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The Use of Freshwater Sapropel in Agricultural Production: A New Frontier in Kenya

The Use of Freshwater Sapropel in Agricultural Production: A New Frontier in Kenya Hindawi Advances in Agriculture Volume 2020, Article ID 8895667, 7 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8895667 Review Article The Use of Freshwater Sapropel in Agricultural Production: A New Frontier in Kenya 1 2 3 Sylvia I. Murunga , Eliud N. Wafula, and Joseph Sang Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Department of Botany, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Correspondence should be addressed to Sylvia I. Murunga; smurunga@jkuat.ac.ke Received 4 May 2020; Accepted 18 July 2020; Published 31 July 2020 Academic Editor: Othmane Merah Copyright © 2020 Sylvia I. Murunga et al. )is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Opportunities for sustainable agriculture development in Kenya which heavily depends on healthy soil and soil microbial diversity can be found in the promotion of organic farming. )e increasing populations, higher demands for animal and plant products, climate change impacts, and weather conditions necessitate novel ideas and technologies to try reverse the adverse effects of excessive use of inorganic fertilizers and to maximize the potential of the land. Sapropel, a promising biological deposit from freshwater lakes, has found its limelight in its use in agricultural crop production as a soil conditioner and biofertilizer. )is could be an ultimate practice for sustainable food and energy production in Kenya. )is review aims at presenting information in the literature about the potential use of the organic fertilizer based on sapropels in intensified crop production and their main effects on plant growth. It discusses soil fertility, the composition of sapropels, and their application and advantages in agricultural production. It is evident from the review that sapropel can be considered as a resource that is valuable with wide application possibilities in agriculture. Sapropel can present an important contribution to the solution of the conservation of the fertility of the soil for integrated nutrient management systems to maintain agricultural productivity and help in environmental conservation. enhancing agricultural productivity, and market access can 1. Introduction help reduce poverty, particularly in rural areas [5–7]. In Kenya, agriculture is very important in economic growth, A variety of challenges constrains the agricultural sector contributing 33% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and in Kenya. Reduction in agricultural production due to low 27% of the GDP indirectly through multisectoral linkages input use, unsustainable soil, and water practices and the [1, 2]. It also provides jobs to more than 40% of the total decreasing size of average land holdings [4, 8] are on the rise. population, majority of which or 70% are rural dwellers [3]. Sufficient supply of crop nutrients partly influences the ability to improve productivity, although sustainability of Primary production plays an important part in maintaining the country’s food security and contributes to improving agricultural systems is an important global issue [9]. nutrition through the production of safe, diverse, and nu- Common ways of increasing efficiency and obtaining a trient-dense foods, while the industrial and horticultural better quality of product recovery in agricultural activities crop subsectors are key foreign exchange-earners [4]. )e involve fertilizer application [10]. Nonorganic fertilizers sector also promotes nonagricultural economy including mainly contain phosphate, nitrate, ammonium, and potas- manufacturing, providing inputs and markets for nonag- sium salts. Kenya, for instance, has been utilizing fertilizers ricultural operations such as building/construction, trans- heavily for many years to boost her agricultural productivity. portation, tourism, education, and other social services, thus A large amount of agricultural budgets is allocated to 2 Advances in Agriculture subsidize fertilizers in the hope of improving national food plants, and other marine-dwelling organisms involved in the production. )e high level of fertilizer applications is vital to transformation of mineral components influenced by various supply necessary food for the ever-increasing population microorganisms [20,21]. Sapropels have a complex chemical and to meet higher demands for animal and plant products. composition with a broad range of values and depend on the geographical position of the region of occurrence [22]. Due to the organic-rich nature of sapropel, it is commonly used in the 2. Soil Fertility amendments of different soils to increase nitrogen, phos- Crop yield in developing nations, particularly amid re- phorous, humus, and microelements’ content. It is clean and source-poor farmers, has been constrained by soil infertility efficient ecologically friendly natural material used in agri- [11]. Soil contains an intricated ecosystem with high mi- culture as biofertilizer and soil conditioner [20]. Worldwide, crobial diversity, which takes part in the recycling of nu- accumulation, formation, and intensive use of sapropel in trients and promotion of the development of healthy plants agriculture and energy have been reported in temperate re- [12]. It also plays a role in the physical breakdown and gions of Asia and Europe especially in Latvia, Bulgaria, biochemical transformation of complex molecules of dead Ukraine, Russia, Lithuania, Scandinavian Peninsula, Poland, material into simpler organic and inorganic molecules [13]. France, Germany, and Belarus and Canada and the USA from However, the microbiome can be influenced by the culti- the continent of America in the Great Lakes region [23] and vation methods and environmental conditions resulting in most Middle East countries such as Jordan and Saudi Arabia alterations in the soil characteristics [14]. Nutrients are a key [24]. constituent of the ability of the soil to host plants and to As illustrated in Figure 1, sapropel consists of three main generate plant yields. )e soil fertility and availability of components: water about 60–90% [26], mineral substances nutrients to plants are governed by the soil’s