Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia

Belayneh Bufebo; Eyasu Elias

doi:10.1155/2020/5145483

Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia

Bufebo, Belayneh;Elias, Eyasu 2020-07-28 00:00:00 Hindawi Advances in Agriculture Volume 2020, Article ID 5145483, 8 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/5145483 Research Article Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia 1,2 2 Belayneh Bufebo and Eyasu Elias Department of Natural Resource Management, Wachemo University, P.O. Box 667, Hosanna, Ethiopia Center for Environmental Science, Natural and Computational Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Correspondence should be addressed to Belayneh Bufebo; belaytumma@gmail.com Received 19 November 2019; Revised 30 March 2020; Accepted 13 May 2020; Published 28 July 2020 Academic Editor: Tibor Janda Copyright © 2020 Belayneh Bufebo and Eyasu Elias. (is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Land use change from natural ecosystems to managed agroecosystems is one of the main causes of soil fertility decline. Severe soil erosion caused by agricultural expansion and poor management worsened soil nutrient depletion in cultivated outﬁelds (crop lands). (is study was conducted to examine the eﬀects of land use and land cover changes (LU/LC) on selected soil physi- cochemical properties in the Shenkolla watershed. A total of 40 top soil samples at 0–20 cm depth were collected from four land use/land cover types (forest land, grazing land, cultivated outﬁeld, and cultivated homestead garden ﬁelds). (e analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to determine diﬀerences in soil parameters among land use types. Treatment means comparison was determined using the least signiﬁcant diﬀerence (LSD) at 0.05 level of signiﬁcances. (e result indicated that there were signiﬁcant (P< 0.05) diﬀerences among the four LU/LC types for soil characteristics. For most parameters evaluated, the most favorable soil properties were observed in the forest land, followed by homestead garden ﬁelds, while the least favorable soil properties were found in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. Increase in the extent of cultivated land at the expense of forest cover associated with poor management has promoted signiﬁcant loss of soil quality in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. Reducing the land cover conversion and adopting proper management practices of the soil commonly used in homestead garden ﬁelds are very crucial in order to improve soil fertility in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. However, soil nutrient removal, organic matter depletion, 1. Introduction and soil erosion are seriously threatening the sustainability Soil degradation caused by unsuitable use of land and weak of agricultural production in Ethiopia [6, 7]. (e shortage of management is a problem of the entire world that has drawn land in densely populated areas of the country, to meet the attraction towards sustainable agricultural production [1]. demand for food production, led to conversion of vast tracts Inappropriate agricultural practices and land cover changes of forestlands into cultivated crop lands [8]. may rapidly decline soil quality by deteriorating its physi- Deforestation, overgrazing, and continuous cultivation cochemical properties and biological activity [2, 3]. Land use have triggered soil erosion losses at the rate of 130 tones/ha changes, such as the conversion of forest and grazing lands for cultivated ﬁelds and 35 tons/ha average for all land use to intensively cultivated cropland, reduce the SOM content classes in the highland areas of the country, which was and cause soil bulk density to increase and aggregate stability estimated to be one of the highest in Africa [6]. (erefore, and saturated hydraulic conductivity to decline [4]. evaluating soil physicochemical properties in diﬀerent land Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, use types is crucial to provide important information for accounting for more than 41% of gross domestic prod- planners and policy makers to devise development inter- uct, 84% of export, and 80% of total employment [5]. ventions that ensure sustainable land management and food 2 Advances in Agriculture security in the study area and elsewhere in the highlands of livestock on the communal land. Especially during the Ethiopia. To this end, the study was conducted to examine cropping season, all livestock are conﬁned to the scarce grazing lands which for 5-6 months of the year are subject to the eﬀects of land use/land cover change on selected soil physical and chemical properties in the Shenkolla watershed, immense grazing pressure. Large herd size on small grazing south central Ethiopia. lands and poor pasture management increased the pressure on the grazing land of the study area [9]. As a result, the animals cannot get enough fodder to stay healthy and in 2. Materials and Methods good condition; similarly, the natural vegetation has no chance to recover at any time of the year. (ere is no 2.1. Description of the Study Area. (e study was undertaken reseeding eﬀect, the most palatable grasses and legumes have in the Shenkolla watershed, covering 1457 ha lying, in the disappeared, and bare patches have developed, giving room eastern part of the Soro district in the Hadiya zone of Southern for accelerated soil erosion and severe dissection by rills and Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State. (e geo- gullies. graphical location of the area falls within the coordinates of ° ° ° ° In the study area, agricultural cultivation (cultivated 7 24′30″–7 27′0″ N latitude and 37 43′30″–37 46′30″ E lon- outﬁelds and homestead garden ﬁelds) was started ap- gitude (Figure 1). (e altitude ranges from 2200 to 2830 m proximately forty years ago. Arable lands are composed of which is characterized by gentle sloping to high-relief hills the intensively cultivated outﬁelds (crop lands) and well- which ranges from 5 to 45%. managed homestead garden ﬁelds. Homestead garden ﬁelds Geological formation is dominated by the quaternary are covered with staple food crops such as enset (Ensete volcanic composed of acidic parent materials (rhyolites, ventricosum) and trees such as avocado (Persea americana), trachytes, and ignimbrites), while basaltic formations are of Croton macrostachyus, and Erythrina spp with the under- minor importance [9]. Nitisols are the most dominant soil growth of some vegetables and spices forming a multistory types found in all land uses (forest land, grazing land, home garden [10]. (e distant cultivated outﬁelds are homestead garden ﬁelds, and cultivated outﬁelds) of the planted with cereals, wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea watershed. Nitisols have good physical properties, with high mays), barley (Hordeum vulgare), sorghum (Sorghum bi- water-holding capacity and good drainage, having high color), and teﬀ (Eragrostis tef) that form the costaples with potential for agricultural uses, on which subsistent farmers enset (Ensete ventricosum). of the watershed depend to grow a variety of crops and graze Soil fertility management is clearly diﬀerentiated be- livestock. [9]. (e most common geomorphic environment tween the cultivated outﬁelds and homestead garden ﬁelds. for Nitisols in the watershed is dissected side slopes (5–10%). Hoeing and incorporation of the farmyard manure in Luvisols are also found in in all land use classes on strongly homestead garden ﬁelds is distinctly diﬀerent from the sloping gradients (10–15%). (e area coverage of Vertisols is plough-based complex system in the intensively cultivated limited to a very small area of the grazing land at poorly outﬁelds [9]. (e homestead garden ﬁelds receive the ap- drained bottom slope position, Cambisols are found in the plication of a wide range of organic fertilizers (farmyard forest land on high relief, and Planosols cover a small