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Mathematizing Nature's Messiness: Graphical Representations of Variation in Ecology, 1930-Present

Mathematizing Nature's Messiness: Graphical Representations of Variation in Ecology, 1930-Present This article explores the rise of the line graph and an associated statistical method, linear regression, in ecology. At the turn of the 20th century, many ecologists studied variation in organismal traits, like height and weight, among populations of a species. The statistical practice of “polygons of variation” emerged out of such studies. But between 1930 and 1950, polygons of variation were gradually eclipsed by line graphs. Motivated by the recent and disastrous Dust Bowl, American ecologists began to place organismal variables and environmental variables on the same graph. They began to use linear regression, a then-obscure statistical method first developed to study whether parents passed their morphological traits onto offspring, to interpret these graphs. This use of linear regression marked an important shift in how ecologists interpreted biological variation. Variation—once ecologists' object of study—was now noise. Yet ecologists did not abandon their commitment to the idea that nature is complex, various, and interconnected. Rather, they came to read biologically meaningful patterns in seemingly “messy” graphs, using linear regression differently than other scientists, even those in closely allied disciplines. I situate this analysis in a broad STS literature on modeling that has tended to analyze the decision to model, or the choice of variables to include in a model, rather than how practitioners interpret the models they choose. I contend that not only has ecologists' use of linear regression shaped understandings of nature, but ecologists' understandings of nature have also shaped their use of linear regression. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Environmental Humanities Duke University Press

Mathematizing Nature's Messiness: Graphical Representations of Variation in Ecology, 1930-Present

Martin, Laura J.
Environmental Humanities , Volume 7 (1) – May 1, 2016
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Copyright
Copyright: © Martin 2015
ISSN
2201-1919
eISSN
2201-1919
DOI
10.1215/22011919-3616335
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

This article explores the rise of the line graph and an associated statistical method, linear regression, in ecology. At the turn of the 20th century, many ecologists studied variation in organismal traits, like height and weight, among populations of a species. The statistical practice of “polygons of variation” emerged out of such studies. But between 1930 and 1950, polygons of variation were gradually eclipsed by line graphs. Motivated by the recent and disastrous Dust Bowl, American ecologists began to place organismal variables and environmental variables on the same graph. They began to use linear regression, a then-obscure statistical method first developed to study whether parents passed their morphological traits onto offspring, to interpret these graphs. This use of linear regression marked an important shift in how ecologists interpreted biological variation. Variation—once ecologists' object of study—was now noise. Yet ecologists did not abandon their commitment to the idea that nature is complex, various, and interconnected. Rather, they came to read biologically meaningful patterns in seemingly “messy” graphs, using linear regression differently than other scientists, even those in closely allied disciplines. I situate this analysis in a broad STS literature on modeling that has tended to analyze the decision to model, or the choice of variables to include in a model, rather than how practitioners interpret the models they choose. I contend that not only has ecologists' use of linear regression shaped understandings of nature, but ecologists' understandings of nature have also shaped their use of linear regression.

Journal

Environmental Humanities – Duke University Press

Published: May 1, 2016

References

  • Insect Herbivores Drive Real-time Ecological and Evolutionary Change in Plant Populations
    Agrawal, Anurag A. Hastings, Amy Johnson, Marc Maron, John Salminen, Juha-Pekka
  • Model Organisms as Models: Understanding the ‘Lingua Franca’ of the Human Genome Project
    Ankeny, Rachel A.
  • Complexity, Contingency, and Criticality
    Bak, Per Paczuski, Maya
  • Ecological Fragmentation in the Fifties
    Barbour, Michael G. Cronon, William
  • The Vole Clethrionomys rufocanus—A Modern Classic?
    Begon, Michael
  • Karl Pearson and the Correlation Curve
    Blyth, Stephen
  • Uncertainty in Ecology and Ecological Modeling
    Brecking, B. Dong, Q. Jorgensen, S. E. Felix, Muller
  • Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay
    Callon, Michel Law, John
  • The Statistical Turn in American Social Science: Columbia University, 1890 to 1915
    Camic, Charles C. Xie, Yu
  • Microcosm Experiments have Limited Relevance for Community and Ecosystem Ecology
    Carpenter, Stephen R.