parent rock and consisting of microelements manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), its physiochemical and biological properties [15]. It depends boron (B), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), chromium (Cr), silver (Ag), on the climate, vegetation, and the history of land use. barium (Ba), titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), and beryllium Unfavourable soil conditions can result in nutrients in the (Be), among others, and macroelements including nitrogen, soil becoming chemically bound (phosphorus) or physically silica, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminium, potassium, fixed (potassium), making them virtually inaccessible to phosphorus, and sulfur [25, 26]. Presence of these substances plants even though they remain in the soil [9,16]. Overre- in the soil improves the humus content thus preventing liance on chemical fertilizers could lead to severe soil erosion and eventually restoring soil fertility by improving the acidification, nutritional imbalance, deterioration of the soil structure. Additionally, sapropel also contains organic rhizosphere microecological environment, and further in- substances with organic matter ranging from 15 to 90% by crease in the activity of heavy metal ions in soil [17]. Apart weight, organic carbon not less than 40%, and moisture from lowering production, the eroded soils find their way content ranging between 60 and 90% [25, 26]. Sapropel also into the water bodies causing siltation and eutrophication, contains many biologically active substances such as water- hence an environmental hazard. Needed, therefore, are soluble vitamins A (retinol), C (thiamine), C (ascorbic acid measures to maintain soil quality through good farming and dehydroascorbic acid), C (riboflavin), B (niacin), C 2 3 6 principles [9]. )e prospective biological fertilizers would (pyridoxine), C (cyanocobalamin), provitamin for vitamin play a crucial part in sustainability and productivity of the A (β-carotene), and B (folic acid) and fat-soluble vitamins E soil and also in the environmental protection as they are eco- (α-tocopherol), D, and P [23, 25]. )e natural water-soluble friendly and cost-effective inputs to the farmers [18]. Re- amino acids contained in sapropels are histidine, glutamine, garding these threats, researchers are anxious to find in- glycine, valine, arginine, aspartate, alanine, serine, leucine, expensive, environmentally friendly, and practical ways to isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, lysine, methionine, overcome fertilizer toxicity problems [11]. threonine, and cysteine. Natural enzymes include catalase, Sustainable land management and the conservation of soil peroxidase, reductase, protease, urease, and xanthine oxidase, and water can bring the organic matter to the soil, creating a while the humic complex includes humic and fulvic acids means of compensating for continuous humus mineralization [15, 20]. Humic acids are the largest group of organic sub- and present an opportunity for raising the level of humus stances and are dark brown [23]. )ey have adhesive prop- content in the soil [13]. If preference is given to measures that erties and thus associated with minerals in the soil, which improve soil humus content, nutrient, and energy cycle, significantly improves the soil structure and affects the growth agricultural intensification can be achieved [9]. )is, in turn, and development of plants [20, 23, 25, 26]. improves the soil’s nutrient storage capacity and nutrient )e phytohormones such as gibberellic acid, cytokinin, availability to plants [19]. Improving humus content also ethylene, abscisic acid, brassinosteroids, and derivatives of helps to lay the foundation for further fertilization; thus, indole-3-acetic acid found in sapropels affect plant growth increased activity of soil microorganisms that accompanies and development [26]. Sapropel is characterized by a low the build-up of humus is of particular significance [12]. amount of carbohydrate; the organic matter in sapropel contains 6–25% hemicellulose and 1–8% cellulose, and these can be used in the production of fertilizers, relevant in 3. Composition and Characteristics of Sapropel agriculture and horticulture as well as additives in animal Sapropel also known as biodeposit is freshwater organic-rich feed [23]. Sapropel contains high amounts of bitumen which mud sediment formed from the remains of plankton, water is characterized by fatty acids, steroids, paraffin, wax, Advances in Agriculture 3 Sapropel Organic substances Water Mineral substances Organic substances Macroelements (i) Bitumen (i) Silicon (Si) Water-soluble (ii) Easily hydrolysable substances (ii) Calcium (Ca) organic and mineral (such as humic and fulvic acids) (iii) Aluminium (Al) substances (iii) Cellulose, protein (iv) Magnesium (Mg) (iv) Nonhydrolysable substances (v) Potassium (K) (vi) Nitrogen (N) (vii) Phosphorus (P) Living organisms (viii) Sulfur (S) (i) Bacteria (such as nitrogen-fixing, (ix) Ferrum (Fe) nitrifying bacteria, phosphate- solubilizing, methanogenic, and Microelements green nonsulfur bacteria) (i) Manganese (Mn) (ii) Fungi (ii) Copper (Cu) (iii) Actinomycetes (iii) Boron (B) (iv) Yeast (iv) Molybdenum (Mo) (v) Algae (v) Zinc (Zn) (vi) Chromium (Cr) Biologically active substances (vii) Silver (Ag) (i) Natural water-and fat-soluble (viii) Iodine (I) vitamins (ix) Nickel (Ni) (ii) Natural enzymes (x) Selenium (Se) (iii) Natural water-soluble amino-acids (xi) Barium (Ba) (iv) Antibiotics (xii) Beryllium (Be) (v) Hormones (xiii) Titanium (Ti) (vi) Nucleotides Figure 1: Composition of sapropel (adapted from Stankevica et al. and Bleˇci´c et al. [23, 25] with modifications). glycerol, hydrocarbons, and other nonhydrolysable sub- also been found in sapropel. )erefore, the presence of living stances [23]. Bitumen in sapropel plays an inhibitory role organisms is important in decomposition and transforma- against various microorganisms with antioxidant activity tion of organic substances into individual components [23]. Another important active component of sapropel is available to the plants. antibiotics, mostly synthesized by fungi and actinomycetes, which promote nitrogen transfer to the form available to 4. Use of Sapropel in Agricultural Production plants [23]. Living