.2  0.7; d = 0.5; medium) and midfielders (23.0  0.8; d = 0.2; medium). A significant interaction was observed across position (F (2, 1766) = 0.5; p = 0.04; 2 2 = 0.004; small) and rotation (F (8, 1766) = 0.8; p = 0.7;  = 0.007; small) for maximal speed (%). Defenders (77  2) were likely to achieve a lower maximal speed (%) when compared to the forwards (79  2; d = 1.0; medium) and midfielders (79  2; d = 1.0; medium). 3.2. Physiological Performance Demands across Rotations Selected physiological demands are presented in Tables 1 and 2. When HR (bpm) max was observed, a significant interaction was reported between position (F (2, 1766) = 31.0, p  0.001;  = 0.03; small); however, no significant interaction was observed across ro- tations (F (8, 1766) = 1.8; p = 0.07;  = 0.08; small). When positions were considered, a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to have a lower HR max (bpm) (183  3) when compared to the midfield (188  3; d = 1.7; very large) and forwards (190  3; d = 2.3; very large). Forwards were also reported to achieve a higher heart rate when compared to midfield (149  65, d = 0.6; medium). When % HR was observed, a max significant interaction was reported between position (F (2, 1766) = 12.8; p  0.001;  = 0.01; small). However, no significant interaction was observed across rotations (F (8, 1766) = 0.07; p = 0.7;  = 0.003; small). When positions were considered a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to achieve a lower HR (%) (86  2) when compared max to the forwards (89  3; d = 1.2; large) and midfield (89  3; d = 1.2; large). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 6 of 12 Table 1. The physical and physiological demands of elite international female field hockey across rotations, as determined by GPS technology during match-play. All data are presented as mean  SD. No. Time > Total Total High- No. of No. of Peak Max Duration Sprint Sprints Peak HR HR 80% max Distance Distance Speed Accelera- Decelera- Speed Speed (min) Distance > 20 (bpm) (%) HR max (m) (mmin) Distance tions tions (kmh) (%) kmh (min:ss) Avg. Rotation 7:00  0:50 868  132 124.9  10.7 140  39 31  13 5  2 7  2 23.0  0.9 76  1 2  1 187  8 86  4 4:20  1:30 Avg. Defender 7:30  3:15 881  138 119.8  11.0 117  34 26  11 5  2 7  2 22.8  0.8 74  3 2  1 189  6 84  4 4:18  1:20 Avg. Midfield 7:20  1:15 884  117 123.6  7.6 153  30 33  12 5  1 8  2 23.3  0.9 78  4 2  1 188  6 90  6 4:20  1:30 Avg. Forward 6:30  2:30 836  132 131.1  11 160  37 36  15 6  2 7  2 23.3  0.9 73  3 3  1 184  10 86  5 4:10  2:10 Team R1 6:30  2:30 866  141 126.7  9.5 145  45 31  11 6  2 * 8  1 * 23.1  0.4 78  2 * 2  1 188  8 89  5 * 4:18  1:30 Avg. Team R2 7:00  2:30 855  99 126.4  11.9 136  34 28  9 5  2 7  2 23.0  0.3 78  2 * 2  1 189  7 89  5 * 4:34  1:30 Avg. Team R3 7:00  2:30 837  109 124.2  10.7 132  42 28  14 5  2 7  2 22.8  1.6 78  3 * 2  1 189  7 89  5 * 4:21  1:20 Avg. Team R4 7:30  2:55 874  106 119.8  106 29  11 5  2 7  2 23.0  0.4 78  3 * 2  1 188  8 89  5 4: 23  2:00 131  31 Avg. Team R5 7:30  2:55 872  121 120.7  11.6 129  40 27  11 5  1 7  2 22.6  0.6 77  3 2  1 187  7 88  5 * 4:21  1:30 Avg. Team 1,2 R6 8:00  3:00 891  131 118.8  8.9 131  41 31  13 5  2 7  2 23.0  1.2 78  3 * 2  1 188  8 89  5 * 4:39  2:10 Avg. Team R7 7:30  3:20 840  209 120.7  9.4 32  19 6  2 * 7  2 23.0  0.8 78  3 * 2  1 188  11 88  7 4:32  2:10 135  45 Avg. Team R8 7:20  2:55 864  61 118.8  61 134  36 31  17 5  2 7  3 22.9  0.7 78  4 * 2  1 188  7 89  5 * 4:26  1:20 Avg. 1, 2, 3, etc. signifies the positional variation between rotations. * represents the significant difference across each rotation when compared to the average rotation output. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 7 of 12 Table 2. The physical and physiological demands of elite international female field hockey during each rotation across the positional lines of play, as determined by GPS technology during match-play. All data are presented as mean  SD. No. Duration Total High-Speed Sprint No. of Ac- No. of De- Peak Speed Max Speed Peak HR Time > 80% Sprints HR (%) max (min:ss) Distance (m) Distance Distance celerations celerations (kmh) (%) (bpm) HR (min:ss) max >20 kmh b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 7:00  2:35 866  108 118  44 23  8 5  1 7  2 22.5  0.3 77  2 2  1 191  4 89  3 4:20  1:26 Mid 7:00  2:30 832  156 156  37 33  8 6  1 8  2 23.5  0.5 79  2 3  1 186  6 89  6 4:13  2:10 R1 b a,b Fwd 7:00  2:30 910  205 182  44 7  2 8  2 23.5  0.7 79  2 3  1 186  12 4:26  2:25 44  15 86  5 b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 7:15  2:10 828  102 110  25 23  8 5  2 7  1 22.7  0.6 78  2 2  1 192  5 90  4 4:33  1:20 a,c Mid 7:15  2:10 900  41 155  22 32  67 6  1 8  2 23.3  0.4 79  3 2  1 188  7 90  6 4:05  1:25 R2 b a,b a,b Fwd 7:00  2:20 835  116 154  37 32  9 5  2 8  2 23.0  0.6 188  11 4:21  2:15 77  2 3  1 87  5 b b,c b,c b,c Def 6:55  2:40 795  76 99  23 21  7 4  1 7  2 22.4  0.6 77  2 2  1 192  5 90  4 4:26  1:15 a,c Mid 7:20  3:00 868  68 150  14 31  16 6  2 8  2 23.0  1.3 78  4 2  1 187  6 90  6 4:22  1:30 R3 a,b Fwd 7:00  0:30 858  195 160  62 34  12 5  2 7  2 23.3  0.8 78  3 2  1 188  10 4:26  2:15 87  5 b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:00  3:15 883  112 105  24 23  8 5  1 7  2 22.8  0.7 78  1 2  1 191  7 89  4 4:39  1:30 Mid 7:10  2:50 858  98 145  27 34  13 5  2 7  2 23.2  0.9 78  5 2  1 186  6 89  6 4:18  2:00 R4 a,b a,b a,b Fwd 7:10  3:00 878  101 156  26 31  11 23.2  0.5 78  3 2  1 187  13 4:31  2:15 6  1 8  1 86  6 b b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 7:30  2:30 841  127 97  39 23  15 4  1 6  3 22.2  1.1 78  3 2  1 189  6 89  4 4:25  1:20 Mid 8:10  2:30 910  112 151  18 29  8 6  1 8  2 23.0  0.5 79  4 2  1 186  5 89  5 4:21  1:20 R5 a,b a,b Fwd 7:10  3:00 864  143 154  36 33  5 5  1 8  2 23.0  0.3 77  1 184  10 4:25  2:15 3  1 85  4 b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:20  3:15 890  175 113  46 26  11 5  1 8  2 22.9  1.1 78  3 2  1 192  7 90  5 5:1 8  2:20 a,c c Mid 8:10  3:30 887  88 146  36 33  18 5  1 7  2 23.4  1.4 79  4 2  1 186  6 89  6 4:22  2:00 R6 b,c a,b Fwd 7:00  2:25 880  103 142  35 34  9 8  1 22.8  1.2 78  3 3  1 186  10 4:28  2:15 6  1 86  4 b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:25  4:00 925  147 115  20 28  12 5  2 7  2 22.5  1.2 79  3 2  1 193  7 90  5 5:21  2:00 Mid 7:25  3:10 856  157 151  37 34  22 6  2 7  3 23.2  1.1 80  4 3  1 186  14 89  9 4:18  2:10 R7 a,b Fwd 6:25  3:15 808  100 147  69 35  24 6  1 7  1 23.3  1.3 76  4 3  1 184  10 4:15  2:10 85  5 b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:00  1:00 870  218 111  27 24  19 5  2 7  3 22.9  0.4 77  4 2  1 193  4 91  3 4:38  1:00 Mid 7:10  3:25 732  269 129  31 32  13 5  2 6  4 22.9  0.4 80  4 2  1 187  5 90  6 4:18  1:30 R8 b b,c a,b a,b Fwd 7:30  3:10 160  19 38  15 8  2 22.9  0.4 78  3 184  11 4:29  2:15 8698  105 6  3 3  1 85  5 a, b, c signifies the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards. * represents the significant difference across each rotation when compared to the average rotation output. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 8 of 12 4. Discussion The primary aim of the current observational study was to quantify each rotation running performance and heart rate responses in elite female field hockey players. Secondly, we aimed to quantify the demands of individual rotations across the positional lines of play. Research conducted on elite female field hockey rotational demands is limited [5,11]. Therefore, an examination of the physical and physiological demands during each rotation in elite female field hockey is warranted. The main findings of the current study were that irrespective of position small to large effects were observed for relative total distance during each rotation when compared to average match-play outputs for elite female hockey players, with no significant difference reported across relative high-speed and relative sprint distance. Furthermore, while no difference was reported across the rotations, a significant main effect was seen across the positional lines of play for multiple GPS variables. Finally, it was observed that HR (%) was significantly different for players max across the rotational phases of play. The data reported within the current study show that regardless of position elite fe- male field hockey players cover a total distance of 868  132 m (124.9  10.7 mmin ) with 140  39 m (20.1  4.5 mmin ) covered at high-speed across each rotation. When posi- tional lines of play were considered a significant small to moderate difference