  • Experimental Ecology in the Public Service
    Clements, Frederic E.
  • The Use of Multiple Regression and Correlation in Biological Investigations
    Cook, C. Wayne
  • Co-producing Conservation and Knowledge: Citizen-based Sea Turtle Monitoring in North Carolina, USA
    Cornwell, Myriah L. Campbell, Lisa M.
  • Biometrika: The First 100 Years
    Cox, D. R.
  • Research Materials and Model Organisms in the Biological and Biomedical Sciences
    Creager, Angela Geison, Gerald
  • The “File Drawer Problem” of Non-significant Results: Does it Apply to Biological Research?
    Csada, R. D. James, P. C. Espie, R.
  • The Relation of Temperature and Precipitation to the Growth of Beech in Northern Indiana
    Diller, Oliver D.
  • Publication Bias in Clinical Research
    Easterbrook, P. J. Goplan, R. Berlin, J. A. Matthews, D. R.
  • Bibliography of Quantitative Work Bearing on Ecological Problems
  • Editorial: The Spirit of Biometrika
  • Reproductive Rate of Planktonic Rotifers as Related to Food and Temperature in Nature
    Edmondson, W. T.
  • Negative Results are Disappearing from Most Disciplines and Countries
    Fanelli, Daniele
  • Effect of Environmental Conditions on Survival and Growth of Forest Tree Seedlings under Field Conditions in the Piedmont Region of North Carolina
    Ferrill, W. K.
  • Statistical Reform in Medicine, Psychology, and Ecology
    Fidler, F. Cumming, G. Burgman, M. Thomason, N.
  • What is R2 All About?
    Filho, F. Silva, J. A. Rocha, E.
  • The Early Origins and Development of the Scatterplot
    Friendly, M. Denis, D.
  • Crafting Science: Standardized Packages, Boundary Objects and ‘Translation.’
    Fujimura, Joan H. Pickering, Andrew
  • Biometry
    Galton, Francis
  • Co-relations and their Measurement, Chiefly from Anthropometric Data
    Galton, Francis
  • The Varied Lives of Organisms: Variation in the Historiography of the Biological Sciences
    Geison, Gerald L. Laubichler, Manfred D.
  • City as Truth-spot Laboratories and Field-sites in Urban Studies
    Gieryn, Thomas F.
  • The Need for Standard Methods: The Case of American Bacteriology
    Gossel, P. P. Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • Relationship of Southern Cedar Growth to Precipitation and Run Off
    Hawley, F. M.
  • Standardization across Non-standard Domains: The Case of Organ Procurement
    Hogle, L.
  • The Sociology of Genetic Engineering Technique: Ritual and Rationality in the Performance of the ‘Plasmid Prep.’
    Jordan, Kathleen Lynch, Michael Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • The Tools of the Discipline: Standards, Models, and Measures in the Affinity/Avidity Controversy in Immunology
    Keating, P. Cambrosio, A. MacKenzie, M. Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • Organisms and Interests in Scientific Research: R.A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics
    Kimmelman, B. Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • Organizing Credibility: Discursive and Organizational Orthodoxy on the Borders of Ecology and Politics
    Kinchy, Abby J. Kleinman, Daniel L.
  • Evaluating the Social Capital Accrued in Large Research Networks: The Case of the Sustainable Forest Management Network (1995-2000)
    Klenk, Nicole L. Hickey, Gordon M. MacLellan, J. I.
  • Plying Atomic Waters: Lauren Donaldson and the “Fern Lake Concept” of Fisheries Management
    Klingle, Matthew
  • Local Ecologies and Global Science Discourses and Strategies of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
    Kwa, Chunglin
  • Axioms of Ecological Policy
    Lackey, R. T.