organisms constitute important biological com- Recent studies show various ways of sapropel applications in ponents of freshwater ecosystems. )e most predominant different sectors of the economy, especially in agriculture, living organisms transforming the complex organic matter medicine, and industry, as shown in Figure 2. In this review, and minerals in these ecosystems are the prokaryotes. our focus will be the use of sapropel in agriculture. Studies show freshwater sapropel is highly populated with One area in agriculture where sapropel is applied is in 3 6 microorganisms ranging between 5.2 ×10 and 6.9 ×10 the production of animal feed; this technology has been colony forming units (CFU) per gram of dry matter [27]. It widely studied in Lithuania and Belarus for improvement was further noted that the depth of the sediment determines of animal feed mixtures [23]. Sapropel enhanced feed the number and composition of the organisms, i.e., they which has the potential to improve animals’ liver and decrease with increase in depth of sediments. )e most stomach functions, blood formation, and circulation and significant group of microorganisms found in sapropel is reduces the disease occurrence and increases resistance of antibiotic producers (fungi and actinomycetes) and vitamin animals towards adverse environmental conditions. )e producers (bacteria and algae) [23, 27]. Also found in the key to these applications is in the high concentration of sediment are facultative anaerobes and or aerobes such as proteins, vitamins, enzymes, and other biologically active Micrococcus sp., Rhodococcus sp., Agrobacterium-related substances contained in sapropel. Studies by Gutikov et al. organisms, nitrogen-fixing groups (such as Azotobacter and [32] showed that fodder enriched with sapropel led to Arthrobacter, among others), sulfur-reducing bacteria increased efficiency of nutrient uptake and digestion in (Deltaproteobacteria) and methanogenic Euryarchaeota. Fe pigs. In the study by Myarikyanov and Uspenskaya [33], (III)-reducing bacteria like Geobacter sp. [24, 28], Cyano- cattle were fed with a basal diet without or with sapropel; on bacteria, and other plant growth-promoting bacteria be- average, the daily body weight gain was 532 and 445 g longing to Gammaproteobacteria and Bacilli [29–31] have without or with sapropel. 4 Advances in Agriculture Applications of sapropel Industry Agriculture Medicine Building (i) Yeast growing Fodder production material Pharmacology (i) Ceramics (ii) Granular feed for production (ii) Beton filter farm animals Fertilizer (i) Soil colmatation Forming mixture Casting Production (iii) Premix for (ii) Soil neutralization domestic animals Balneology (iii) Organic mineral Chemical raw and birds fertilizer Soil amelioration materials With fresh sapropel Heat insulation and Drilling Therapeutic use of acoustic materials solution baths Sorbents for waste Water treatments Figure 2: Applications of sapropel in different sectors of the economy (adopted from Stankevica et al. [23]). One of the needs for sustainable agriculture is the devel- Table 1: Characteristics of the sapropel sample according to certified analysis on a fresh mass basis. opment and use of plant fertilizers based on organic waste and renewable natural resources. In this respect, organic fertilizers Parameter Unit Value are of great interest [24]. Traditionally, different types of or- Organic matter % 73.3± 0.9 ganic fertilizers, e.g., manure, compost, and, recently, vermi- Total P (P O ) % 0.15± 0.02 2 5 compost, have been used. Sapropel has found its limelight in its Total N % 2.8± 0.3 use in agricultural crop production. Although the use of natural K % 0.22± 0.01 −1 organic fertilizers from raw materials such as peat, sapropel, As mgkg 0.73± 0.07 −1 and brown coal [34] has increased during the last decades, there Fe mgkg 7745± 775 −1 are limited data on the use of sapropel technology in many Hg mgkg 0.30± 0.04 −1 Cr mgkg 23± 2 countries with tropical climates, especially in Africa, even −1 Cd mgkg 1.1± 0.1 though sapropel application is linked to increased yields of −1 Ni mgkg 18± 1 agricultural products [25,34]. Plants would generally benefit −1 Pb mgkg 9.5± 0.1 from the rise in soil organic matter, stimulation of microbi- −1 Cu mgkg 23± 2 ological activity, and plenty of mineral nutrients that will be Fulvic acid % 10.1 made available to the plant as a result of incorporating sapropel Humic acid % 5.4 as a fertilizer [24]. Table 1 shows the characteristics of a Adopted from Grantina-ievina et al. [24]. sapropel sample based on the fresh mass analysis. )e mi- croorganisms and enzymes contained in the biodeposit can revive dead ground, thus reactivate soil functions and give Ktedonobacterales, Acidobacteriales, Gemmatimonadales, highly fertile properties by forming humus [22]. Microor- and Solibacterales [17]. In south-west Siberia, Naumova et al. [36] studied the ganisms play a vital role in plant growth by affecting the activity of organic substrates. )is has been linked to the availability of effect of sapropel-amended soil on the yield of field toma- toes. )e results generally showed that the sapropel vital microorganisms in the soil that engage in nitrification, denitrification, and solubilization of phosphorus biodeposit, amendment did not influence tomato fruit yield, but instead increased lycopene content in fruits by 80% from 19 up to thus presenting an opportunity to provide organic fertilizers. )e preparation of soil substrates/growth media in the 34 mg/kg, thus improving fruit quality. )us, soil micro- biological properties, mineralization of organic matter, and form of mixtures with peat, sludge, and any kind of com- posted biowaste [32, 35] is among the common uses of nitrogen immobilization were shown to be more responsive to sapropel in addition than soil chemical properties. Re- sapropel in agriculture. Recent studies show that the use of sapropel as a fertilizer can increase the barley yields by 15 to search in the Middle East countries determined the appli- 20% and of potatoes by 25 to 30% [33]. More recent studies cation of the organic fertilizer based on sapropel and peat as a source of fertilizer and as a soil conditioner on the pre- show that treatment of the soil with the organic fertilizer lowered the contents