area of manure, household refuse, compost, and leaf litter). Soil cultivated outﬁelds on the upper side of Vertisols [9]. fertility of the homestead garden ﬁelds is maintained (e climate is characterized generally as tepid submoist through the application of approximately 9 tons per hectare midhighland with a long-term average rainfall of about per year of farmyard manure on average, while the crop 1107 mm with the bimodal pattern having (Belg) light rainy cultivated outﬁelds are treated with a dose of less than season (March to May) and (Meher) the heavy rainy season prescribed amounts of mineral fertilizers with an average from June to September. (e annual average temperature of rate of 50 kg urea and 65 kg/ha DAP (diammonium phos- the study area is 17.2 C (Figure 2). (e long-maturing crops phate: 18% N and 46% P O ) [11]. Crop residue removal is such as maize and sorghum are planted during the Belg rains 2 5 another problem that causes soil fertility decline in culti- and extend their growth period into the main rainy season vated outﬁelds. As a result, cultivated outﬁelds are largely when wheat and teﬀ are planted. Under normal climatic depleted of soil fertility but homestead garden ﬁelds are condition, the cultivation of crops is possible during both enriched. Belg (light rainy season) and Meher (heavy rainy season). (e diﬀerences in land use and management practices indicated that there was a diﬀerence in the extent of water 2.2. Land Use Types and Pattern of Management. Mixed erosion in the study area. Field observation indicated the crop-livestock system is the major source of livelihood for presence of slight water erosion in the forest land and homestead garden ﬁelds and accelerated water erosion in the the community in the study area. (e system is noted for its high population densities (200–350 persons per sq.km) and grazing land and cultivated outﬁelds at the study site. (is severe land shortage (average holdings of 0.5 ha for a family shows the susceptibility of the soils of cultivated outﬁelds of 8 persons) along with intensive cultivation. Forest and and the grazing land to water erosion. grazing lands are communally owned and managed, while the arable lands are individually owned. Livestock husbandry is based on free grazing on com- 2.3. Soil Sampling and Analysis. From each of the four land use types (i.e., forest land, grazing land, cultivated outﬁelds, munal grazing lands. Free grazing is an age-old traditional system which allows owners to indiscriminately graze their and cultivated homestead garden ﬁelds), ten replicates of Advances in Agriculture 3 SNNPR Ethiopia Hadiya zone 37°43′30″E 37°44′0″E 37°44′30″E 37°45′0″E 37°45′30″E 37°46′0″E 37°46′30″E Map of the study area W E Soro district 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 kms Shenkolla_boundary Figure 1: Map of the study area within the southern region of Ethiopia. 180 19 sampler of 100 cm in volume from each land use in ten 18.5 replications for bulk density and water retention capacity 140 determination. Disturbed soil samples were collected using 17.5 120 an auger from each land use in ten replications. A total of 40 (4 treatment × 10 replications) disturbed soil samples and 40 16.5 (4 treatment × 10 replications) undisturbed core samples were collected. Disturbed soil samples placed in polythene 15.5 bags and undisturbed soil samples in a steel core sampler were well labeled as described by the Soil Survey Field and 14.5 Laboratory Method Manual [12] and then taken for the 0 14 subsequent laboratory test. Analyses of the soil samples for ﬁeld capacity (FC), permanent wilting point (PWP), water-holding capacity (WHC), aggregate stability, and texture were conducted at the Ethiopian Water Works Construction Design and Su- Rainfall in mm pervision Enterprise soil fertility lab following laboratory Temperature in °C procedures. Analyses of the soil samples for bulk density Figure 2: Mean monthly rainfall and temperature of the study area. (BD), particle density (PD), total porosity (TP), soil pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen, available phosphorus disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected, (AP), cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable bases, following line transects which were laid along the contour of and some micronutrients were conducted at the South the sampled area. To avoid the border eﬀect, the line transect Nations Nationalities and People’s Region Agricultural was located at a distance of 5 m from the edges. On each line Bureau, soil fertility laboratory. (ese soil laboratories are transect, ten sampling points were located at a distance of 25 with examination standards of ES ISO 10390 : 2014 and ES meters apart at a depth of 0–20 cm. Soil samples were ISO 11263 : 2015. collected during December 2017 to January 2017 after the Undisturbed soil samples were air-dried, ground, and crop harvest. (e approximate length and width of sampled passed through 2 mm sieve and analyzed for physical and area were 280 m × 30 m, 260 m × 20 m, 285 m × 30 m, and chemical parameters. (e hydrometer method outlined in 270 m × 25 m for the forest land, grazing land, cultivated [13] was used to determine soil particle size distribution. (e outﬁelds, and cultivated homestead garden ﬁelds, respec- soil textural names were determined based on the USDA tively. Undisturbed soil samples were taken by a steel core textural triangle as described in [14]. (e bulk density (BD) Rainfall (mm) January February March April May June July August September October November December Temperature (°C) 7°24′30″N7°25′0″N7°25′30″N7°26′0″N7°26′30″N 7°27′0″N 4 Advances in Agriculture of the soil was estimated from undisturbed soil samples mean value of clay in the nonforested land (17.6%). (is collected using a steel core sampler, and the procedures indicated the positive inﬂuence of the noncultivated land on outlined in [15] was used to determine both BD and particle soil quality. But, there was no diﬀerence between the mean density (PD). Total porosity (TP) was estimated from the values of silt in the noncultivated land and the nonforested bulk density (BD) and particle density (PD) as outlined in land (Table 1). [16]. (e water-holding capacity of the soil (w/w, %) at ﬁeld Moreover, analysis of particle size of soils indicated that capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) were there was a signiﬁcant diﬀerence among land use types measured at 1/3 and 15 bars of soil water potential, using the (Table 2). Relatively higher sand content (46%) was recorded pressure plate apparatus [17]. Plant available water-holding in soils of cultivated outﬁelds followed by that of the grazing capacity (AWC) was obtained by subtracting PWP from FC land. However, the highest value of clay (26%) was recorded [18]. (e soil aggregate stability test was carried out by the in forest soils. (is implies that intensive cultivation of the wet sieving method as outlined in [19]. It involves abrupt soils increases sand (course particles) as ﬁne particles are submergence of air-dry aggregates in water (soil aggregates washed away by water and wind erosion, while the forest were subjected to two pretreatments prior to wet sieving: (1) lands are protected from such losses. (is indicates that soil immersed immediately in water (soaked) or (2) capillary inherent properties such as particle distribution can be af- rewetted at 4 fected by long-term intensive tillage of the soils. However, C overnight followed by wet sieving using a 0.5 mm sieve. (e reported ﬁgures are the percentage of the current ﬁnding disagrees with the report in [28] in which aggregates retained after wet sieving [6]. Soil pH was it was found that land use systems had no eﬀect on soil measured in water (pH-H O) using a pH meter in a 1 : 2.5 particles. (is ﬁnding is in agreement with the works [6, 29], soil : water ratio [20]. in which intensive land uses and soil depths signiﬁcantly (e content