  • Where are the Missing Masses? The Sociology of a few Mundane Artifacts
    Latour, Bruno Bijker, W. Law, John
  • Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observation Activity
    Law, John Lynch, Michael Lynch, Michael Woolgar, Steve
  • Are there General Laws in Ecology?
    Lawton, J.
  • Some Guiding Concepts for Conservation Biology
    Lindenmayer, D. Hunter, M.
  • Rising Complexity and Falling Explanatory Power in Ecology
    Low-Decarie, Etienne Chivers, Corey Granados, Monica
  • Disciplining Cancer: Mice and the Practice of Genetic Purity
    Löwy, I. Gaudillière, J. Löwy, I. Gaudillière, J.
  • The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences
    Lynch, Michael
  • Philosophies of Evidence Encounter the Realities of Data
    McCoy, E. Taper, M. Lele, S.
  • A Note on the Use and Misuse of Regression Models in Ecology
    Mead, R.
  • Marine Ecology and the Coefficient of Association: A Plea in Behalf of Quantitative Biology
    Michael, E. L.
  • Making an Issue out of a Standard: Storytelling Practices in a Scientific Community
    Millerand, F. Ribes, David Baker, K. S. Bowker, G. C.
  • Whatever Happened to Planaria? C. M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance
    Mitman, Gregg Fausto-Sterling, Anne Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • How Much Variance can be Explained by Ecologists and Evolutionary Biologists?
    Moller, A. P. Jennions, M. D.
  • The Scope of Ecology
    Moore, Barrington
  • Universal Laws and Predictive Theory in Ecology and Evolution
    Murray, B. G.
  • Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames
    Nassauer, J. I.
  • Scientists and Professional Responsibility: The Experience of American Ecologists
    Nelkin, D.
  • Comments on the Use of Regression Analysis for the Study of Plant Growth
    Nicholls, A. O. Calder, D. M.
  • Defining Ecology: Ecological Theories, Mathematical Models, and Applied Biology in the 1960s and 1970s
    Palladino, Paolo
  • Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution III: Regression, Heredity and Panmixia
    Pearson, Karl
  • Notes on the History of Correlation
    Pearson, Karl
  • Objectivity as Standardization: The Rhetoric of Impersonality in Measurement, Statistics and Cost-benefit Analysis
    Porter, Theodore M. Megill, A.
  • Why Biologists do not Think like Newtonian Physicists
    Quenette, P. Y. Gerard JF., J. F.
  • On Hypothesis Testing in Ecology and Evolution
    Quinn, J. F. Dunham, A. E.
  • The Effect of Temperature and Light on Oxygen Consumption and Rate of Development of Helisoma.
    Roney, H. B.
  • The File Drawer Problem and Tolerance for Null Results
    Rosenthal, R.
  • Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of ‘Vision’ in Ecological Fieldwork
    Roth, W. Bowen, G. M.
  • Local Knowledge, Environmental Politics, and the Founding of Ecology in the United States: Stephen Forbes and ‘The Lake as Microcosm’ (1887)
    Schneider, D.W.
  • The Organization of the Ecological Society of America 1914-19
    Shelford, Victor E.
  • How the Tail Wags the Dog: How Value Judgments determine Ecological Science
    Shrader-Frechette, Kristin McCoy, Earl D.
  • Intellectual Problems of Applied Ecology
    Slobodkin, L. B.
  • Role of the Fish Astyanax aeneus (Characidae) as a Keystone Nutrient Recycler in Low-nutrient Neotropical Streams
    Small, G. E. Pringle, C. M. Pyron, M. Duff, J. H.
  • Complexity, Ecology and the Materiality of Information
    Smith, J. Jenks, C.
  • Philosophical Problems for Environmentalism
    Sober, Elliott Norton, B.
  • Are Soil Mite Assemblages Structured by the Identity of Native and Alien Grasses?
    St. John, M. G. Wall, D. H. Hunt, H. W.
  • Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39
    Star, Susan Leigh Griesemer, James R.
  • Haeckel, Darwin, and Ecology
    Stauffer, R. C.
  • In Defense of Evolution: Tautology or Theory?