of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and ar- treatment of soil in greenhouses and on cucumbers in greenhouses which led to yield increase. An experiment on senic (As) in tea leaves significantly. Additionally, organic- based fertilizers had a positive impact on the content of the plants that were lagging in their development advanced and surpassed other plants in appearance when treated with the amino acids of tea and pH of the soil as a result of increased relative abundance of microorganisms belonging to Bur- organic-mineral fertilizers (OMF). In other areas, the sap- ropel-based fertilizer was very effective in the early stages of kholderiales, Myxococcales, Streptomycetales, Nitrospirales, Advances in Agriculture 5 fruiting with the optimal application rate of 1 litre per wheat grain yield up to 0.88 tons per ha, maize green mass up 10000 m [37]. to 5.0 tons per ha, and maize grain up to 2.06 tons per ha [20]. Sapropels can be used as eco-friendly fertilizers as they Research carried out in the Middle East countries on the use of peat and sapropel based on organic-mineral fertilizers add nutrients to soils. (OMF) as either a fertilizer or as a soil conditioner on cu- Sapropel modifies and improves the soil structure, cumbers in greenhouses led to increase in yield. Similarly, a physical properties, soil aeration, viscosity, and capillary rise. significant increase of about 44% per hectare in the yield of It positively impacts on the hydrophilic-hydrophobic different wheat genotypes was achieved after using a liquid properties in fertilized soils, thus activates water movement humic fertilizer derived from sapropel (potassium humate) and air mode in soils. Sapropel possesses water-consuming [38]. )e growth activity of tomatoes, beetroot, Swedish and water-retaining abilities, and it increases the humus turnip, and carrot plants as a result of the use of freshwater content in the soil and activates soil processes [26, 41]. sapropel was studied [24]. It was established that other than Consequently, slow solvability of product’s acting com- the mineral nutrients, sapropel also contained unspecified pounds provides plants with balanced nutritional elements. Sapropel also increases the humus content besides partici- substances that contributed to the plant growth activities in the seedling growth tests. In this study, BioDeposit Agro pating in the cycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and (BDA) sapropel that contains the substrate with ability to other microelements within the soil. Being nonhazardous, enhance plant growth was found ideal with a very low sapropel fertilizer can activate many biochemical and growth-inhibiting component. BDA promoted the growth of chemical processes and pathways in plants, leading to an both hypocotyl and radicle in all the tested seedlings. increase of self-purification. It can also stimulate seed However, it was noted that the growth stimulation of the sprouting and root growth of cultivated plants [26]. radicle was more by 10% compared to hypocotyl growth except for tomato seedlings. Also, variations in BDA con- 6. Conclusion centration did not have any significant effect on hypocotyl )e world is becoming increasingly concerned about food growth [24]. shortage, and crop yield in developing nations, particularly In Kenya, undocumented data show the application of amid resource-poor farmers, has been constrained by soil BDA in different regions including Tala in Machakos. BDA infertility. Upholding soil quality through basic principles of has been used on bananas, maize plantation, vegetables, good farming can reduce some of these problems of land coffee plantations, hydroponic cow feeds, and poultry degradation, decreasing soil fertility, and rapidly declining farming. )e results indicate that the BDA contributes production levels that occur in large parts of the world. )e positively to the quality of produce and also increases the prospective biological fertilizers would play a crucial part in yield. productivity and sustainability of soil and also in environ- mental protection as they are eco-friendly and cost-effective 5. Advantages of Soil Amendment inputs to the farmers; therefore, using biological and organic Based on Sapropel fertilizers, which are low-input systems, can help in achieving sustainability of farms. Sapropel can be considered Addition of sapropel to soil may change not only soil acidity as a valuable resource with wide application possibilities in but also can increase the moisture level of soil as well as total agriculture to enhance soil productivity, crop productivity, porosity, independently from meteorological conditions. and quality. )e use of sapropel as a soil fertilizer can improve soil physical properties better than limestone or farmyard ma- Conflicts of Interest nure applications. Season by season, the crop productivity increased in higher level after applications of carbonate )e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. sapropel as compared to limestone due to sapropel’s mineral content and plant nutrition potential [39]. A study by Acknowledgments Angelova et al. [40] compared the effects of soil amendments with phosphorous compounds, organic fertilizers, and )e authors from Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture sapropel on the quantity of the phyto-accessible forms of and Technology would like to thank the Japan International lead (pb), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) and their uptake by Cooperation Agency (JICA) for funding AFRICA-ai-JAPAN triticale. )e results indicated that the effect of the soil Project: Innovation towards enhancing food security amendments on the mobile forms of the three elements were through innovative biotransformation and value addition of specific without a clear trend. A clear tendency, however, for major locally available biological resources (project no. 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The Use of Freshwater Sapropel in Agricultural Production: A New Frontier in Kenya