of organic carbon (OC) (%) was decided by aﬀected particle size distribution creating more sandy the method in [21]. (e total nitrogen (TN) (%) was de- texture. termined using the Kjeldahl methods for digestion [22], and (e bulk density and total porosity (TP) were signiﬁ- available phosphorus (AP) (mg/kg) was determined by cantly (P≤ 0.01) aﬀected by land use/land cover change. (e most favorable properties (low BD and high TP) were extraction from the soil using sodium carbonate at a pH equal to 8.5 [23]. (e cation exchange capacity (CEC) recorded for the forest land and homestead garden ﬁelds, (cmol+/kg) of the soils was determined at a soil pH 7 after while cultivated outﬁelds had the highest BD (1.62 g/cm displacement by using the 1 N ammonium acetate method in and the lowest TP (0.32%), indicating soil compaction and which it was, thereafter, estimated titrimetrically by distil- wettability problems under intensively cultivated outﬁelds. lation of ammonium that was displaced by sodium [24]. Wettability problem of soils of cultivated outﬁelds could be 2+ 2+ + + Exchangeable bases (Ca , Mg , Na , and K ) were de- minimized by integrating regular tillage with proper soil termined after leaching the soils with ammonium acetate fertility management. High bulk density is an indicator of 2+ 2+ [25]. Amounts of Ca and Mg in the leachate were an- low soil porosity which may cause poor movement of air and alyzed by an (AAS) atomic absorption spectrophotometer, water through the soil. As bulk density increases, both TP + + and K and Na were analyzed by a ﬂame photometer. and soil wettability decreases. Increased compaction may Extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) were result in disrupting both inﬁltration and redistribution of extracted by diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) as water in the soils including reduced soil wettability and described in [26]. (e amounts of all these micronutrients porosity [9]. (e cause of reduced soil wettability (soil water were measured by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer repellency) is compaction that results in high bulk density at their respective wavelengths. and the soil particles with a hydrophobic surface coating. (is is inﬂuenced by the surface area of the soil, which varies considerably with the soil texture. 2.4. Statistical Analysis. (e analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to determine variations in soil parameters among land use types. Treatment means comparison was 3.2. Soil Water-Holding Capacity and Water-Stable Aggregates. determined using the least signiﬁcant diﬀerence (LSD) at Water-holding capacity at PWP and AWC of the soil was 0.05 level of signiﬁcances [27]. For the analysis of data, the signiﬁcantly aﬀected (P< 0.05) by the land use type, but SPSS software (version 16.0 for Windows) was used. no signiﬁcant diﬀerence was observed in the soil water content at FC (Table 3). Forest soil had the highest AWC (15.32 mm/m), while homestead garden ﬁelds had the 3. Results and Discussion highest water-holding capacity at PWP (25.49). (e highest value of water retention capacity at PWP in the 3.1. Soil Texture, Bulk Density, and Porosity. (e mean values of particle size of soils in noncultivated lands (forest and homestead garden ﬁelds can be attributed to the high percentage of the organic matter content from farm yard grazing land) were compared with the mean values of nonforested lands (cultivated outﬁelds, homestead garden manure application. Soil fertility of the homestead garden ﬁelds is maintained through the application of ﬁelds, and grazing land). (e mean value of sand in the nonforested land (39.3%) was higher than the mean value of approximately 9 tons per hectare per year of farmyard manure on average besides tree leaf litters. (e highest sand in the noncultivated land (35%), while the mean value of clay in the noncultivated land (22.5%) was higher than the soil water retention at FC under the forest land use means Advances in Agriculture 5 Table 1: Mean values of particle size of soils as aﬀected by the noncultivated and nonforested parts of the experimental area. Noncultivated land Nonforested land Particle size distribution (%) Forest land Grazing land Mean Cultivated outﬁeld Homestead garden ﬁeld Grazing land Mean Sand 34.0 36.0 35.0 46.0 36.0 36.0 39.3 Silt 41.0 45.0 43.0 43.0 41.0 45.0 43.0 Clay 26.0 19.0 22.5 11.0 23.0 19.0 17.6 Table 2: Mean values of selected physical properties of soils as aﬀected by diﬀerent land uses. Particle size distribution (%) Land use Sand Silt Clay Si/Cl Textural class BD (g/cm ) TP (%) d c a c d a Forest 34 41b 26 1.57 Clay loam 1.21 0.53 c a c b b b Grazing land 36b 45 19 2.42 Clay loam 1.5 0.44 a ab d a a d Cultivated outﬁelds 46 4 3 11 3.9 Sandy loam 1.62 0.32 b bc a c c c Homestead 36 41 23 1.8 1.41 0.43 Mean 38.01 42.37 19.71 2.42 1.45 0.43 SE (±) 0.39 0.54 0.47 0.28 Clay loam 0.05 0.01 F 69.24 4.69 61.13 46.14 24.86 16.09 Sig ∗∗∗ ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; BD � bulk density, TP � total porosity, and SE � standard error of ∗∗∗ ∗ the mean; P< 0.001 and P< 0.05. Table 3: Mean values of some selected physical properties of soils as aﬀected by land uses. Water-holding capacity Land use Water-stable aggregates FC (1/3 bar) PWP (15 bar) AWC (mm/m) ab a a Forest 35.16 19.84 15.32 84.65 b a a Grazing land 28.44 13.5 14.94 75.51 b a a Cultivated outﬁelds 28.38 15.9 12.48 63.49 a d a Homestead 34.31 25.49 8.81 82.13 Mean 31.37 18.58 12.79 76.84 SE (±) 1.27 0.84 0.57 1.6 F 1.68 8.47 5.9 9.3 Sig Ns ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; FC � ﬁeld capacity, PWP � permanent wilting point, ∗∗ ∗ AWC � available water-holding capacity, SE � standard error of mean, and ns � nonsigniﬁcant; P< 0.01 and P< 0.05. the natural vegetation shows no signs of wilting after ﬁeld report in [4]. Loss of organic matter is likely to have soil crops have long wilted. Landon [30] explained that SOC, aggregates easily detach from each other, and ﬁnally the texture, mineralogy, and morphology of soil aﬀect the ﬁner particles are transported by water erosion. content of the available water content. In the same way, the highest water-stable aggregates were found in forest 3.3. Soil Reaction (pH), OC, TN, and AP. (e pH (H O) value soils (84.65%) and homestead garden ﬁelds (82.13%), of the soils was signiﬁcantly (P≤ 0.01) aﬀected by land use reﬂecting high organic matter content that served as types. (e highest mean value (7.20) and the lowest (5.80) soil aggregating agents making the soils less susceptible to pH (H O) values were recorded under the forestland and the erosion (Table 3). Intensive cultivation degrades the soil 2 cultivated outﬁelds, respectively (Table 4). According to the structural aggregation which is reﬂected by a diminished rating proposed in [30], the soil pH is moderately acidic in aggregate stability under intensively cultivated outﬁelds. cultivated outﬁelds but neutral under forestlands, suggesting After long-term continuous cultivation, the amount of that intensive land use including the application of the mineral the water-stable aggregate was signiﬁcantly reduced from fertilizer in cultivated outﬁelds leads to acidiﬁcation. (is 86.22% in the forest soil to 63.5% in the cultivated ﬁnding is in agreement with the reports in [9, 31]. outﬁeld soil. (is result is in agreement with the research 6 Advances in Agriculture Table 4: Mean values of the selected chemical properties of soils as aﬀected by land uses. Land use pH (H 0) OC% TN (%) C/N ratio AP (mg/kg) a a a a Forest 7.20 2.24 0.24 9.33 16.00 c c b ab Grazing land 6.57 1.93 0.20 9.65 14.27 d d c d Cultivated outﬁelds 5.80 1.31 0.14 9.36 9.13 b c b c Homestead 6.83 1.85 0.20 9.25 12.27 Mean 6.6 1.83 0.19 9.40 12.92 SE (±) 0.08 0.1 0.01 0.36 0.51 F 17.12 13.59 57.71 0.079 10.99 Sig ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ns ∗∗ For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; OC � organic