    Stebbins, G. L.
  • Publication Decisions Revisited—The Effect of the Outcome of Statistical Tests on the Decision to Publish and Vice Versa
    Sterling, T. D. Rosenbaum, W. L. Weinkam, J. J.
  • Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation
    Stigler, S. M.
  • Thymectomy as an Experimental System in Immunology
    Stillwell, C. R.
  • The Early History of Modern Plant Ecology in Britain
    Tansley, Arthur G.
  • The Beginnings of Ecology
    Taylor, Norman
  • What is Ecology and What Good is it?
    Taylor, W. P.
  • Natural History Renaissance
    Trombulak, S. C. Fleischner, T. L.
  • The Color of Environmental Noise
    Vasseur, D. A. Yodzis, P.
  • Introduction
    Vetter, Jeremy Vetter, Jeremy
  • Rethinking the Linear Regression Model for Spatial Ecological Data
    Wagner, H. H.
  • The Variations Occurring in Certain Decapod Crustacea I. Cragon vulgaris.
    Weldon, R.
  • Ecologists Should Not use Statistical Significance Tests to Interpret Simulation Model Results
    White, J. Wilson Rassweiler, Andrew Samhouri, Jameal F. Stier, Adrian C. White, Crow
  • The Human as an Experimental System in Molecular Genetics
    White, R. Caskey, T.
  • Plant Ecology: A Unifying Model
    Yarranton, G. A.
  • Use, Overuse, and Misuse of Significance Tests in Evolutionary Biology and Ecology
    Yoccoz, N. G.
  • Insect Herbivores Drive Real-time Ecological and Evolutionary Change in Plant Populations
    Agrawal, Anurag A. Hastings, Amy Johnson, Marc Maron, John Salminen, Juha-Pekka
  • Model Organisms as Models: Understanding the ‘Lingua Franca’ of the Human Genome Project
    Ankeny, Rachel A.
  • Complexity, Contingency, and Criticality
    Bak, Per Paczuski, Maya
  • Ecological Fragmentation in the Fifties
    Barbour, Michael G. Cronon, William
  • The Vole Clethrionomys rufocanus—A Modern Classic?
    Begon, Michael
  • Karl Pearson and the Correlation Curve
    Blyth, Stephen
  • Uncertainty in Ecology and Ecological Modeling
    Brecking, B. Dong, Q. Jorgensen, S. E. Felix, Muller
  • Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay
    Callon, Michel Law, John
  • The Statistical Turn in American Social Science: Columbia University, 1890 to 1915
    Camic, Charles C. Xie, Yu
  • Microcosm Experiments have Limited Relevance for Community and Ecosystem Ecology
    Carpenter, Stephen R.
  • Experimental Ecology in the Public Service
    Clements, Frederic E.
  • The Use of Multiple Regression and Correlation in Biological Investigations
    Cook, C. Wayne
  • Co-producing Conservation and Knowledge: Citizen-based Sea Turtle Monitoring in North Carolina, USA
    Cornwell, Myriah L. Campbell, Lisa M.
  • Biometrika: The First 100 Years
    Cox, D. R.
  • Research Materials and Model Organisms in the Biological and Biomedical Sciences
    Creager, Angela Geison, Gerald
  • The “File Drawer Problem” of Non-significant Results: Does it Apply to Biological Research?
    Csada, R. D. James, P. C. Espie, R.
  • The Relation of Temperature and Precipitation to the Growth of Beech in Northern Indiana
    Diller, Oliver D.
  • Publication Bias in Clinical Research
    Easterbrook, P. J. Goplan, R. Berlin, J. A. Matthews, D. R.
  • Bibliography of Quantitative Work Bearing on Ecological Problems
  • Editorial: The Spirit of Biometrika
  • Reproductive Rate of Planktonic Rotifers as Related to Food and Temperature in Nature
    Edmondson, W. T.
  • Negative Results are Disappearing from Most Disciplines and Countries
    Fanelli, Daniele
  • Effect of Environmental Conditions on Survival and Growth of Forest Tree Seedlings under Field Conditions in the Piedmont Region of North Carolina
    Ferrill, W. K.