for relative values of total distance, high-speed distance and sprint distance were observed. Specifically, defenders were reported to have the lowest relative total distance (119.8  11.0 mmin ) 1 1 when compared to midfield (123.6  7.6 mmin ) and the forwards (131.1  11 mmin ), with these differences small to very large depending on specific positional comparisons (Figure 1). Furthermore, when high-speed running was considered, very large differences were reported across positions with forwards (23.5  1.2 mmin ) shown to cover in- creased high-speed running when compared to midfielders (21.8  1.4 mmin ) and defenders (14.9  1.2 mmin ), respectively (Figure 2). These findings represent a con- tinuation of trends recently reported by McGuinness et al. [3] with respect to quarters of competitive match-play and agree with this literature. It was suggested that during the quarters of competitive match-play elite female field hockey players would cover an average relative distance of 126  15.3 mmin . Although these results were similar to that recently reported for the average quarter demands, it is important to note that all rotations have been pooled together to give an average rotational demand. Prior to match-play, coaching staff will determine their tactical approach to the opposition. Once this has been agreed, they will often implement specific match strategies such as key playing personnel being on the pitch longer than others. Coaching staff should aim to establish the average rotational demands for each individual during match-play. By knowing these individual averages, practitioners can modify duration and player numbers within small-sided games to best replicate and exceed the positional and individuals match-play demands [16]. Irrespective of positions. elite female field hockey players complete on average eight rotations during competitive match-play. During these individual rotations, players are likely to spend a mean time of 7  1 min on their feet. Within these 7 min, players are likely to cover an average relative total distance of 124.9  10.7 mmin with a relative high-speed distance of 20.7  5.8 mmin . When each rotation was considered, a significant main effect was observed for relative total distance (p  0.001;  = 0.04; medium), relative high-speed distance (p  0.001;  = 0.03; medium), and the number of sprints (p  0.04;  = 0.01; small). A significant decrease was reported for relative total distance for R1 and R2 when compared to other rotations completed by players during match-play (Figure 1). Similar to relative total distance, when relative high-speed distance was quantified, a significant decrease was reported when R1 was compared to other rotations during match-play (Figure 2). Our findings are similar to data previously reported in other team sports [17,18]. Previously, Black and colleagues [18] reported that rotation duration influenced the physical activity profile of female Australian football players within the subsequent quarter of play, specifically short (4–6 min) and moderate (7–12 min) duration rotations were shown to generate the highest activity profile during Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 9 of 12 match-play. During each rotation, forwards maintained the highest relative output when compared to the defenders and midfielders. It is possible that prior knowledge of the team’s rotations strategy may be associated with these higher relative outputs. Indeed, forwards typically are required to perform a rotation of 4–9 min, depending on the tactical requirements of the coaching staff, while defenders and midfield players usually complete longer duration rotations (5–11 min) during match-play. Schimpchen et al. [19] recently reported that football player ’s physical output can be more critically impacted by periods of peak high-velocity running. Our results have shown that after R2 no further reduction in locomotor parameters between rotations was reported. It is apparent that after R2 regardless of position, players relative locomotor activity plateaus. Due to their nomadic nature and the speed of the game, it is likely that an element of fatigue or differential positional pacing strategies may be apparent in particular positional lines of play within elite female field hockey [19,20]. Given the extent of the reduction in physical performance across the rotations, it is suggested that, during training, coaching staff implement these Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15 typical work periods within conditioning drills to replicate and exceed match demands when required. Figure 1. The average relative total distance mmin of elite female field hockey players across each rotational period −1 Figure 1. The average relative total distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational period during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards, while 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. Time on feet resulted in players achieving a higher percentage of HR and time max above 80% HR during competitive match-play. Players attained a mean HR of max max 187  8 bpm equating to 86  4% of HR . Regardless of positional group, players were max reported to spend 4.29  1.4 min of the 7.0  0.8 min above 80% HR . Midfielders max (90  6%) were reported to reach a higher percentage mean HR during each rotation max when compared to the defenders (90  6%) and forwards (86  4%) (Figure 3). Furthermore, our study reported that midfielders spent more time above 80% HR (4.39  1.5 min) max when compared to the defenders (3.54  1.4 min) and forwards (4.10  2.1 min). These results are in line with the findings reported by Harry and Booysen [4], who suggested that players who had a quicker heart rate recovery time had an enhanced ability to cope with the intensity of competitive match-play and could maintain the capacity to run at higher speeds. Forwards were likely to spend the least amount of time on feet during each rotation, had an overall lower mean percentage of HR , and could run at a higher max intensity. These results suggest that reducing the time midfielders spend in each rotation may, in turn, increase their overall levels of intensity during match-play. Given the above, −1 Figure 2. The average relative high-speed distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational pe- riod during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. Irrespective of positions. elite female field hockey players complete on average eight rotations during competitive match-play. During these individual rotations, players are likely to spend a mean time of 7 ± 1 min on their feet. Within these 7 min, players are likely −1 to cover an average relative total distance of 124.9 ± 10.7 m·min with a relative high-speed −1 distance of 20.7 ± 5.8 m·min . When each rotation was considered, a significant main effect was observed for relative total distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.04; medium), relative high-speed 2 2 distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.03; medium), and the number of sprints (p ≤ 0.04; ր = 0.01; small). A significant decrease was reported for relative total distance for R1 and R2 when com- pared to other rotations completed by players during match-play (Figure 1). Similar to Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 10 of 12 coaches need to develop specific rotational strategies to get the most out of each individual across all the positional lines of play. By implementing such strategies, coaches can aim to −1 Figure 1. The average relative total distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational period reduce the accumulated fatigue that occurs due to the longer duration bouts, and in turn, during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) minimalize the effect on each individual’s running performance [21,22]. and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. −1 Figure 2. The average relative high-speed distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational pe- Figure 2. The average relative high-speed distance mmin of elite female field hockey players across each rotational riod during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield period during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each (b) and forwards, while 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15 other. Irrespective of positions. elite female field hockey players complete on average eight rotations during competitive match-play. During these individual rotations, players are likely to spend a mean time of 7 ± 1 min on their feet. Within these 7 min, players are likely −1 to cover an average relative total distance of 124.9 ± 10.7 m·min with a relative high-speed −1 distance of 20.7 ± 5.8 m·min . When each rotation was considered, a significant main effect was observed for relative total distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.04; medium), relative high-speed 2 2 distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.03; medium), and the number of sprints (p ≤ 0.04; ր = 0.01; small). A significant decrease was reported for relative total distance for R1 and R2 when com- pared to other rotations completed by players during match-play (Figure 1). Similar to Figure Figure 3. 