carbon, TN � total nitrogen, C/N � carbon to nitrogen ∗∗∗ ∗∗ ratio, AP � available phosphorus, SE � standard error of the mean, and ns � nonsigniﬁcant; P< 0.001 and P< 0.01. Table 5: Mean values of CEC and exchangeable basic cations as aﬀected by land uses. Land use CEC (Meq/100gm) Ca (Cmol/kg) Mg (Cmol/kg) Na (Cmol/kg) K (Cmol/kg) TEB PBS (TEB/CEC∗ 100) a a a a a a Forest 36.63 15.40 8.69 0.19 4.07 28.35 77.40 ab a ab b a a Grazing land 33.07 14.60 7.49 0.16 3.74 25.99 79.00 c b b c b b Cultivated outﬁelds 25.40 11.13 6.41 0.12 2.45 20.11 79.20 bc a b b a a Homestead 29.13 13.53 6.85 0.16 2.93 23.47 81.00 Mean 31.06 13.67 7.36 0.16 3.3 24.51 80.78 SE (±) 1.05 0.36 0.3 0.14 0.22 0.941 2.05 F 7.08 8.48 3.47 18.46 9.08 54.35 1.45 ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ Sig ns ns For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; CEC � cation exchange capacity, Ca � exchangeable calcium, Mg � exchangeable magnesium, Na � exchangeable sodium, K � exchangeable potassium, TEB � total exchangeable bases, BS � base saturation, SE � standard ∗∗∗ ∗∗ error of the mean, and ns � nonsigniﬁcant; P< 0.001; P< 0.01. (e soil organic carbon content was signiﬁcantly forests and grazing lands with good cover of natural vege- (P≤ 0.001) aﬀected by land use with signiﬁcantly higher tation, its return into soil is high which increases the SOM mean values (2.24%) under the forest land and lower mean content, which in turn increases the total nitrogen content of values (1.31%) under intensively cultivated outﬁelds (Table 4). these soils. (e diﬀerence can be explained by intensive cultivation of the (ere was no signiﬁcant diﬀerence among evaluated land that speeds up oxidation of the organic matter coupled land use types in C/N ratios, and its mean value of 9.40 is with total removal of crop residues, as animal feed and source suggesting rapid organic matter decomposition under the of household energy [9]. Based on the ratings in [32], the SOC humid tropical conditions of the area, indicating improved availability of nitrogen to plants, and there will be possi- content of the soils was rated as low under cultivated outﬁelds and medium under the grazing land and homestead garden bilities to incorporate crop residues to the soil without adverse eﬀect of nitrogen immobilization [38]. Optimum ﬁelds and rated as high under the forest land (Table 4). (is result is in agreement with the ﬁndings in [33, 34], in which it range of the C/N ratio is about 10 :1 to 12 :1 that provides was reported that the SOC content is lower in cultivated soils nitrogen in excess of microbial needs [39]. (erefore, the C/ than in those soils under natural vegetation. N ratio of the soils of the study area was below the optimum Total nitrogen content of soils was signiﬁcantly range of microbial needs. (P≤ 0.000) aﬀected by land use with the higher mean values (e available phosphorus was signiﬁcantly (P≤ 0.01) (0.24%) under the forest land and the lowest (0.14%) under aﬀected by land use/land cover change with the highest intensively cultivated outﬁelds, while the grazing land and mean values (16 mg/kg) under the forest land, followed by homestead garden ﬁelds had similar mean values (Table 4). that under the grazing land (14.27 mg/kg), and the lowest (9.13 mg/kg) under the intensively cultivated outﬁelds (e nitrogen content of the soils is generally in the low to medium range as one moves from cultivated outﬁelds to the (Table 4). It is interesting to note that the phosphorus level is low in the cultivated outﬁelds in spite of decades of DAP forest, homestead garden ﬁelds, and grazing areas and fol- lows the pattern of the organic matter levels. (is ﬁnding is (diammonium phosphate: 18–46% and N–P O ) fertilizer 2 5 in agreement with the results in [35, 36], in which it was application, suggesting the less availability of phosphate in reported that intensive and continuous cultivation speed up the soil is perhaps due to high ﬁxation in the clay colloids. oxidation of OC and thus resulted in reduction of TN. Based on the ratings, the available phosphorus content of the However, the content of total nitrogen was higher in the soils was rated as low under cultivated outﬁelds and rated as forest land (0.24) and lower in the crop land (0.14) (Table 4). medium under the forest land, grazing land, and homestead (is result is in conformity with the ﬁndings in [37]. In garden ﬁelds [32]. Advances in Agriculture 7 Table 6: Mean values of selected micronutrients as aﬀected by soil fertility and sustain agricultural production in the study diﬀerent land use classes. area and in other similar areas of the Ethiopian highlands. Furthermore, eﬀorts that ensure sustainable land manage- Mg/kg Land use ment (application of balanced plant nutrients, farmyard Fe Mn Zn Cu manure, crop residue return, and compost) ought to be a a d b Forest 81.02 55.47 1.52 0.58 taken so as to improve the soil quality in intensively cul- a a c c Grazing land 102.14 101.38 2.55 0.39 tivated outﬁelds. a a b b Cultivated outﬁelds 98.60 92.65 4.82 0.54 a a a a Homestead 100.37 97.02 7.38 0.68 Mean 95.53 86.63 4.07 0.55 Data Availability SE (±) 3.89 5.25 0.37 0.04 F 6.05 16.15 50.31 6.75 (e data used to support the ﬁndings of this study are Sig ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗ available upon request from corresponding author. For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; Fe � iron, Mn � manganese, Zn � zinc, Cu � copper, ∗∗∗ ∗ and SE � standard error of the mean; P< 0.001; P< 0.05. Conflicts of Interest (e authors declare no conﬂicts of interest. 3.4. Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Bases. (e CEC and exchangeable bases of the soils (except for Mg) Acknowledgments are highly signiﬁcantly (P< 0.01) varied across land use types, with all parameters being higher under the forest land (e authors wish to thank the Center for Environmental use and lower under the cultivated outﬁelds (Table 5). (e Sciences, Addis Ababa University, for providing funds and mean values of CEC (31 cmol (+)/kg), total exchangeable facilities. Financial support from the Wachemo University is bases (24.51 Cmol/Kg), and base saturation (80%) are in the gratefully acknowledged. Generous support from Mr. high range of the good fertility status of the soil. (ese results Markos Dae and Mr. Dilamo Woldeyohannes during the are in agreement with pervious ﬁndings in [39–41] which ﬁeld work is highly appreciated. also reported high cation exchange capacity (CEC) values under the grassland as compared to the cultivated land. References [1] Y. G. Selassie and G. Ayanna, “Eﬀects of diﬀerent land use 3.5. Micronutrients. (e soils are generally high in Fe and systems on selected physico-chemical properties of soils in Mn but low to medium in Cu and Zn (Table 6), which is northwestern Ethiopia,” Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 5, consistent with the acidic soil reaction. In acidic soils, the no. 4, pp. 112–120, 2013. level of micronutrients is expected to be high except for Cu [2] H. A, G. Heluf, B. Bobe, and A. Enyew, “Fertility status of soils [9]. (ere was a highly signiﬁcant (P< 0.001) variation in under diﬀerent land uses at wujiraba watershed, northwestern Mn and Zn levels among the land use types; however, Fe and highlands of Ethiopia,” Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Cu were signiﬁcantly (P≤ 0.05) aﬀected by land use/land vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 410–419, 2014. cover change. Homestead and grazing lands have the highest [3] J. Arshad, Y. S. Moon, and M. Z. Abdin, “Sulfur-a general levels of all micronutrients. 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Sustaining Ethiopia’s Foreign Exchange Earnings from Exports and Remittances, Ethiopian Economic Association (EEA)/ Ethiopian Economic Policy Research Institute (EEPRI), Addis 4. Conclusion Ababa, Ethiopia, 2017. [6] E. Elias, “Characteristics of nitisol proﬁles as aﬀected by land (e result of the study showed that land use/land cover use type and slope class in some Ethiopian highlands,” En- change signiﬁcantly aﬀects physicochemical properties of vironmental Systems Research, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 20, 2017. soils. (e most favorable soil properties were observed under [7] H. S. Gelagay and A. S. Minale, “Soil loss estimation using GIS the forestland, followed by homestead garden ﬁelds and and remote sensing techniques: a case of koga watershed, grazing areas, while the least favorable soil properties were northwestern Ethiopia,” International Soil and Water Con- observed in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. 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Publisher: Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Copyright: Copyright © 2020 Belayneh Bufebo and Eyasu Elias. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ISSN: 2356-654X