  • Statistical Reform in Medicine, Psychology, and Ecology
    Fidler, F. Cumming, G. Burgman, M. Thomason, N.
  • What is R2 All About?
    Filho, F. Silva, J. A. Rocha, E.
  • The Early Origins and Development of the Scatterplot
    Friendly, M. Denis, D.
  • Crafting Science: Standardized Packages, Boundary Objects and ‘Translation.’
    Fujimura, Joan H. Pickering, Andrew
  • Biometry
    Galton, Francis
  • Co-relations and their Measurement, Chiefly from Anthropometric Data
    Galton, Francis
  • The Varied Lives of Organisms: Variation in the Historiography of the Biological Sciences
    Geison, Gerald L. Laubichler, Manfred D.
  • City as Truth-spot Laboratories and Field-sites in Urban Studies
    Gieryn, Thomas F.
  • The Need for Standard Methods: The Case of American Bacteriology
    Gossel, P. P. Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • Relationship of Southern Cedar Growth to Precipitation and Run Off
    Hawley, F. M.
  • Standardization across Non-standard Domains: The Case of Organ Procurement
    Hogle, L.
  • The Sociology of Genetic Engineering Technique: Ritual and Rationality in the Performance of the ‘Plasmid Prep.’
    Jordan, Kathleen Lynch, Michael Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • The Tools of the Discipline: Standards, Models, and Measures in the Affinity/Avidity Controversy in Immunology
    Keating, P. Cambrosio, A. MacKenzie, M. Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • Organisms and Interests in Scientific Research: R.A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics
    Kimmelman, B. Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • Organizing Credibility: Discursive and Organizational Orthodoxy on the Borders of Ecology and Politics
    Kinchy, Abby J. Kleinman, Daniel L.
  • Evaluating the Social Capital Accrued in Large Research Networks: The Case of the Sustainable Forest Management Network (1995-2000)
    Klenk, Nicole L. Hickey, Gordon M. MacLellan, J. I.
  • Plying Atomic Waters: Lauren Donaldson and the “Fern Lake Concept” of Fisheries Management
    Klingle, Matthew
  • Local Ecologies and Global Science Discourses and Strategies of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
    Kwa, Chunglin
  • Axioms of Ecological Policy
    Lackey, R. T.
  • Where are the Missing Masses? The Sociology of a few Mundane Artifacts
    Latour, Bruno Bijker, W. Law, John
  • Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observation Activity
    Law, John Lynch, Michael Lynch, Michael Woolgar, Steve
  • Are there General Laws in Ecology?
    Lawton, J.
  • Some Guiding Concepts for Conservation Biology
    Lindenmayer, D. Hunter, M.
  • Rising Complexity and Falling Explanatory Power in Ecology
    Low-Decarie, Etienne Chivers, Corey Granados, Monica
  • Disciplining Cancer: Mice and the Practice of Genetic Purity
    Löwy, I. Gaudillière, J. Löwy, I. Gaudillière, J.
  • The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences
    Lynch, Michael
  • Philosophies of Evidence Encounter the Realities of Data
    McCoy, E. Taper, M. Lele, S.
  • A Note on the Use and Misuse of Regression Models in Ecology
    Mead, R.
  • Marine Ecology and the Coefficient of Association: A Plea in Behalf of Quantitative Biology
    Michael, E. L.
  • Making an Issue out of a Standard: Storytelling Practices in a Scientific Community
    Millerand, F. Ribes, David Baker, K. S. Bowker, G. C.
  • Whatever Happened to Planaria? C. M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance
    Mitman, Gregg Fausto-Sterling, Anne Clarke, Adele Fujimura, Joan H.
  • How Much Variance can be Explained by Ecologists and Evolutionary Biologists?
    Moller, A. P. Jennions, M. D.
  • The Scope of Ecology
    Moore, Barrington
  • Universal Laws and Predictive Theory in Ecology and Evolution
    Murray, B. G.
  • Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames
    Nassauer, J. I.
  • Scientists and Professional Responsibility: The Experience of American Ecologists
    Nelkin, D.
  • Comments on the Use of Regression Analysis for the Study of Plant Growth
    Nicholls, A. O. Calder, D. M.
  • Defining Ecology: Ecological Theories, Mathematical Models, and Applied Biology in the 1960s and 1970s
    Palladino, Paolo
  • Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution III: Regression, Heredity and Panmixia
    Pearson, Karl
  • Notes on the History of Correlation
    Pearson, Karl
  • Objectivity as Standardization: The Rhetoric of Impersonality in Measurement, Statistics and Cost-benefit Analysis
    Porter, Theodore M. Megill, A.
  • Why Biologists do not Think like Newtonian Physicists
    Quenette, P. Y. Gerard JF., J. F.
  • On Hypothesis Testing in Ecology and Evolution
    Quinn, J. F. Dunham, A. E.
  • The Effect of Temperature and Light on Oxygen Consumption and Rate of Development of Helisoma.
    Roney, H. B.
  • The File Drawer Problem and Tolerance for Null Results
    Rosenthal, R.
  • Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of ‘Vision’ in Ecological Fieldwork
    Roth, W. Bowen, G. M.
  • Local Knowledge, Environmental Politics, and the Founding of Ecology in the United States: Stephen Forbes and ‘The Lake as Microcosm’ (1887)
    Schneider, D.W.
  • The Organization of the Ecological Society of America 1914-19
    Shelford, Victor E.
  • How the Tail Wags the Dog: How Value Judgments determine Ecological Science
    Shrader-Frechette, Kristin McCoy, Earl D.
  • Intellectual Problems of Applied Ecology
    Slobodkin, L. B.
  • Role of the Fish Astyanax aeneus (Characidae) as a Keystone Nutrient Recycler in Low-nutrient Neotropical Streams
    Small, G. E. Pringle, C. M. Pyron, M. Duff, J. H.
  • Complexity, Ecology and the Materiality of Information
    Smith, J. Jenks, C.
  • Philosophical Problems for Environmentalism
    Sober, Elliott Norton, B.
  • Are Soil Mite Assemblages Structured by the Identity of Native and Alien Grasses?
    St. John, M. G. Wall, D. H. Hunt, H. W.
  • Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39
    Star, Susan Leigh Griesemer, James R.
  • Haeckel, Darwin, and Ecology
    Stauffer, R. C.
  • In Defense of Evolution: Tautology or Theory?
    Stebbins, G. L.
  • Publication Decisions Revisited—The Effect of the Outcome of Statistical Tests on the Decision to Publish and Vice Versa
    Sterling, T. D. Rosenbaum, W. L. Weinkam, J. J.
  • Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation
    Stigler, S. M.
  • Thymectomy as an Experimental System in Immunology
    Stillwell, C. R.
  • The Early History of Modern Plant Ecology in Britain
    Tansley, Arthur G.
  • The Beginnings of Ecology
    Taylor, Norman
  • What is Ecology and What Good is it?
    Taylor, W. P.
  • Natural History Renaissance
    Trombulak, S. C. Fleischner, T. L.
  • The Color of Environmental Noise
    Vasseur, D. A. Yodzis, P.
  • Introduction
    Vetter, Jeremy Vetter, Jeremy
  • Rethinking the Linear Regression Model for Spatial Ecological Data
    Wagner, H. H.
  • The Variations Occurring in Certain Decapod Crustacea I. Cragon vulgaris.
    Weldon, R.
  • Ecologists Should Not use Statistical Significance Tests to Interpret Simulation Model Results
    White, J. Wilson Rassweiler, Andrew Samhouri, Jameal F. Stier, Adrian C. White, Crow
  • The Human as an Experimental System in Molecular Genetics
    White, R. Caskey, T.
  • Plant Ecology: A Unifying Model
    Yarranton, G. A.
  • Use, Overuse, and Misuse of Significance Tests in Evolutionary Biology and Ecology
    Yoccoz, N. G.