3. The The average average time spent > 80% H time spent > 80% HR Rmax (min) (min) of e of elite lite female fie female field lhockey d hockey pl players ayers across ea across each ch rotational period rotational period max during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards. and forwards. The The diffe differences rences obse observed rved in in the physical the physical and and phy physiological siologica perfo l perfor rmance mance pro profiles file of s of elite female hockey players across rotations highlight the potential benefits to coaching elite female hockey players across rotations highlight the potential benefits to coaching staff of knowing these demands of play. Through understanding these rotational de- staff of knowing these demands of play. Through understanding these rotational demands, mands, coaches can better implement rotational and position-specific training drills. In- deed, coaches can manipulate specific drill variables to best target specific physical, tech- nical, tactical, and physiological outcomes that may best replicate competition demand. The results of the investigation need to be interpreted within the context of several limi- tations. Firstly, although the study included twenty games, the investigation was com- pleted on one elite hockey team, as such, this should be viewed as an applied case study of field hockey rotational demands for the team in question. We, therefore, recommend that practitioners utilise the methodology of the current study to create their team’s rota- tional normative data. Secondly, as we failed to appreciate or understand the analysed team’s tactical approach to each game, alongside the standard of opposition faced, these findings could be considered as contextual factors that may impact running performance. We recommend that future research is also focused on understanding how a team’s tacti- cal approach and opposition impact the running performance of players during each ro- tation of play. Finally, given that each players’ biological profiles differ in both stature and physical capacity, it is important for authors to acknowledge the application of non-indi- vidualised speed thresholds within our analysis. As such, the authors advocate the devel- opment of individualised player-specific running thresholds for elite female hockey [23]. Finally, future research should consider the current advancements in the understanding of team sport activity profiles and the known importance of accelerations and decelera- tions [24]. Understanding of the acceleration and deceleration demands within elite fe- male hockey is limited, alongside an appreciation of the metabolic power profile of com- petitive match-play. This added information would aid in determining our comprehen- sion of the energetic cost associated with competitive match-play. 5. Conclusions The current study is the first to report the physical and physiological rotational de- mands of elite female field hockey players with respect to positional lines of play. The mean rotation duration equated to 7 ± 0.8 min. During this time, players covered an aver- −1 age distance of 868 ± 132 m reflective of 124.9 ± 10.7 m·min of which 140 ± 39 m or 20.1 ± Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 11 of 12 coaches can better implement rotational and position-specific training drills. Indeed, coaches can manipulate specific drill variables to best target specific physical, technical, tactical, and physiological outcomes that may best replicate competition demand. The results of the investigation need to be interpreted within the context of several limitations. Firstly, although the study included twenty games, the investigation was completed on one elite hockey team, as such, this should be viewed as an applied case study of field hockey rotational demands for the team in question. We, therefore, recommend that practitioners utilise the methodology of the current study to create their team’s rotational normative data. Secondly, as we failed to appreciate or understand the analysed team’s tactical approach to each game, alongside the standard of opposition faced, these findings could be considered as contextual factors that may impact running performance. We recommend that future research is also focused on understanding how a team’s tactical approach and opposition impact the running performance of players during each rotation of play. Finally, given that each players’ biological profiles differ in both stature and physical capacity, it is important for authors to acknowledge the application of non-individualised speed thresholds within our analysis. As such, the authors advocate the development of individualised player- specific running thresholds for elite female hockey [23]. Finally, future research should consider the current advancements in the understanding of team sport activity profiles and the known importance of accelerations and decelerations [24]. Understanding of the acceleration and deceleration demands within elite female hockey is limited, alongside an appreciation of the metabolic power profile of competitive match-play. This added information would aid in determining our comprehension of the energetic cost associated with competitive match-play. 5. Conclusions The current study is the first to report the physical and physiological rotational de- mands of elite female field hockey players with respect to positional lines of play. The mean rotation duration equated to 7  0.8 min. During this time, players covered an average distance of 868  132 m reflective of 124.9  10.7 mmin of which 140  39 m or 20.1  4.5 mmin was completed at high speed. Relative distance and relative high-speed distance decrease significantly across competitive match-play. Defenders were reported to 1 1 cover the least amount of relative total (115.9 mmin ) and high-speed (14.9 mmin ) dis- tance during each rotation. Forwards were reported to cover the most high-speed running (160  37 m) when compared to the midfield (153  30 m) and defenders (117  34 m). Although respective high-speed distances were similar, relative distances were significantly higher. We observed reductions in match-play running across rotations with respect to relative distance, with this being highest between R4 and R5. These rotations were typically observed to occur before and after half time. Practitioners should be aware of this observed drop off in running performance either side of half time and may consider implementing specific performance, nutritional or re-warm up strategies to try and limit the decrease in performance [25,26]. Author Contributions: A.M., D.K. & K.C. designed the study. Data collection was completed by A.M. and D.K. Data analysis was completed by A.M. Interpretation and manuscript preparation was conducted by A.M., A.G. and K.C. and supported by all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received not external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Technological University Dublin (Approval number; REC-PGR26-201819, Date approved; 25 July 2018). Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained for this research. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding this study. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 12 of 12 References 1. Gabbett, T. GPS Analysis of Elite Women’s Field Hockey Training and Competition. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2010, 24, 1321–1324. 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Investigating the Effect of Individual Rotations on the Physical and Physiological Performance in Elite Female Field Hockey Players