eISSN: 2314-7539
DOI: 10.1155/2020/5145483
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Abstract

Hindawi Advances in Agriculture Volume 2020, Article ID 5145483, 8 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/5145483 Research Article Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia 1,2 2 Belayneh Bufebo and Eyasu Elias Department of Natural Resource Management, Wachemo University, P.O. Box 667, Hosanna, Ethiopia Center for Environmental Science, Natural and Computational Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Correspondence should be addressed to Belayneh Bufebo; belaytumma@gmail.com Received 19 November 2019; Revised 30 March 2020; Accepted 13 May 2020; Published 28 July 2020 Academic Editor: Tibor Janda Copyright © 2020 Belayneh Bufebo and Eyasu Elias. (is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Land use change from natural ecosystems to managed agroecosystems is one of the main causes of soil fertility decline. Severe soil erosion caused by agricultural expansion and poor management worsened soil nutrient depletion in cultivated outﬁelds (crop lands). (is study was conducted to examine the eﬀects of land use and land cover changes (LU/LC) on selected soil physi- cochemical properties in the Shenkolla watershed. A total of 40 top soil samples at 0–20 cm depth were collected from four land use/land cover types (forest land, grazing land, cultivated outﬁeld, and cultivated homestead garden ﬁelds). (e analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to determine diﬀerences in soil parameters among land use types. Treatment means comparison was determined using the least signiﬁcant diﬀerence (LSD) at 0.05 level of signiﬁcances. (e result indicated that there were signiﬁcant (P< 0.05) diﬀerences among the four LU/LC types for soil characteristics. For most parameters evaluated, the most favorable soil properties were observed in the forest land, followed by homestead garden ﬁelds, while the least favorable soil properties were found in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. Increase in the extent of cultivated land at the expense of forest cover associated with poor management has promoted signiﬁcant loss of soil quality in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. Reducing the land cover conversion and adopting proper management practices of the soil commonly used in homestead garden ﬁelds are very crucial in order to improve soil fertility in intensively cultivated outﬁelds. However, soil nutrient removal, organic matter depletion, 1. Introduction and soil erosion are seriously threatening the sustainability Soil degradation caused by unsuitable use of land and weak of agricultural production in Ethiopia [6, 7]. (e shortage of management is a problem of the entire world that has drawn land in densely populated areas of the country, to meet the attraction towards sustainable agricultural production [1]. demand for food production, led to conversion of vast tracts Inappropriate agricultural practices and land cover changes of forestlands into cultivated crop lands [8]. may rapidly decline soil quality by deteriorating its physi- Deforestation, overgrazing, and continuous cultivation cochemical properties and biological activity [2, 3]. Land use have triggered soil erosion losses at the rate of 130 tones/ha changes, such as the conversion of forest and grazing lands for cultivated ﬁelds and 35 tons/ha average for all land use to intensively cultivated cropland, reduce the SOM content classes in the highland areas of the country, which was and cause soil bulk density to increase and aggregate stability estimated to be one of the highest in Africa [6]. (erefore, and saturated hydraulic conductivity to decline [4]. evaluating soil physicochemical properties in diﬀerent land Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, use types is crucial to provide important information for accounting for more than 41% of gross domestic prod- planners and policy makers to devise development inter- uct, 84% of export, and 80% of total employment [5]. ventions that ensure sustainable land management and food 2 Advances in Agriculture security in the study area and elsewhere in the highlands of livestock on the communal land. Especially during the Ethiopia. To this end, the study was conducted to examine cropping season, all livestock are conﬁned to the scarce grazing lands which for 5-6 months of the year are subject to the eﬀects of land use/land cover change on selected soil physical and chemical properties in the Shenkolla watershed, immense grazing pressure. Large herd size on small grazing south central Ethiopia. lands and poor pasture management increased the pressure on the grazing land of the study area [9]. As a result, the animals cannot get enough fodder to stay healthy and in 2. Materials and Methods good condition; similarly, the natural vegetation has no chance to recover at any time of the year. (ere is no 2.1. Description of the Study Area. (e study was undertaken reseeding eﬀect, the most palatable grasses and legumes have in the Shenkolla watershed, covering 1457 ha lying, in the disappeared, and bare patches have developed, giving room eastern part of the Soro district in the Hadiya zone of Southern for accelerated soil erosion and severe dissection by rills and Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State. (e geo- gullies. graphical location of the area falls within the coordinates of ° ° ° ° In the study area, agricultural cultivation (cultivated 7 24′30″–7 27′0″ N latitude and 37 43′30″–37 46′30″ E lon- outﬁelds and homestead garden ﬁelds) was started ap- gitude (Figure 1). (e altitude ranges from 2200 to 2830 m proximately forty years ago. Arable lands are composed of which is characterized by gentle sloping to high-relief hills the intensively cultivated outﬁelds (crop lands) and well- which ranges from 5 to 45%. managed homestead garden ﬁelds. Homestead garden ﬁelds Geological formation is dominated by the quaternary are covered with staple food crops such as enset (Ensete volcanic composed of acidic parent materials (rhyolites, ventricosum) and trees such as avocado (Persea americana), trachytes, and ignimbrites), while basaltic formations are of Croton macrostachyus, and Erythrina spp with the under- minor importance [9]. Nitisols are the most dominant soil growth of some vegetables and spices forming a multistory types found in all land uses (forest land, grazing land, home garden [10]. (e distant cultivated outﬁelds are homestead garden ﬁelds, and cultivated outﬁelds) of the planted with cereals, wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea watershed. Nitisols have good physical properties, with high mays), barley (Hordeum vulgare), sorghum (Sorghum bi- water-holding capacity and good drainage, having high color), and teﬀ (Eragrostis tef) that form the costaples with potential for agricultural uses, on which subsistent farmers enset (Ensete ventricosum). of the watershed depend to grow a variety of crops and graze Soil fertility management