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Hindawi Advances in Agriculture Volume 2020, Article ID 8895667, 7 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8895667 Review Article The Use of Freshwater Sapropel in Agricultural Production: A New Frontier in Kenya 1 2 3 Sylvia I. Murunga , Eliud N. Wafula, and Joseph Sang Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Department of Botany, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Correspondence should be addressed to Sylvia I. Murunga; smurunga@jkuat.ac.ke Received 4 May 2020; Accepted 18 July 2020; Published 31 July 2020 Academic Editor: Othmane Merah Copyright © 2020 Sylvia I. Murunga et al. )is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Opportunities for sustainable agriculture development in Kenya which heavily depends on healthy soil and soil microbial diversity can be found in the promotion of organic farming. )e increasing populations, higher demands for animal and plant products, climate change impacts, and weather conditions necessitate novel ideas and technologies to try reverse the adverse effects of excessive use of inorganic fertilizers and to maximize the potential of the land. Sapropel, a promising biological deposit from freshwater lakes, has found its limelight in its use in agricultural crop production as a soil conditioner and biofertilizer. )is could be an ultimate practice for sustainable food and energy production in Kenya. )is review aims at presenting information in the literature about the potential use of the organic fertilizer based on sapropels in intensified crop production and their main effects on plant growth. It discusses soil fertility, the composition of sapropels, and their application and advantages in agricultural production. It is evident from the review that sapropel can be considered as a resource that is valuable with wide application possibilities in agriculture. Sapropel can present an important contribution to the solution of the conservation of the fertility of the soil for integrated nutrient management systems to maintain agricultural productivity and help in environmental conservation. enhancing agricultural productivity, and market access can 1. Introduction help reduce poverty, particularly in rural areas [5–7]. In Kenya, agriculture is very important in economic growth, A variety of challenges constrains the agricultural sector contributing 33% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and in Kenya. Reduction in agricultural production due to low 27% of the GDP indirectly through multisectoral linkages input use, unsustainable soil, and water practices and the [1, 2]. It also provides jobs to more than 40% of the total decreasing size of average land holdings [4, 8] are on the rise. population, majority of which or 70% are rural dwellers [3]. Sufficient supply of crop nutrients partly influences the ability to improve productivity, although sustainability of Primary production plays an important part in maintaining the country’s food security and contributes to improving agricultural systems is an important global issue [9]. nutrition through the production of safe, diverse, and nu- Common ways of increasing efficiency and obtaining a trient-dense foods, while the industrial and horticultural better quality of product recovery in agricultural activities crop subsectors are key foreign exchange-earners [4]. )e involve fertilizer application [10]. Nonorganic fertilizers sector also promotes nonagricultural economy including mainly contain phosphate, nitrate, ammonium, and potas- manufacturing, providing inputs and markets for nonag- sium salts. Kenya, for instance, has been utilizing fertilizers ricultural operations such as building/construction, trans- heavily for many years to boost her agricultural productivity. portation, tourism, education, and other social services, thus A large amount of agricultural budgets is allocated to 2 Advances in Agriculture subsidize fertilizers in the hope of improving national food plants, and other marine-dwelling organisms involved in the production. )e high level of fertilizer applications is vital to transformation of mineral components influenced by various supply necessary food for the ever-increasing population microorganisms [20,21]. Sapropels have a complex chemical and to meet higher demands for animal and plant products. composition with a broad range of values and depend on the geographical position of the region of occurrence [22]. Due to the organic-rich nature of sapropel, it is commonly used in the 2. Soil Fertility amendments of different soils to increase nitrogen, phos- Crop yield in developing nations, particularly amid re- phorous, humus, and microelements’ content. It is clean and source-poor farmers, has been constrained by soil infertility efficient ecologically friendly natural material used in agri- [11]. Soil contains an intricated ecosystem with high mi- culture as biofertilizer and soil conditioner [20]. Worldwide, crobial diversity, which takes part in the recycling of nu- accumulation, formation, and intensive use of sapropel in trients and promotion of the development of healthy plants agriculture and energy have been reported in temperate re- [12]. It also plays a role in the physical breakdown and gions of Asia and Europe especially in Latvia, Bulgaria, biochemical transformation of complex molecules of dead Ukraine, Russia, Lithuania, Scandinavian Peninsula, Poland, material into simpler organic and inorganic molecules [13]. France, Germany, and Belarus and Canada and the USA from However, the microbiome can be influenced by the culti- the continent of America in the Great Lakes region [23] and vation methods and environmental conditions resulting in most Middle East countries such as Jordan and Saudi Arabia alterations in the soil characteristics [14]. Nutrients are a key [24]. constituent of the ability of the soil to host plants and to As illustrated in Figure 1, sapropel consists of three main generate plant yields. )e soil fertility and availability of components: water about 60–90% [26], mineral substances nutrients to plants are governed by the soil’s parent rock and consisting of microelements manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), its physiochemical and biological properties [15]. It depends boron (B), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), chromium (Cr), silver (Ag), on the climate, vegetation, and the history of land use. barium (Ba), titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), and beryllium Unfavourable soil conditions can result in nutrients in the (Be), among others, and macroelements including nitrogen, soil becoming chemically bound (phosphorus) or physically silica, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminium, potassium, fixed (potassium), making them virtually inaccessible to phosphorus, and sulfur [25, 26]. Presence of these substances plants even though they remain in the soil [9,16]. Overre- in the soil improves the humus content thus preventing liance on chemical fertilizers could lead to severe soil erosion and eventually restoring soil fertility by improving the acidification, nutritional imbalance, deterioration of the soil structure. Additionally, sapropel also contains organic rhizosphere microecological environment, and further in- substances with organic matter ranging from 15 to 90% by crease in the activity of heavy metal ions in soil [17]. Apart weight, organic carbon not less than 40%, and moisture from lowering production, the eroded soils find their way content ranging between 60 and 90% [25, 26]. Sapropel also into the water bodies causing siltation and eutrophication, contains many biologically active substances such as water- hence an environmental hazard. Needed, therefore, are soluble vitamins A (retinol), C (thiamine), C (ascorbic acid measures to maintain soil quality through good farming and dehydroascorbic acid), C (riboflavin), B (niacin), C 2 3 6 principles [9]. )e prospective biological fertilizers would (pyridoxine), C (cyanocobalamin), provitamin for vitamin play a crucial part in sustainability and productivity of the A (β-carotene), and B (folic acid) and fat-soluble vitamins E soil and also in the environmental protection as they are eco- (α-tocopherol), D, and P [23, 25]. )e natural water-soluble friendly and cost-effective inputs to the farmers [18]. Re- amino acids contained in sapropels are histidine, glutamine, garding these threats, researchers are anxious to find in- glycine, valine, arginine, aspartate, alanine, serine, leucine, expensive, environmentally friendly, and practical ways to isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, lysine, methionine, overcome fertilizer toxicity problems [11]. threonine, and cysteine. Natural enzymes include catalase, Sustainable land management and the conservation of soil peroxidase, reductase, protease, urease, and xanthine oxidase, and water can bring the organic matter to the soil, creating a while the humic complex includes humic and fulvic acids means of compensating for continuous humus mineralization [15, 20]. Humic acids are the largest group of organic sub- and present an opportunity for raising the level of humus stances and are dark brown [23]. )ey have adhesive prop- content in the soil [13]. If preference is given to measures that erties and thus associated with minerals in the soil, which improve soil humus content, nutrient, and energy cycle, significantly improves the soil structure and affects the growth agricultural intensification can be achieved [9]. )is, in turn, and development of plants [20, 23, 25, 26]. improves the soil’s nutrient storage capacity and nutrient )e phytohormones such as gibberellic acid, cytokinin, availability to plants [19]. Improving humus content also ethylene, abscisic acid, brassinosteroids, and derivatives of helps to lay the foundation for further fertilization; thus, indole-3-acetic acid found in sapropels affect plant growth increased activity of soil microorganisms that accompanies and development [26]. Sapropel is characterized by a low the build-up of humus is of particular significance [12]. amount of carbohydrate; the organic matter in sapropel contains 6–25% hemicellulose and 1–8% cellulose, and these can be used in the production of fertilizers, relevant in 3. Composition and Characteristics of Sapropel agriculture and horticulture as well as additives in animal Sapropel also known as biodeposit is freshwater organic-rich feed [23]. Sapropel contains high amounts of bitumen which mud sediment formed from the remains of plankton, water is characterized by fatty acids, steroids, paraffin, wax, Advances in Agriculture 3 Sapropel Organic substances Water Mineral substances Organic substances Macroelements (i) Bitumen (i) Silicon (Si) Water-soluble (ii) Easily hydrolysable substances (ii) Calcium (Ca) organic and mineral (such as humic and fulvic acids) (iii) Aluminium (Al) substances (iii) Cellulose, protein (iv) Magnesium (Mg) (iv) Nonhydrolysable substances (v) Potassium (K) (vi) Nitrogen (N) (vii) Phosphorus (P) Living organisms (viii) Sulfur (S) (i) Bacteria (such as nitrogen-fixing, (ix) Ferrum (Fe) nitrifying bacteria, phosphate- solubilizing, methanogenic, and Microelements green nonsulfur bacteria) (i) Manganese (Mn) (ii) Fungi (ii) Copper (Cu) (iii) Actinomycetes (iii) Boron (B) (iv) Yeast (iv) Molybdenum (Mo) (v) Algae (v) Zinc (Zn) (vi) Chromium (Cr) Biologically active substances (vii) Silver (Ag) (i) Natural water-and fat-soluble (viii) Iodine (I) vitamins (ix) Nickel (Ni) (ii) Natural enzymes (x) Selenium (Se) (iii) Natural water-soluble amino-acids (xi) Barium (Ba) (iv) Antibiotics (xii) Beryllium (Be) (v) Hormones (xiii) Titanium (Ti) (vi) Nucleotides Figure 1: Composition of sapropel (adapted from Stankevica et al. and Bleˇci´c et al. [23, 25] with modifications). glycerol, hydrocarbons, and other nonhydrolysable sub- also been found in sapropel. )erefore, the presence of living stances [23]. Bitumen in sapropel plays an inhibitory role organisms is important in decomposition and transforma- against various microorganisms with antioxidant activity tion of organic substances into individual components [23]. Another important active component of sapropel is available to the plants. antibiotics, mostly synthesized by fungi and actinomycetes, which promote nitrogen transfer to the form available to 4. Use of Sapropel in Agricultural Production plants [23]. Living organisms constitute important biological com- Recent studies show various ways of sapropel applications in ponents of freshwater ecosystems. )e most predominant different sectors of the economy, especially in agriculture, living organisms transforming the complex organic matter medicine, and industry, as shown in Figure 2. In this review, and minerals in these ecosystems are the prokaryotes. our focus will be the use of sapropel in agriculture. Studies show