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applied sciences Article Investigating the Effect of Individual Rotations on the Physical and Physiological Performance in Elite Female Field Hockey Players 1 , 2 3 1 Aideen McGuinness *, Darren Kenna , Adam Grainger and Kieran Collins Tallaght Campus, Technological University of Dublin, Tallaght, D24 FKT9 Dublin, Ireland; Kieran.Collins@tudublin.ie Irish Strength Institute, Malahide Rd, Artane, D05 W6P2 Dublin, Ireland; darren@ueperformancetherapy.com Hockey Ireland, Richview Newstead Block C, Stillorgan Rd, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland; Adam.Grainger@hockey.ie * Correspondence: mcguinnessaideen@gmail.com; Tel.: +353-83-181-9630 Abstract: To quantify the rotational demands of elite female field hockey with respect to position. Twenty-eight (n = 28) elite international field hockey players were recruited during the 2018–2020 seasons. Players were monitored with GPS technology and heart-rate monitors. Methods: Activity was categorised into total distance (m), relative total distance (mmin ), high-speed distance (m; 1 1 1 16 kmh ), relative high-speed distance (mmin ), max velocity (kmh ), and percentage maximal velocity (%Vmax). Physiological demands were assessed via heart rate measures (bpm and % HR ) max and time > 80% heart rate maximum. Results: A single rotation equated to 7  0.8 min. Players covered a mean total distance of was 868  132 m (125.7  5.9 mmin ) with 140  39 m at high- speed (21.7  3.6 mmin ). A significant difference was reported for relative total (p  0.001), and high-speed (p  0.001), distance across positional. Forwards were reported to cover the most relative total and high-speed distance (d = 1.0) when compared to defenders and midfielders. Conclusion: Citation: McGuinness, A.; Kenna, D.; The study provides normative data for rotational demands of elite female field hockey. Coaches Grainger, A.; Collins, K. Investigating should consider these demands when developing training drills to better optimise the positional the Effect of Individual Rotations on physical and physiological demands of competitive match-play. the Physical and Physiological Performance in Elite Female Field Keywords: team sport; GPS; intermittent exercise; running performance; high intensity work-rate Hockey Players. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/ app11031022 1. Introduction Received: 21 December 2020 Accepted: 17 January 2021 Field hockey can be best described as a stick and ball field-based sport comprised of Published: 23 January 2021 both technical and tactical components that are completed at moderate to high speeds [1–3]. In recent years, field hockey has undergone vast technical and structural changes. One Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral of these significant changes occurred in 2016 when the structure of the game went from with regard to jurisdictional claims in two halves to four quarters. Match-play now consists of four 15 min quarters (Q’s) with a published maps and institutional affil- 2 min break separating quarters 1 and 2 and quarters 3 and 4 with half-time consisting of iations. a 10 min break separating quarters 2 and 3. However, in 1992, the International hockey federation (FIH) introduced the “rolling substitutions” rule whereby substitutions could take place at any time during the game. These are known as “rotations” by coaching and performance staff. A total of eighteen players are eligible to play during match-play: two Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. keepers and 16 outfield players. During match-play, 11 players may be on the pitch at Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. one time with a total of five additional players available to roll-on and roll-off at any time. This article is an open access article Anecdotally, players will perform 6–8 rotations during a game with the timing of these distributed under the terms and rotations pre-determined based on the tactical decisions of the Head Coach. conditions of the Creative Commons Research focused on elite female hockey match-play has increased substantially, with Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// these studies reporting that typically players cover on average 4847  58-m (127.6 creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 1 1 1 15.3 mmin ) with 580  147-m (15.3  3.9 mmin ) performed above 16 kmh [3–8]. 4.0/). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11031022 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 2 of 12 McMahon and Kennedy [7] were the first to report the changes in player ’s activity profiles following structural changes to competitive match-play—a significant increase in relative 1 1 total (7.5 mmin , d = 0.6) and high-speed distance (0.6 mmin , d = 0.3). Furthermore, a substantial decrease in low-speed relative distance (2.2 mmin , d = 0.4) during match- play was noted in conjunction with these rule changes. In recent years, McGuinness et al. (2018) observed changes in the running performance of elite female hockey players across the four quarters of match-play. Within this literature, defenders (5181  607 m) were shown to cover the most total distance, meanwhile it was reported that midfielders cover the most distance at moderate intensity (1313  173 m). However, no differences were reported for relative distance across quarters of play. Significant differences were observed for relative high-speed distance across quarters with a significant drop from quarter 1 to quarter 2 and further reductions between quarter 2 and quarter 4. When positions were considered, forwards were observed to cover the most relative distance at 1 1 high-speed (18.2  7.9 mmin ) when compared to the defenders (13.8  4.8 mmin ) and midfielders (14.8  6.2 mmin ). Due to greater interest in match demands and their influence upon match outcome, practitioners have begun to monitor duration specific moments within competitive match- play, such as rolling average and rotational running performance demands [5,6,9–12]. Previously, McGuinness et al. [6] quantified the peak running intensity of elite female field hockey players during match-play. Irrespective of position, players were reported to cover an average peak relative distance of 159–201 mmin . Forwards were observed to have the highest peak 1 min rolling average (200  11 mmin ) when compared to the defenders 1 1 (188  16 mmin ) and midfielders (195  15 mmin ). Following on from these findings, Linke and Lames [11] quantified the running performance of substitutes within elite male field hockey. During each rotation, players would cover an average relative distance of 1 1 139 mmin , with the mean distance covered during rotation 1 (157 mmin ) and rotation 2 (143 mmin ) decreasing significantly (p  0.05). As per current international rules, five players are available to be substituted during match-play, with coaches using these roll on and roll off interchanges as a method to maintain higher work-rates across all periods, understanding the demands of these interchanges would appear important from a performance and training replication perspective. Due to the roll-on roll-off nature of these interchanges, coaching staff have begun to focus on the performance requirements of these rotations to best replicate and exceed these demands within training situations when appropriate. However, currently, there is a limited number of research studies that have focused on the rotational demands of elite female field hockey [5,11]. Therefore, an examination of the physical and physiological demands during each player rotation in elite female field hockey is warranted to aid coaching practice with respect to training drill creation and construction. By understanding these physical and physiological demands it will enable practitioners to create training segments that better replicate the position-specific demands of competitive match-play, allowing the coaching staff to construct duration specific small-sided games that in turn replicate the rotational demands of match-play. Given the above, the aim of the current study was to quantify the physical and physiological performance demands of elite female field hockey players with respect to rotations. Secondly, we aimed to understand these demands across the positional lines of play. It was hypothesised that forwards would have a higher relative total distance; midfielders would cover the greatest distance above 16 kmh while the defenders would spend the most amount of time > 80% heart rare maxxx (HR ). max 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Experimental Approach to the Problem The current study was observational in nature and designed to quantify the physical and physiological rotational demands of elite female