is clearly diﬀerentiated be- livestock. [9]. (e most common geomorphic environment tween the cultivated outﬁelds and homestead garden ﬁelds. for Nitisols in the watershed is dissected side slopes (5–10%). Hoeing and incorporation of the farmyard manure in Luvisols are also found in in all land use classes on strongly homestead garden ﬁelds is distinctly diﬀerent from the sloping gradients (10–15%). (e area coverage of Vertisols is plough-based complex system in the intensively cultivated limited to a very small area of the grazing land at poorly outﬁelds [9]. (e homestead garden ﬁelds receive the ap- drained bottom slope position, Cambisols are found in the plication of a wide range of organic fertilizers (farmyard forest land on high relief, and Planosols cover a small area of manure, household refuse, compost, and leaf litter). Soil cultivated outﬁelds on the upper side of Vertisols [9]. fertility of the homestead garden ﬁelds is maintained (e climate is characterized generally as tepid submoist through the application of approximately 9 tons per hectare midhighland with a long-term average rainfall of about per year of farmyard manure on average, while the crop 1107 mm with the bimodal pattern having (Belg) light rainy cultivated outﬁelds are treated with a dose of less than season (March to May) and (Meher) the heavy rainy season prescribed amounts of mineral fertilizers with an average from June to September. (e annual average temperature of rate of 50 kg urea and 65 kg/ha DAP (diammonium phos- the study area is 17.2 C (Figure 2). (e long-maturing crops phate: 18% N and 46% P O ) [11]. Crop residue removal is such as maize and sorghum are planted during the Belg rains 2 5 another problem that causes soil fertility decline in culti- and extend their growth period into the main rainy season vated outﬁelds. As a result, cultivated outﬁelds are largely when wheat and teﬀ are planted. Under normal climatic depleted of soil fertility but homestead garden ﬁelds are condition, the cultivation of crops is possible during both enriched. Belg (light rainy season) and Meher (heavy rainy season). (e diﬀerences in land use and management practices indicated that there was a diﬀerence in the extent of water 2.2. Land Use Types and Pattern of Management. Mixed erosion in the study area. Field observation indicated the crop-livestock system is the major source of livelihood for presence of slight water erosion in the forest land and homestead garden ﬁelds and accelerated water erosion in the the community in the study area. (e system is noted for its high population densities (200–350 persons per sq.km) and grazing land and cultivated outﬁelds at the study site. (is severe land shortage (average holdings of 0.5 ha for a family shows the susceptibility of the soils of cultivated outﬁelds of 8 persons) along with intensive cultivation. Forest and and the grazing land to water erosion. grazing lands are communally owned and managed, while the arable lands are individually owned. Livestock husbandry is based on free grazing on com- 2.3. Soil Sampling and Analysis. From each of the four land use types (i.e., forest land, grazing land, cultivated outﬁelds, munal grazing lands. Free grazing is an age-old traditional system which allows owners to indiscriminately graze their and cultivated homestead garden ﬁelds), ten replicates of Advances in Agriculture 3 SNNPR Ethiopia Hadiya zone 37°43′30″E 37°44′0″E 37°44′30″E 37°45′0″E 37°45′30″E 37°46′0″E 37°46′30″E Map of the study area W E Soro district 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 kms Shenkolla_boundary Figure 1: Map of the study area within the southern region of Ethiopia. 180 19 sampler of 100 cm in volume from each land use in ten 18.5 replications for bulk density and water retention capacity 140 determination. Disturbed soil samples were collected using 17.5 120 an auger from each land use in ten replications. A total of 40 (4 treatment × 10 replications) disturbed soil samples and 40 16.5 (4 treatment × 10 replications) undisturbed core samples were collected. Disturbed soil samples placed in polythene 15.5 bags and undisturbed soil samples in a steel core sampler were well labeled as described by the Soil Survey Field and 14.5 Laboratory Method Manual [12] and then taken for the 0 14 subsequent laboratory test. Analyses of the soil samples for ﬁeld capacity (FC), permanent wilting point (PWP), water-holding capacity (WHC), aggregate stability, and texture were conducted at the Ethiopian Water Works Construction Design and Su- Rainfall in mm pervision Enterprise soil fertility lab following laboratory Temperature in °C procedures. Analyses of the soil samples for bulk density Figure 2: Mean monthly rainfall and temperature of the study area. (BD), particle density (PD), total porosity (TP), soil pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen, available phosphorus disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected, (AP), cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable bases, following line transects which were laid along the contour of and some micronutrients were conducted at the South the sampled area. To avoid the border eﬀect, the line transect Nations Nationalities and People’s Region Agricultural was located at a distance of 5 m from the edges. On each line Bureau, soil fertility laboratory. (ese soil laboratories are transect, ten sampling points were located at a distance of 25 with examination standards of ES ISO 10390 : 2014 and ES meters apart at a depth of 0–20 cm. Soil samples were ISO 11263 : 2015. collected during December 2017 to January 2017 after the Undisturbed soil samples were air-dried, ground, and crop harvest. (e approximate length and width of sampled passed through 2 mm sieve and analyzed for physical and area were 280 m × 30 m, 260 m × 20 m, 285 m × 30 m, and chemical parameters. (e hydrometer method outlined in 270 m × 25 m for the forest land, grazing land, cultivated [13] was used to determine soil particle size distribution. (e outﬁelds, and cultivated homestead garden ﬁelds, respec- soil textural names were determined based on the USDA tively. Undisturbed soil samples were taken by a steel core textural triangle as described in [14]. (e bulk density (BD) Rainfall (mm) January February March April May June July August September October November December Temperature (°C) 7°24′30″N7°25′0″N7°25′30″N7°26′0″N7°26′30″N 7°27′0″N 4 Advances in Agriculture of the soil was estimated from undisturbed soil samples mean value of clay in the nonforested land (17.6%). (is collected using a steel core sampler, and the procedures indicated the positive inﬂuence of the noncultivated land on outlined in [15] was used to determine both BD and particle soil quality. But, there was no diﬀerence between the mean density (PD). Total porosity (TP) was estimated from the values of silt in the noncultivated land and the nonforested bulk density (BD) and particle density (PD) as outlined in land (Table 1). [16]. (e water-holding capacity of the soil (w/w, %) at ﬁeld Moreover, analysis of particle size of soils indicated that capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) were there was a signiﬁcant diﬀerence among land use types measured at 1/3 and 15 bars of soil water potential, using the (Table 2). Relatively higher sand content (46%) was recorded pressure plate apparatus [17]. Plant available water-holding in soils of cultivated outﬁelds followed by that of the grazing capacity (AWC) was obtained by subtracting PWP from FC land. However, the highest value of clay (26%) was recorded [18]. (e soil aggregate stability test was carried out by the in forest soils. (is implies that intensive cultivation of the wet sieving method as outlined in [19]. It involves abrupt soils increases sand (course particles) as ﬁne particles are submergence of air-dry aggregates in water (soil aggregates washed away by water and wind erosion, while the forest were subjected