freshwater sapropel is highly populated with One area in agriculture where sapropel is applied is in 3 6 microorganisms ranging between 5.2 ×10 and 6.9 ×10 the production of animal feed; this technology has been colony forming units (CFU) per gram of dry matter [27]. It widely studied in Lithuania and Belarus for improvement was further noted that the depth of the sediment determines of animal feed mixtures [23]. Sapropel enhanced feed the number and composition of the organisms, i.e., they which has the potential to improve animals’ liver and decrease with increase in depth of sediments. )e most stomach functions, blood formation, and circulation and significant group of microorganisms found in sapropel is reduces the disease occurrence and increases resistance of antibiotic producers (fungi and actinomycetes) and vitamin animals towards adverse environmental conditions. )e producers (bacteria and algae) [23, 27]. Also found in the key to these applications is in the high concentration of sediment are facultative anaerobes and or aerobes such as proteins, vitamins, enzymes, and other biologically active Micrococcus sp., Rhodococcus sp., Agrobacterium-related substances contained in sapropel. Studies by Gutikov et al. organisms, nitrogen-fixing groups (such as Azotobacter and [32] showed that fodder enriched with sapropel led to Arthrobacter, among others), sulfur-reducing bacteria increased efficiency of nutrient uptake and digestion in (Deltaproteobacteria) and methanogenic Euryarchaeota. Fe pigs. In the study by Myarikyanov and Uspenskaya [33], (III)-reducing bacteria like Geobacter sp. [24, 28], Cyano- cattle were fed with a basal diet without or with sapropel; on bacteria, and other plant growth-promoting bacteria be- average, the daily body weight gain was 532 and 445 g longing to Gammaproteobacteria and Bacilli [29–31] have without or with sapropel. 4 Advances in Agriculture Applications of sapropel Industry Agriculture Medicine Building (i) Yeast growing Fodder production material Pharmacology (i) Ceramics (ii) Granular feed for production (ii) Beton filter farm animals Fertilizer (i) Soil colmatation Forming mixture Casting Production (iii) Premix for (ii) Soil neutralization domestic animals Balneology (iii) Organic mineral Chemical raw and birds fertilizer Soil amelioration materials With fresh sapropel Heat insulation and Drilling Therapeutic use of acoustic materials solution baths Sorbents for waste Water treatments Figure 2: Applications of sapropel in different sectors of the economy (adopted from Stankevica et al. [23]). One of the needs for sustainable agriculture is the devel- Table 1: Characteristics of the sapropel sample according to certified analysis on a fresh mass basis. opment and use of plant fertilizers based on organic waste and renewable natural resources. In this respect, organic fertilizers Parameter Unit Value are of great interest [24]. Traditionally, different types of or- Organic matter % 73.3± 0.9 ganic fertilizers, e.g., manure, compost, and, recently, vermi- Total P (P O ) % 0.15± 0.02 2 5 compost, have been used. Sapropel has found its limelight in its Total N % 2.8± 0.3 use in agricultural crop production. Although the use of natural K % 0.22± 0.01 −1 organic fertilizers from raw materials such as peat, sapropel, As mgkg 0.73± 0.07 −1 and brown coal [34] has increased during the last decades, there Fe mgkg 7745± 775 −1 are limited data on the use of sapropel technology in many Hg mgkg 0.30± 0.04 −1 Cr mgkg 23± 2 countries with tropical climates, especially in Africa, even −1 Cd mgkg 1.1± 0.1 though sapropel application is linked to increased yields of −1 Ni mgkg 18± 1 agricultural products [25,34]. Plants would generally benefit −1 Pb mgkg 9.5± 0.1 from the rise in soil organic matter, stimulation of microbi- −1 Cu mgkg 23± 2 ological activity, and plenty of mineral nutrients that will be Fulvic acid % 10.1 made available to the plant as a result of incorporating sapropel Humic acid % 5.4 as a fertilizer [24]. Table 1 shows the characteristics of a Adopted from Grantina-ievina et al. [24]. sapropel sample based on the fresh mass analysis. )e mi- croorganisms and enzymes contained in the biodeposit can revive dead ground, thus reactivate soil functions and give Ktedonobacterales, Acidobacteriales, Gemmatimonadales, highly fertile properties by forming humus [22]. Microor- and Solibacterales [17]. In south-west Siberia, Naumova et al. [36] studied the ganisms play a vital role in plant growth by affecting the activity of organic substrates. )is has been linked to the availability of effect of sapropel-amended soil on the yield of field toma- toes. )e results generally showed that the sapropel vital microorganisms in the soil that engage in nitrification, denitrification, and solubilization of phosphorus biodeposit, amendment did not influence tomato fruit yield, but instead increased lycopene content in fruits by 80% from 19 up to thus presenting an opportunity to provide organic fertilizers. )e preparation of soil substrates/growth media in the 34 mg/kg, thus improving fruit quality. )us, soil micro- biological properties, mineralization of organic matter, and form of mixtures with peat, sludge, and any kind of com- posted biowaste [32, 35] is among the common uses of nitrogen immobilization were shown to be more responsive to sapropel in addition than soil chemical properties. Re- sapropel in agriculture. Recent studies show that the use of sapropel as a fertilizer can increase the barley yields by 15 to search in the Middle East countries determined the appli- 20% and of potatoes by 25 to 30% [33]. More recent studies cation of the organic fertilizer based on sapropel and peat as a source of fertilizer and as a soil conditioner on the pre- show that treatment of the soil with the organic fertilizer lowered the contents of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and ar- treatment of soil in greenhouses and on cucumbers in greenhouses which led to yield increase. An experiment on senic (As) in tea leaves significantly. Additionally, organic- based fertilizers had a positive impact on the content of the plants that were lagging in their development advanced and surpassed other plants in appearance when treated with the amino acids of tea and pH of the soil as a result of increased relative