hockey players using GPS technology (10-Hz, STATSports Apex Unit, STATSports Group Limited, Sonra 2.1.15, Newry, Northern Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 3 of 12 Ireland, UK) and heart rate monitors (Polar T-31, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). Twenty-eight (n = 28) elite international female hockey players were observed during twenty-seven competitive matches (n = 27). All competitive matches that occurred during the 2018–2020 seasons were included in the data set. Overall, there were three hundred and nighty five (n = 395) observations included in the data set. On average, players appeared in thirteen (13  8) of the twenty-seven games. Of the 27 games, 12 games were official FIH tournaments including the FIH Series Finals (5), Europeans (5) and the Olympic qualifiers (2). The rest of the games that were included in the data set were friendlies against other senior national teams that were ranked within the top 16. In order for a friendly game to be included in the data set the following criteria must be met: (1) The game must follow the official FIH format of 4 Qs and breaks in play (2); The teams may only have 18 players on the bench—16 outfield and 2 goalkeepers; (3) The umpires must be either internationally or national recognised. All participants were categorised by the head coach into three positional lines of play: defenders (n = 8), midfielders (n = 9), and forwards (n = 11), respectively. If a player was to play in a position that they were not previously categorised into by the head coach, this data set was removed from the cohort of data. In order to gain a better understanding of the average rotational demands, rotational data were only included in the current study if the player spent more than 90% of the team’s minimum rotation duration on the field (~3:40 min). Prior to match-day, players were advised to abstain from any strenuous activity and were advised to maintain their normal pre-match routine and diet with special emphasis being placed on the intake of fluids and carbohydrates. 2.2. Participants Twenty-eight (n = 28) elite international field hockey outfield players (26  3 years; 162.7  12 cm; 67.3  5.4 kg) were recruited to participate in the study. At the time of the current study, the team in question was ranked 8th in the FIH world rankings and players were part of the country’s Tokyo 2020 Olympic training panel (9  4 years at International level) and were therefore deemed the best players in the country during the observational period. Once ethical approval was granted, participants were informed of the benefits and procedures of the current study. Written informed consent and medical declaration were obtained from participants in line with the procedures set by the research ethics committee of the Technological University of Dublin (REC-PGR26-201819). 2.3. Experimental Procedures During all competitive match-play situations, participants wore an individual GPS unit (10-Hz, STATSports Apex Unit, STATSports Group Limited, Newry, Northern Ireland, UK) to understand participants running performance across each rotation of play. The physiological performance was assessed through each participant wearing a HR monitor during match-play (Polar T-31, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). Fifteen minutes prior to match-play each unit was switched on to allow the unit to establish a satellite connection. Each participant wore their own individual GPS unit within the confines of a vest between the shoulder blades. Prior to match-play, players’ individual rotations were pre-determined by a member of the management team. It was each individual player ’s responsibility to ensure they rotated with the correct players marked on the sheet at the correct time. There was also a member of staff allocated to monitor the bench during competition to make sure players stayed on top of their rotation times. Once a player had finished their rotation, they were asked to take their water bottle and walk straight to the end line and back to the bench where they were asked to sit until it was time for their next rotation. If for any reason a player was unable to rotate with another player, the sports scientist would take note of this on the rational timings sheet. Given the use of rolling substitutes, the time each participant spent in match-play was noted by the sports scientist with the use of a customised IOS app (Coaches Clock, Version 1.3.2, USA). Upon the completion of match-play, the data were downloaded using proprietary software (Apex SONRA, STATSports, Newry, Northern Ireland, UK), with all data for respective rotations Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 4 of 12 completed analysed retrospectively and applied to each individual play. All data were than exported to a bespoke database (Microsoft Excel (V15); Microsoft, Redmond, USA). Each individual rotation was than retrospectivity cut using the pre-determined rotational timing sheet. The sports scientist was responsible to match up the rotational times with the movement graph on the proprietary software. If at any stage, the sports scientist was unable to determine where a rotation was made, they were encouraged to use the video footage from the match. All data were then exported to a bespoke database (Microsoft Excel(V15); Microsoft, Redmond, USA). Participants’ speed thresholds were classified based on previous zones used in elite female field hockey literature [13]. Variables of interest included time on feet (min), total 1 1 distance (m), relative total distance (mmin ), high-speed distance (m  16 kmh ), 1 1 relative high-speed distance (mmin ), sprint distance (m  20 kmh ), relative sprint 1 1 1 distance (mmin ), no. of sprints (n; >20 kmh ), maximal speed (kmh ), percentage 2 2 maximal speed (% Vmax), accelerations (n; 4 ms ) and decelerations (n; 4 ms ). Physiological demands were also assessed during match-play with variables of interest including HR (bpm), HR (%), time  80% HR (min: ss). Prior to the observational max max max period, players completed the Yo-YoIR1 to determine each participant’s HR . The highest max heart rate obtained by the participant during this test was deemed to be the player HR . max However, if a participant obtained a higher HR throughout the course of testing, this max figure would then be replaced and all data prior to this reading were then re-analysed (n = 2). If at any stage an athlete’s heart rate data did not record, that specific rotation was omitted for analysis. 2.4. Statistical Analysis Data are presented as a mean  standard deviation (SD) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) and partial Eta-squared ( ) unless stated otherwise. Multiple two-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to determine the potential differences in locomotor activity and physiological variables across positional groups (n = 3) and for each rotation. Significance was set at p  0.05. When significant main effects were observed, Games– Howell post-hoc test was applied. Partial Eta-squared standardised effect sizes (ES) were defined as  0.01, small; >0.01–0.06, medium; >0.06–0.14, large [14]. Cohens d standardised ES were defined as  0.2, small; >0.2–0.5, medium; >0.5–0.8, large, 0.8, very large [15]. Where an effect size Cohen’s d of > 0.5 (medium) was observed, it was flagged as a potential difference. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows (Version 22, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). 