to two pretreatments prior to wet sieving: (1) lands are protected from such losses. (is indicates that soil immersed immediately in water (soaked) or (2) capillary inherent properties such as particle distribution can be af- rewetted at 4 fected by long-term intensive tillage of the soils. However, C overnight followed by wet sieving using a 0.5 mm sieve. (e reported ﬁgures are the percentage of the current ﬁnding disagrees with the report in [28] in which aggregates retained after wet sieving [6]. Soil pH was it was found that land use systems had no eﬀect on soil measured in water (pH-H O) using a pH meter in a 1 : 2.5 particles. (is ﬁnding is in agreement with the works [6, 29], soil : water ratio [20]. in which intensive land uses and soil depths signiﬁcantly (e content of organic carbon (OC) (%) was decided by aﬀected particle size distribution creating more sandy the method in [21]. (e total nitrogen (TN) (%) was de- texture. termined using the Kjeldahl methods for digestion [22], and (e bulk density and total porosity (TP) were signiﬁ- available phosphorus (AP) (mg/kg) was determined by cantly (P≤ 0.01) aﬀected by land use/land cover change. (e most favorable properties (low BD and high TP) were extraction from the soil using sodium carbonate at a pH equal to 8.5 [23]. (e cation exchange capacity (CEC) recorded for the forest land and homestead garden ﬁelds, (cmol+/kg) of the soils was determined at a soil pH 7 after while cultivated outﬁelds had the highest BD (1.62 g/cm displacement by using the 1 N ammonium acetate method in and the lowest TP (0.32%), indicating soil compaction and which it was, thereafter, estimated titrimetrically by distil- wettability problems under intensively cultivated outﬁelds. lation of ammonium that was displaced by sodium [24]. Wettability problem of soils of cultivated outﬁelds could be 2+ 2+ + + Exchangeable bases (Ca , Mg , Na , and K ) were de- minimized by integrating regular tillage with proper soil termined after leaching the soils with ammonium acetate fertility management. High bulk density is an indicator of 2+ 2+ [25]. Amounts of Ca and Mg in the leachate were an- low soil porosity which may cause poor movement of air and alyzed by an (AAS) atomic absorption spectrophotometer, water through the soil. As bulk density increases, both TP + + and K and Na were analyzed by a ﬂame photometer. and soil wettability decreases. Increased compaction may Extractable micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) were result in disrupting both inﬁltration and redistribution of extracted by diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) as water in the soils including reduced soil wettability and described in [26]. (e amounts of all these micronutrients porosity [9]. (e cause of reduced soil wettability (soil water were measured by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer repellency) is compaction that results in high bulk density at their respective wavelengths. and the soil particles with a hydrophobic surface coating. (is is inﬂuenced by the surface area of the soil, which varies considerably with the soil texture. 2.4. Statistical Analysis. (e analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to determine variations in soil parameters among land use types. Treatment means comparison was 3.2. Soil Water-Holding Capacity and Water-Stable Aggregates. determined using the least signiﬁcant diﬀerence (LSD) at Water-holding capacity at PWP and AWC of the soil was 0.05 level of signiﬁcances [27]. For the analysis of data, the signiﬁcantly aﬀected (P< 0.05) by the land use type, but SPSS software (version 16.0 for Windows) was used. no signiﬁcant diﬀerence was observed in the soil water content at FC (Table 3). Forest soil had the highest AWC (15.32 mm/m), while homestead garden ﬁelds had the 3. Results and Discussion highest water-holding capacity at PWP (25.49). (e highest value of water retention capacity at PWP in the 3.1. Soil Texture, Bulk Density, and Porosity. (e mean values of particle size of soils in noncultivated lands (forest and homestead garden ﬁelds can be attributed to the high percentage of the organic matter content from farm yard grazing land) were compared with the mean values of nonforested lands (cultivated outﬁelds, homestead garden manure application. Soil fertility of the homestead garden ﬁelds is maintained through the application of ﬁelds, and grazing land). (e mean value of sand in the nonforested land (39.3%) was higher than the mean value of approximately 9 tons per hectare per year of farmyard manure on average besides tree leaf litters. (e highest sand in the noncultivated land (35%), while the mean value of clay in the noncultivated land (22.5%) was higher than the soil water retention at FC under the forest land use means Advances in Agriculture 5 Table 1: Mean values of particle size of soils as aﬀected by the noncultivated and nonforested parts of the experimental area. Noncultivated land Nonforested land Particle size distribution (%) Forest land Grazing land Mean Cultivated outﬁeld Homestead garden ﬁeld Grazing land Mean Sand 34.0 36.0 35.0 46.0 36.0 36.0 39.3 Silt 41.0 45.0 43.0 43.0 41.0 45.0 43.0 Clay 26.0 19.0 22.5 11.0 23.0 19.0 17.6 Table 2: Mean values of selected physical properties of soils as aﬀected by diﬀerent land uses. Particle size distribution (%) Land use Sand Silt Clay Si/Cl Textural class BD (g/cm ) TP (%) d c a c d a Forest 34 41b 26 1.57 Clay loam 1.21 0.53 c a c b b b Grazing land 36b 45 19 2.42 Clay loam 1.5 0.44 a ab d a a d Cultivated outﬁelds 46 4 3 11 3.9 Sandy loam 1.62 0.32 b bc a c c c Homestead 36 41 23 1.8 1.41 0.43 Mean 38.01 42.37 19.71 2.42 1.45 0.43 SE (±) 0.39 0.54 0.47 0.28 Clay loam 0.05 0.01 F 69.24 4.69 61.13 46.14 24.86 16.09 Sig ∗∗∗ ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; BD � bulk density, TP � total porosity, and SE � standard error of ∗∗∗ ∗ the mean; P< 0.001 and P< 0.05. Table 3: Mean values of some selected physical properties of soils as aﬀected by land uses. Water-holding capacity Land use Water-stable aggregates FC (1/3 bar) PWP (15 bar) AWC (mm/m) ab a a Forest 35.16 19.84 15.32 84.65 b a a Grazing land 28.44 13.5 14.94 75.51 b a a Cultivated outﬁelds 28.38 15.9 12.48 63.49 a d a Homestead 34.31 25.49 8.81 82.13 Mean 31.37 18.58 12.79 76.84 SE (±) 1.27 0.84 0.57 1.6 F 1.68 8.47 5.9 9.3 Sig Ns ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; FC � ﬁeld capacity, PWP � permanent wilting point, ∗∗ ∗ AWC � available water-holding capacity, SE � standard error of mean, and ns � nonsigniﬁcant; P< 0.01 and P< 0.05. the natural vegetation shows no signs of wilting after ﬁeld report in [4]. Loss of organic matter is likely to have soil crops have long wilted. Landon [30] explained that SOC, aggregates easily detach from each other, and ﬁnally the texture, mineralogy, and morphology of soil aﬀect the ﬁner particles are transported by water erosion. content of the available water content. In the same way, the highest water-stable aggregates were found in forest 3.3. Soil Reaction (pH), OC, TN, and AP. (e pH (H O) value soils (84.65%) and homestead garden ﬁelds (82.13%), of the soils was signiﬁcantly (P≤ 0.01) aﬀected by land use reﬂecting high organic matter content that served as types. (e highest mean value (7.20) and the lowest (5.80) soil aggregating agents making the soils less susceptible to pH (H O) values were recorded under the forestland and the erosion (Table 3). Intensive cultivation degrades the soil 2 cultivated outﬁelds, respectively (Table 4). According to the structural aggregation which is reﬂected by a diminished rating proposed in [30], the soil pH is moderately acidic in aggregate stability under intensively cultivated outﬁelds. cultivated outﬁelds but neutral under forestlands, suggesting After long-term continuous cultivation, the amount of that intensive land use including the application of the mineral the water-stable aggregate was signiﬁcantly reduced from fertilizer