abundance of microorganisms belonging to Bur- organic-mineral fertilizers (OMF). In other areas, the sap- ropel-based fertilizer was very effective in the early stages of kholderiales, Myxococcales, Streptomycetales, Nitrospirales, Advances in Agriculture 5 fruiting with the optimal application rate of 1 litre per wheat grain yield up to 0.88 tons per ha, maize green mass up 10000 m [37]. to 5.0 tons per ha, and maize grain up to 2.06 tons per ha [20]. Sapropels can be used as eco-friendly fertilizers as they Research carried out in the Middle East countries on the use of peat and sapropel based on organic-mineral fertilizers add nutrients to soils. (OMF) as either a fertilizer or as a soil conditioner on cu- Sapropel modifies and improves the soil structure, cumbers in greenhouses led to increase in yield. Similarly, a physical properties, soil aeration, viscosity, and capillary rise. significant increase of about 44% per hectare in the yield of It positively impacts on the hydrophilic-hydrophobic different wheat genotypes was achieved after using a liquid properties in fertilized soils, thus activates water movement humic fertilizer derived from sapropel (potassium humate) and air mode in soils. Sapropel possesses water-consuming [38]. )e growth activity of tomatoes, beetroot, Swedish and water-retaining abilities, and it increases the humus turnip, and carrot plants as a result of the use of freshwater content in the soil and activates soil processes [26, 41]. sapropel was studied [24]. It was established that other than Consequently, slow solvability of product’s acting com- the mineral nutrients, sapropel also contained unspecified pounds provides plants with balanced nutritional elements. Sapropel also increases the humus content besides partici- substances that contributed to the plant growth activities in the seedling growth tests. In this study, BioDeposit Agro pating in the cycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and (BDA) sapropel that contains the substrate with ability to other microelements within the soil. Being nonhazardous, enhance plant growth was found ideal with a very low sapropel fertilizer can activate many biochemical and growth-inhibiting component. BDA promoted the growth of chemical processes and pathways in plants, leading to an both hypocotyl and radicle in all the tested seedlings. increase of self-purification. It can also stimulate seed However, it was noted that the growth stimulation of the sprouting and root growth of cultivated plants [26]. radicle was more by 10% compared to hypocotyl growth except for tomato seedlings. Also, variations in BDA con- 6. Conclusion centration did not have any significant effect on hypocotyl )e world is becoming increasingly concerned about food growth [24]. shortage, and crop yield in developing nations, particularly In Kenya, undocumented data show the application of amid resource-poor farmers, has been constrained by soil BDA in different regions including Tala in Machakos. BDA infertility. Upholding soil quality through basic principles of has been used on bananas, maize plantation, vegetables, good farming can reduce some of these problems of land coffee plantations, hydroponic cow feeds, and poultry degradation, decreasing soil fertility, and rapidly declining farming. )e results indicate that the BDA contributes production levels that occur in large parts of the world. )e positively to the quality of produce and also increases the prospective biological fertilizers would play a crucial part in yield. productivity and sustainability of soil and also in environ- mental protection as they are eco-friendly and cost-effective 5. Advantages of Soil Amendment inputs to the farmers; therefore, using biological and organic Based on Sapropel fertilizers, which are low-input systems, can help in achieving sustainability of farms. Sapropel can be considered Addition of sapropel to soil may change not only soil acidity as a valuable resource with wide application possibilities in but also can increase the moisture level of soil as well as total agriculture to enhance soil productivity, crop productivity, porosity, independently from meteorological conditions. and quality. )e use of sapropel as a soil fertilizer can improve soil physical properties better than limestone or farmyard ma- Conflicts of Interest nure applications. Season by season, the crop productivity increased in higher level after applications of carbonate )e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. sapropel as compared to limestone due to sapropel’s mineral content and plant nutrition potential [39]. A study by Acknowledgments Angelova et al. [40] compared the effects of soil amendments with phosphorous compounds, organic fertilizers, and )e authors from Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture sapropel on the quantity of the phyto-accessible forms of and Technology would like to thank the Japan International lead (pb), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) and their uptake by Cooperation Agency (JICA) for funding AFRICA-ai-JAPAN triticale. )e results indicated that the effect of the soil Project: Innovation towards enhancing food security amendments on the mobile forms of the three elements were through innovative biotransformation and value addition of specific without a clear trend. A clear tendency, however, for major locally available biological resources (project no. JFY the reduction of these three elements was observed with the 2019/2020). use of natural fertilizers. )e study also established that the absorption of Pb, Zn, and Cd by triticale was not related to References the amount of mobile forms. )ere is strong evidence that the use of fertilizers based [1] MOALFI, Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth on peat and sapropel increases the productivity of agri- Strategy: Towards Sustainable Agricultural Transformation cultural plants by 9–16%, while the use of liquid humic and Food Security in Kenya, Government of Kenya, Nairobi, microelement fertilizers provides an increase in the winter Kenya, 2018. 6 Advances in Agriculture [2] M. Mukumbu, S. Pagiola, D. Sellen, A. Winter-Nelson, [21] E. Bakˇsiene, ˙ M. A. Fullen, and C. A. Booth, “Agricultural soil G. Argwings-Kodhek, and F. 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