3. Results 3.1. Physical Performance Demands across Rotations Selected running variables are presented in Tables 1 and 2. When total distance was observed, no significant interaction was reported between position (F (8, 1766) = 0.08; 2 2 p = 0.9;  = 0.001; small) and rotation (F = (8, 1766) = 0.5; p = 0.8;  = 0.002; small). A significant interaction between position (F (2, 541) = 9.8; p  0.001,  = 0.05, small) and high-speed distance (m). However, when each rotation was considered, no interaction was reported (F (8, 1766) = 2; p = 0.7;  = 0.008; small). When positions were considered, a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to cover significantly less high-speed distance (108  56) when compared to the midfield (149  65; d = 0.7; large) and forwards (157  73; d = 0.8; large). Forwards were also reported to cover significantly more high-speed distance then the midfield (149  65; d = 1.1; large). There was significant interaction between position (F (2, 1766) = 15; p  0.001;  = 0.02; small) and sprint distance (m); however, when each rotation was considered, no interaction was reported (F (8, 1766) = 0.9; p = 0.5;  = 0.004; small). When positions were considered, a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to cover significantly less sprint distance (27  8) when compared to the midfield (30  10; d = 0.3; medium) and forwards (34  9; d = 0.8; large). The was significant interaction between position (F (2, 1766) = 11; Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 5 of 12 2 1 p  0.001;  = 0.01; small) and maximal speed (kmh ); however, when each rotation was considered, no interaction was reported (F (8, 1766) = 1.0; p = 0.5;  = 0.004; small). Defenders (22.9  0.5) were likely to achieve a lower maximal speed (kmh ) when compared to the forwards (23.2  0.7; d = 0.5; medium) and midfielders (23.0  0.8; d = 0.2; medium). A significant interaction was observed across position (F (2, 1766) = 0.5; p = 0.04; 2 2 = 0.004; small) and rotation (F (8, 1766) = 0.8; p = 0.7;  = 0.007; small) for maximal speed (%). Defenders (77  2) were likely to achieve a lower maximal speed (%) when compared to the forwards (79  2; d = 1.0; medium) and midfielders (79  2; d = 1.0; medium). 3.2. Physiological Performance Demands across Rotations Selected physiological demands are presented in Tables 1 and 2. When HR (bpm) max was observed, a significant interaction was reported between position (F (2, 1766) = 31.0, p  0.001;  = 0.03; small); however, no significant interaction was observed across ro- tations (F (8, 1766) = 1.8; p = 0.07;  = 0.08; small). When positions were considered, a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to have a lower HR max (bpm) (183  3) when compared to the midfield (188  3; d = 1.7; very large) and forwards (190  3; d = 2.3; very large). Forwards were also reported to achieve a higher heart rate when compared to midfield (149  65, d = 0.6; medium). When % HR was observed, a max significant interaction was reported between position (F (2, 1766) = 12.8; p  0.001;  = 0.01; small). However, no significant interaction was observed across rotations (F (8, 1766) = 0.07; p = 0.7;  = 0.003; small). When positions were considered a significant main effect was observed. Defenders were reported to achieve a lower HR (%) (86  2) when compared max to the forwards (89  3; d = 1.2; large) and midfield (89  3; d = 1.2; large). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 6 of 12 Table 1. The physical and physiological demands of elite international female field hockey across rotations, as determined by GPS technology during match-play. All data are presented as mean  SD. No. Time > Total Total High- No. of No. of Peak Max Duration Sprint Sprints Peak HR HR 80% max Distance Distance Speed Accelera- Decelera- Speed Speed (min) Distance > 20 (bpm) (%) HR max (m) (mmin) Distance tions tions (kmh) (%) kmh (min:ss) Avg. Rotation 7:00  0:50 868  132 124.9  10.7 140  39 31  13 5  2 7  2 23.0  0.9 76  1 2  1 187  8 86  4 4:20  1:30 Avg. Defender 7:30  3:15 881  138 119.8  11.0 117  34 26  11 5  2 7  2 22.8  0.8 74  3 2  1 189  6 84  4 4:18  1:20 Avg. Midfield 7:20  1:15 884  117 123.6  7.6 153  30 33  12 5  1 8  2 23.3  0.9 78  4 2  1 188  6 90  6 4:20  1:30 Avg. Forward 6:30  2:30 836  132 131.1  11 160  37 36  15 6  2 7  2 23.3  0.9 73  3 3  1 184  10 86  5 4:10  2:10 Team R1 6:30  2:30 866  141 126.7  9.5 145  45 31  11 6  2 * 8  1 * 23.1  0.4 78  2 * 2  1 188  8 89  5 * 4:18  1:30 Avg. Team R2 7:00  2:30 855  99 126.4  11.9 136  34 28  9 5  2 7  2 23.0  0.3 78  2 * 2  1 189  7 89  5 * 4:34  1:30 Avg. Team R3 7:00  2:30 837  109 124.2  10.7 132  42 28  14 5  2 7  2 22.8  1.6 78  3 * 2  1 189  7 89  5 * 4:21  1:20 Avg. Team R4 7:30  2:55 874  106 119.8  106 29  11 5  2 7  2 23.0  0.4 78  3 * 2  1 188  8 89  5 4: 23  2:00 131  31 Avg. Team R5 7:30  2:55 872  121 120.7  11.6 129  40 27  11 5  1 7  2 22.6  0.6 77  3 2  1 187  7 88  5 * 4:21  1:30 Avg. Team 1,2 R6 8:00  3:00 891  131 118.8  8.9 131  41 31  13 5  2 7  2 23.0  1.2 78  3 * 2  1 188  8 89  5 * 4:39  2:10 Avg. Team R7 7:30  3:20 840  209 120.7  9.4 32  19 6  2 * 7  2 23.0  0.8 78  3 * 2  1 188  11 88  7 4:32  2:10 135  45 Avg. Team R8 7:20  2:55 864  61 118.8  61 134  36 31  17 5  2 7  3 22.9  0.7 78  4 * 2  1 188  7 89  5 * 4:26  1:20 Avg. 1, 2, 3, etc. signifies the positional variation between rotations. * represents the significant difference across each rotation when compared to the average rotation output. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 7 of 12 Table 2. The physical and physiological demands of elite international female field hockey during each rotation across the positional lines of play, as determined by GPS technology during match-play. All data are presented as mean  SD. No. Duration Total High-Speed Sprint No. of Ac- No. of De- Peak Speed Max Speed Peak HR Time > 80% Sprints HR (%) max (min:ss) Distance (m) Distance Distance celerations celerations (kmh) (%) (bpm) HR (min:ss) max >20 kmh b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 7:00  2:35 866  108 118  44 23  8 5  1 7  2 22.5  0.3 77  2 2  1 191  4 89  3 4:20  1:26 Mid 7:00  2:30 832  156 156  37 33  8 6  1 8  2 23.5  0.5 79  2 3  1 186  6 89  6 4:13  2:10 R1 b a,b Fwd 7:00  2:30 910  205 182  44 7  2 8  2 23.5  0.7 79  2 3  1 186  12 4:26  2:25 44  15 86  5 b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 7:15  2:10 828  102 110  25 23  8 5  2 7  1 22.7  0.6 78  2 2  1 192  5 90  4 4:33  1:20 a,c Mid 7:15  2:10 900  41 155  22 32  67 6  1 8  2 23.3  0.4 79  3 2  1 188  7 90  6 4:05  1:25 R2 b a,b a,b Fwd 7:00  2:20 835  116 154  37 32  9 5  2 8  2 23.0  0.6 188  11 4:21  2:15 77  2 3  1 87  5 b b,c b,c b,c Def 6:55  2:40 795  76 99  23 21  7 4  1 7  2 22.4  0.6 77  2 2  1 192  5 90  4 4:26  1:15 a,c Mid 7:20  3:00 868  68 150  14 31  16 6  2 8  2 23.0  1.3 78  4 2  1 187  6 90  6 4:22  1:30 R3 a,b Fwd 7:00  0:30 858  195 160  62 34  12 5  2 7  2 23.3  0.8 78  3 2  1 188  10 4:26  2:15 87  5 b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:00  3:15 883  112 105  24 23  8 5  1 7  2 22.8  0.7 78  1 2  1 191  7 89  4 4:39  1:30 Mid 7:10  2:50 858  98 145  27 34  13 5  2 7  2 23.2  0.9 78  5 2  1 186  6 89  6 4:18  2:00 R4 a,b a,b a,b Fwd 7:10  3:00 878  101 156  26 31  11 23.2  0.5 78  3 2  1 187  13 4:31  2:15 6  1 8  1 86  6 b b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 7:30  2:30 841  127 97  39 23  15 4  1 6  3 22.2  1.1 78  3 2  1 189  6 89  4 4:25  1:20 Mid 8:10  2:30 910  112 151  18 29  8 6  1 8  2 23.0  0.5 79  4 2  1 186  5 89  5 4:21  1:20 R5 a,b a,b Fwd 7:10  3:00 864  143 154  36 33  5 5  1 8  2 23.0  0.3 77  1 184  10 4:25  2:15 3  1 85  4 b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:20  3:15 890  175 113  46 26  11 5  1 8  2 22.9  1.1 78  3 2  1 192  7 90  5 5:1 8  2:20 a,c c Mid 8:10  3:30 887  88 146  36 33  18 5  1 7  2 23.4  1.4 79  4 2  1 186  6 89  6 4:22  2:00 R6 b,c a,b Fwd 7:00  2:25 880  103 142  35 34  9 8  1 22.8  1.2 78  3 3  1 186  10 4:28  2:15 6  1 86  4 b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:25  4:00 925  147 115  20 28  12 5  2 7  2 22.5  1.2 79  3 2  1 193  7 90  5 5:21  2:00 Mid 7:25  3:10 856  157 151  37 34  22 6  2 7  3 23.2  1.1 80  4 3  1 186  14 89  9 4:18  2:10 R7 a,b Fwd 6:25  3:15 808  100 147  69 35  24 6  1 7  1 23.3  1.3 76  4 3  1 184  10 4:15  2:10 85  5 b,c b,c b,c b,c b,c Def 8:00  1:00 870  218 111  27 24  19 5  2 7  3 22.9  0.4 77  4 2  1 193  4 91  3 4:38  1:00 Mid 7:10  3:25 732  269 129  31 32  13 5  2 6  4 22.9  0.4 80  4 2  1 187  5 90  6 4:18  1:30 R8 b b,c a,b a,b Fwd 7:30  3:10 160  19 38  15 8  2 22.9  0.4 78  3 184  11 4:29  2:15 8698  105 6  3 3  1 85  5 a, b, c signifies the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards. * represents the significant difference across each rotation when compared to the average rotation output. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 8 of 12 4. Discussion The primary aim of the current observational study was to quantify each rotation running performance and heart rate responses in elite female field hockey players. Secondly, we aimed to quantify the demands of individual rotations across the positional lines of play. Research conducted on elite female field hockey rotational demands is limited [5,11]. Therefore, an examination of the physical and physiological demands during each rotation in elite female field hockey is warranted. The main findings of the current study were that irrespective of position small to large effects were observed for relative total distance during each rotation when compared to average match-play outputs for elite female hockey players, with no significant difference reported across relative high-speed and relative sprint distance. Furthermore, while no difference was reported across the rotations, a significant main effect was seen across the positional lines of play for multiple GPS variables. Finally, it was observed that HR (%) was significantly different for players max across the rotational phases of play. The data reported within the current study show that regardless of position elite fe- male field hockey players cover a total distance of 868  132 m (124.9  10.7 mmin ) with 140  39 m (20.1  4.5 mmin ) covered at high-speed across each rotation. When posi- tional lines of play were considered a significant small to moderate difference for relative values of total distance, high-speed distance and sprint distance were observed. Specifically, defenders were reported to have the lowest relative total distance (119.8  11.0 mmin ) 1 1 when compared to midfield (123.6  7.6 mmin ) and the forwards (131.1  11 mmin ), with these differences small to very large depending on specific positional comparisons (Figure 1). Furthermore, when high-speed running was considered, very large differences were reported across positions with forwards (23.5  1.2 mmin ) shown to cover in- creased high-speed running when compared to midfielders (21.8  1.4 mmin ) and defenders (14.9  1.2 mmin ), respectively (Figure 2). These findings represent a con- tinuation of trends recently reported by McGuinness et al. [3] with respect to quarters of competitive match-play and agree with this literature. It was suggested that during the quarters of competitive match-play elite female field hockey players would cover an average relative distance of 126  15.3 mmin . Although these results were similar to that recently reported for the average quarter demands, it is important to note that all rotations have been pooled together to give an average rotational demand. Prior to match-play, coaching staff will determine their tactical approach to the opposition. Once this has been agreed, they will often implement specific match strategies such as key playing personnel being on the pitch longer than others. Coaching staff should aim to establish the average rotational demands for each individual during match-play. By knowing these individual averages, practitioners can modify duration and player numbers within small-sided games to best replicate and exceed the positional and individuals match-play demands [16]. Irrespective of positions. elite female field hockey players complete on average eight rotations during competitive match-play. During these individual rotations, players are likely to spend a mean time of 7  1 min on their feet. Within these 7 min, players are likely to cover an average relative total distance of 124.9  10.7 mmin with a relative high-speed distance of 20.7  5.8 mmin . When each rotation was considered, a significant main effect was observed for relative total distance (p  0.001;  = 0.04; medium), relative high-speed distance (p  0.001;  = 0.03; medium), and the number of sprints (p  0.04;  = 0.01; small). A significant decrease was reported for relative total distance for R1 and R2 when compared to other rotations completed by players during match-play (Figure 1). Similar to relative total distance, when relative high-speed distance was quantified, a significant decrease was reported when R1 was compared to other rotations during match-play (Figure 2). Our findings are similar to data previously reported in other team sports [17,18]. Previously, Black and colleagues [18] reported that rotation duration influenced the physical activity profile of female Australian football players within the subsequent quarter of play, specifically short (4–6 min) and moderate (7–12 min) duration rotations were shown to generate the highest activity profile during Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 9 of 12 match-play. During each rotation, forwards maintained the highest relative output when compared to the defenders and midfielders. It is possible that prior knowledge of the team’s rotations strategy may be associated with these higher relative outputs. Indeed, forwards typically are required to perform a rotation of 4–9 min, depending on the tactical requirements of the coaching staff, while defenders and midfield players usually complete longer duration rotations (5–11 min) during match-play. Schimpchen et al. [19] recently reported that football player ’s physical output can be more critically impacted by periods of peak high-velocity running. Our results have shown that after R2 no further reduction in locomotor parameters between rotations was reported. It is apparent that after R2 regardless of position, players relative locomotor activity plateaus. Due to their nomadic nature and the speed of the game, it is likely that an element of fatigue or differential positional pacing strategies may be apparent in particular positional lines of play within elite female field hockey [19,20]. Given the extent of the reduction in physical performance across the rotations, it is suggested that, during training, coaching staff implement these Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15 typical work periods within conditioning drills to replicate and exceed match demands when required. Figure 1. The average relative total distance mmin of elite female field hockey players across each rotational period −1 Figure 1. The average relative total distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational period during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards, while 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. Time on feet resulted in players achieving a higher percentage of HR and time max above 80% HR during competitive match-play. Players attained a mean HR of max max 187  8 bpm equating to 86  4% of HR . Regardless of positional group, players were max reported to spend 4.29  1.4 min of the 7.0  0.8 min above 80% HR . Midfielders max (90  6%) were reported to reach a higher percentage mean HR during each rotation max when compared to the defenders (90  6%) and forwards (86  4%) (Figure 3). Furthermore, our study reported that midfielders spent more time above 80% HR (4.39  1.5 min) max when compared to the defenders (3.54  1.4 min) and forwards (4.10  2.1 min). These results are in line with the findings reported by Harry and Booysen [4], who suggested that players who had a quicker heart rate recovery time had an enhanced ability to cope with the intensity of competitive match-play and could maintain the capacity to run at higher speeds. Forwards were likely to spend the least amount of time on feet during each rotation, had an overall lower mean percentage of HR , and could run at a higher max intensity. These results suggest that reducing the time midfielders spend in each rotation may, in turn, increase their overall levels of intensity during match-play. Given the above, −1 Figure 2. The average relative high-speed distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational pe- riod during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. Irrespective of positions. elite female field hockey players complete on average eight rotations during competitive match-play. During these individual rotations, players are likely to spend a mean time of 7 ± 1 min on their feet. Within these 7 min, players are likely −1 to cover an average relative total distance of 124.9 ± 10.7 m·min with a relative high-speed −1 distance of 20.7 ± 5.8 m·min . When each rotation was considered, a significant main effect was observed for relative total distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.04; medium), relative high-speed 2 2 distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.03; medium), and the number of sprints (p ≤ 0.04; ր = 0.01; small). A significant decrease was reported for relative total distance for R1 and R2 when com- pared to other rotations completed by players during match-play (Figure 1). Similar to Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 10 of 12 coaches need to develop specific rotational strategies to get the most out of each individual across all the positional lines of play. By implementing such strategies, coaches can aim to −1 Figure 1. The average relative total distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational period reduce the accumulated fatigue that occurs due to the longer duration bouts, and in turn, during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) minimalize the effect on each individual’s running performance [21,22]. and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. −1 Figure 2. The average relative high-speed distance m·min of elite female field hockey players across each rotational pe- Figure 2. The average relative high-speed distance mmin of elite female field hockey players across each rotational riod during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield period during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards, while 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each (b) and forwards, while 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 represent the significant difference across each rotation when compared to each other. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15 other. Irrespective of positions. elite female field hockey players complete on average eight rotations during competitive match-play. During these individual rotations, players are likely to spend a mean time of 7 ± 1 min on their feet. Within these 7 min, players are likely −1 to cover an average relative total distance of 124.9 ± 10.7 m·min with a relative high-speed −1 distance of 20.7 ± 5.8 m·min . When each rotation was considered, a significant main effect was observed for relative total distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.04; medium), relative high-speed 2 2 distance (p ≤ 0.001; ր = 0.03; medium), and the number of sprints (p ≤ 0.04; ր = 0.01; small). A significant decrease was reported for relative total distance for R1 and R2 when com- pared to other rotations completed by players during match-play (Figure 1). Similar to Figure Figure 3. 3. The The average average time spent > 80% H time spent > 80% HR Rmax (min) (min) of e of elite lite female fie female field lhockey d hockey pl players ayers across ea across each ch rotational period rotational period max during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) during competitive match-play. The letters a, b, c signify the positional variation between the defenders (a), midfield (b) and forwards. and forwards. The The diffe differences rences obse observed rved in in the physical the physical and and phy physiological siologica perfo l perfor rmance mance pro profiles file of s of elite female hockey players across rotations highlight the potential benefits to coaching elite female hockey players across rotations highlight the potential benefits to coaching staff of knowing these demands of play. Through understanding these rotational de- staff of knowing these demands of play. Through understanding these rotational demands, mands, coaches can better implement rotational and position-specific training drills. In- deed, coaches can manipulate specific drill variables to best target specific physical, tech- nical, tactical, and physiological outcomes that may best replicate competition demand. The results of the investigation need to be interpreted within the context of several limi- tations. Firstly, although the study included twenty games, the investigation was com- pleted on one elite hockey team, as such, this should be viewed as an applied case study of field hockey rotational demands for the team in question. We, therefore, recommend that practitioners utilise the methodology of the current study to create their team’s rota- tional normative data. Secondly, as we failed to appreciate or understand the analysed team’s tactical approach to each game, alongside the standard of opposition faced, these findings could be considered as contextual factors that may impact running performance. We recommend that future research is also focused on understanding how a team’s tacti- cal approach and opposition impact the running performance of players during each ro- tation of play. Finally, given that each players’ biological profiles differ in both stature and physical capacity, it is important for authors to acknowledge the application of non-indi- vidualised speed thresholds within our analysis. As such, the authors advocate the devel- opment of individualised player-specific running thresholds for elite female hockey [23]. Finally, future research should consider the current advancements in the understanding of team sport activity profiles and the known importance of accelerations and decelera- tions [24]. Understanding of the acceleration and deceleration demands within elite fe- male hockey is limited, alongside an appreciation of the metabolic power profile of com- petitive match-play. This added information would aid in determining our comprehen- sion of the energetic cost associated with competitive match-play. 5. Conclusions The current study is the first to report the physical and physiological rotational de- mands of elite female field hockey players with respect to positional lines of play. The mean rotation duration equated to 7 ± 0.8 min. During this time, players covered an aver- −1 age distance of 868 ± 132 m reflective of 124.9 ± 10.7 m·min of which 140 ± 39 m or 20.1 ± Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1022 11 of 12 coaches can better implement rotational and position-specific training drills. Indeed, coaches can manipulate specific drill variables to best target specific physical, technical, tactical, and physiological outcomes that may best replicate competition demand. The results of the investigation need to be interpreted within the context of several limitations. Firstly, although the study included twenty games, the investigation was completed on one elite hockey team, as such, this should be viewed as an applied case study of field hockey rotational demands for the team in question. We, therefore, recommend that practitioners utilise the methodology of the current study to create their team’s rotational normative data. Secondly, as we failed to appreciate or understand the analysed team’s tactical approach to each game, alongside the standard of opposition faced, these findings could be considered as contextual factors that may impact running performance. We recommend that future research is also focused on understanding how a team’s tactical approach and opposition impact the running performance of players during each rotation of play. Finally, given that each players’ biological profiles differ in both stature and physical capacity, it is important for authors to acknowledge the application of non-individualised speed thresholds within our analysis. As such, the authors advocate the development of individualised player- specific running thresholds for elite female hockey [23]. Finally, future research should consider the current advancements in the understanding of team sport activity profiles and the known importance of accelerations and decelerations [24]. Understanding of the acceleration and deceleration demands within elite female hockey is limited, alongside an appreciation of the metabolic power profile of competitive match-play. This added information would aid in determining our comprehension of the energetic cost associated with competitive match-play. 5. Conclusions The current study is the first to report the physical and physiological rotational de- mands of elite female field hockey players with respect to positional lines of play. The mean rotation duration equated to 7  0.8 min. During this time, players covered an average distance of 868  132 m reflective of 124.9  10.7 mmin of which 140  39 m or 20.1  4.5 mmin was completed at high speed. Relative distance and relative high-speed distance decrease significantly across competitive match-play. Defenders were reported to 1 1 cover the least amount of relative total (115.9 mmin ) and high-speed (14.9 mmin ) dis- tance during each rotation. Forwards were reported to cover the most high-speed running (160  37 m) when compared to the midfield (153  30 m) and defenders (117  34 m). Although respective high-speed distances were similar, relative distances were significantly higher. We observed reductions in match-play running across rotations with respect to relative distance, with this being highest between R4 and R5. These rotations were typically observed to occur before and after half time. Practitioners should be aware of this observed drop off in running performance either side of half time and may consider implementing specific performance, nutritional or re-warm up strategies to try and limit the decrease in performance [25,26]. 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Journal

Applied Sciences – Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute

Published: Jan 23, 2021

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