in cultivated outﬁelds leads to acidiﬁcation. (is 86.22% in the forest soil to 63.5% in the cultivated ﬁnding is in agreement with the reports in [9, 31]. outﬁeld soil. (is result is in agreement with the research 6 Advances in Agriculture Table 4: Mean values of the selected chemical properties of soils as aﬀected by land uses. Land use pH (H 0) OC% TN (%) C/N ratio AP (mg/kg) a a a a Forest 7.20 2.24 0.24 9.33 16.00 c c b ab Grazing land 6.57 1.93 0.20 9.65 14.27 d d c d Cultivated outﬁelds 5.80 1.31 0.14 9.36 9.13 b c b c Homestead 6.83 1.85 0.20 9.25 12.27 Mean 6.6 1.83 0.19 9.40 12.92 SE (±) 0.08 0.1 0.01 0.36 0.51 F 17.12 13.59 57.71 0.079 10.99 Sig ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ns ∗∗ For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; OC � organic carbon, TN � total nitrogen, C/N � carbon to nitrogen ∗∗∗ ∗∗ ratio, AP � available phosphorus, SE � standard error of the mean, and ns � nonsigniﬁcant; P< 0.001 and P< 0.01. Table 5: Mean values of CEC and exchangeable basic cations as aﬀected by land uses. Land use CEC (Meq/100gm) Ca (Cmol/kg) Mg (Cmol/kg) Na (Cmol/kg) K (Cmol/kg) TEB PBS (TEB/CEC∗ 100) a a a a a a Forest 36.63 15.40 8.69 0.19 4.07 28.35 77.40 ab a ab b a a Grazing land 33.07 14.60 7.49 0.16 3.74 25.99 79.00 c b b c b b Cultivated outﬁelds 25.40 11.13 6.41 0.12 2.45 20.11 79.20 bc a b b a a Homestead 29.13 13.53 6.85 0.16 2.93 23.47 81.00 Mean 31.06 13.67 7.36 0.16 3.3 24.51 80.78 SE (±) 1.05 0.36 0.3 0.14 0.22 0.941 2.05 F 7.08 8.48 3.47 18.46 9.08 54.35 1.45 ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ Sig ns ns For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; CEC � cation exchange capacity, Ca � exchangeable calcium, Mg � exchangeable magnesium, Na � exchangeable sodium, K � exchangeable potassium, TEB � total exchangeable bases, BS � base saturation, SE � standard ∗∗∗ ∗∗ error of the mean, and ns � nonsigniﬁcant; P< 0.001; P< 0.01. (e soil organic carbon content was signiﬁcantly forests and grazing lands with good cover of natural vege- (P≤ 0.001) aﬀected by land use with signiﬁcantly higher tation, its return into soil is high which increases the SOM mean values (2.24%) under the forest land and lower mean content, which in turn increases the total nitrogen content of values (1.31%) under intensively cultivated outﬁelds (Table 4). these soils. (e diﬀerence can be explained by intensive cultivation of the (ere was no signiﬁcant diﬀerence among evaluated land that speeds up oxidation of the organic matter coupled land use types in C/N ratios, and its mean value of 9.40 is with total removal of crop residues, as animal feed and source suggesting rapid organic matter decomposition under the of household energy [9]. Based on the ratings in [32], the SOC humid tropical conditions of the area, indicating improved availability of nitrogen to plants, and there will be possi- content of the soils was rated as low under cultivated outﬁelds and medium under the grazing land and homestead garden bilities to incorporate crop residues to the soil without adverse eﬀect of nitrogen immobilization [38]. Optimum ﬁelds and rated as high under the forest land (Table 4). (is result is in agreement with the ﬁndings in [33, 34], in which it range of the C/N ratio is about 10 :1 to 12 :1 that provides was reported that the SOC content is lower in cultivated soils nitrogen in excess of microbial needs [39]. (erefore, the C/ than in those soils under natural vegetation. N ratio of the soils of the study area was below the optimum Total nitrogen content of soils was signiﬁcantly range of microbial needs. (P≤ 0.000) aﬀected by land use with the higher mean values (e available phosphorus was signiﬁcantly (P≤ 0.01) (0.24%) under the forest land and the lowest (0.14%) under aﬀected by land use/land cover change with the highest intensively cultivated outﬁelds, while the grazing land and mean values (16 mg/kg) under the forest land, followed by homestead garden ﬁelds had similar mean values (Table 4). that under the grazing land (14.27 mg/kg), and the lowest (9.13 mg/kg) under the intensively cultivated outﬁelds (e nitrogen content of the soils is generally in the low to medium range as one moves from cultivated outﬁelds to the (Table 4). It is interesting to note that the phosphorus level is low in the cultivated outﬁelds in spite of decades of DAP forest, homestead garden ﬁelds, and grazing areas and fol- lows the pattern of the organic matter levels. (is ﬁnding is (diammonium phosphate: 18–46% and N–P O ) fertilizer 2 5 in agreement with the results in [35, 36], in which it was application, suggesting the less availability of phosphate in reported that intensive and continuous cultivation speed up the soil is perhaps due to high ﬁxation in the clay colloids. oxidation of OC and thus resulted in reduction of TN. Based on the ratings, the available phosphorus content of the However, the content of total nitrogen was higher in the soils was rated as low under cultivated outﬁelds and rated as forest land (0.24) and lower in the crop land (0.14) (Table 4). medium under the forest land, grazing land, and homestead (is result is in conformity with the ﬁndings in [37]. In garden ﬁelds [32]. Advances in Agriculture 7 Table 6: Mean values of selected micronutrients as aﬀected by soil fertility and sustain agricultural production in the study diﬀerent land use classes. area and in other similar areas of the Ethiopian highlands. Furthermore, eﬀorts that ensure sustainable land manage- Mg/kg Land use ment (application of balanced plant nutrients, farmyard Fe Mn Zn Cu manure, crop residue return, and compost) ought to be a a d b Forest 81.02 55.47 1.52 0.58 taken so as to improve the soil quality in intensively cul- a a c c Grazing land 102.14 101.38 2.55 0.39 tivated outﬁelds. a a b b Cultivated outﬁelds 98.60 92.65 4.82 0.54 a a a a Homestead 100.37 97.02 7.38 0.68 Mean 95.53 86.63 4.07 0.55 Data Availability SE (±) 3.89 5.25 0.37 0.04 F 6.05 16.15 50.31 6.75 (e data used to support the ﬁndings of this study are Sig ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗ available upon request from corresponding author. For each column, means having common letters are not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent at P≤ 0.05; Fe � iron, Mn � manganese, Zn � zinc, Cu � copper, ∗∗∗ ∗ and SE � standard error of the mean; P< 0.001; P< 0.05. Conflicts of Interest (e authors declare no conﬂicts of interest. 3.4. Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Bases. (e CEC and exchangeable bases of the soils (except for Mg) Acknowledgments are highly signiﬁcantly (P< 0.01) varied across land use types, with all parameters being higher under the forest land (e authors wish to thank the Center for Environmental use and lower under the cultivated outﬁelds (Table 5). (e Sciences, Addis Ababa University, for providing funds and mean values of CEC (31 cmol (+)/kg), total exchangeable facilities. Financial support from the Wachemo University is bases (24.51 Cmol/Kg), and base saturation (80%) are in the gratefully acknowledged. Generous support from Mr. high range of the good fertility status of the soil. (ese results Markos Dae and Mr. Dilamo Woldeyohannes during the are in agreement with pervious ﬁndings in [39–41] which ﬁeld work is highly appreciated. also reported high cation exchange capacity (CEC) values under the grassland as compared to the cultivated land. References [1] Y. G. Selassie and G. Ayanna, “Eﬀects of diﬀerent land use 3.5. 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Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia

Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia

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Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia

Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Selected Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Shenkolla Watershed, South Central Ethiopia

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